</ 


Copyrighted,   1897,  by  D.  H.  Montgomery. 


ZTbe  XeaMng  ffacts  of  HMstorp  Series 


THE 


STUDENTS  AMERICAN  HISTORY 


BY 


D.   H.   MONTGOMERY 

AUTHOR  OF  "THE  LEADING  FACTS  OF  HISTORY"  SERIES 


BOSTON,  U.S.A.,  AND  LONDON 
GINN    &    COMPANY,    PUBLISHERS 


u  1  '  b 

•  i 


LEADING    FACTS 
OF    HISTORY   SERIES 


By   D.   H.  MONTGOMERY 


Beginner's  American  History 

(Biographies  of  Eminent  Americans) 
List  price,  60  cents 

An  Elementary  American  History 
List  price,  75  cents 

The  Leading  Facts  of  American  History 
List  price,  $1.00 

The  Student's  American  History 
List  price,  $1.40 

The  Leading  Facts  of  English  History 
List  price.  $1.12 

The  Leading  Facts  of  French  History 
List  price,  $1.12 


HENRY  MORSE 


ENTERED  AT  STATIONERS'  HALL 


COPYRIGHT,  1897,  1899,  I9OIi  BY 
D.  H.  MONTGOMERY 

ALL    RIGHTS    RESERVED 

94-8 


tbe 


of 


2L 


510821 


PREFATORY    NOTE. 


THIS  work  follows  the  same  general  lines  as  the  author's 
"  Leading  Facts  of  American  History."  It  differs,  however, 
from  the  more  elementary  manual  in  many  important  respects. 
It  is  much  fuller  in  its  treatment  of  political  and  constitutional 
history,  and  of  the  chief  events  bearing  on  the  development  of 
the  nation.  It  quotes  the  statements  of  public  men,  original 
documents,  and  authorities,  in  order  that  the  history  of  our 
country  may  speak  for  itself  on  the  points  of  greatest  interest 
to  the  student  and  the  teacher. 

As  a  help  to  further  research,  note  numbers  have  been  in 
serted  throughout  the  book  referring  to  upwards  of  two  thousand 
works  of  acknowledged  merit  cited  in  the  Appendix. 

The  author  is  particularly  indebted  to  the  Trustees  and  the 
Librarian  of  the  Boston  Athenaeum  for  the  privilege  of  making 
use  of  the  admirable  collection  of  books  under  their  charge. 


CONTENTS. 


I.    The  Discovery  and  Naming  of  America,  1492  to  1521  ....  i 

II.    Attempts  at  Exploring  and  Colonizing  America  (the  Country, 
the  Natives,  Effects  of  the  Discovery  of  America  on  Europe), 

1509  to  1587 12 

III.  Permanent  English  and  French  Settlements  (the  Thirteen  Col 

onies,  French  Exploration  of  the  West,  Wars  with  the  In 
dians  and  with  the  French,  Colonial  Life),  1607  to  1763    .     .  27 

IV.  The  Revolution,  the  Constitution,  1763  to  1789 163 

V.    The  Union,  National  Development  (Presidents  from  Washing 
ton  to  Buchanan,  inclusive),  1789  to  1861 219 

VI.    The  War  of  Secession,  1861  to  1865 400 

VII.    Reconstruction,  the  New  Nation,  1865  to  tne  Present  Time  .     .  465 

APPENDIX. 

1.  The  Declaration  of  Independence  (with  an  Introduction)  ...  i 

2.  The  Constitution  (with  an  Introduction  and  Notes) vi 

3.  Table  of  Admission  of  States xix 

4.  Table  of  Presidents xxiii 

5.  List  of  Books  on  American  History xxiv 

6.  Authorities  cited   .     . xxx 

7.  Table  of  Boundaries  of  the  United  States xxxviii 

8.  Tables  of  Population  and  Representation xxxix 

9.  Index xliii 


LIST    OF    FULL   AND    DOUBLE-PAGE    MAPS. 


FACING   PAGE 

1.  The  World  about  the  Time  of  Columbus 4 

2.  Early  Voyages 18 

3.  Indian  Tribes  of  the  United  States  (colored) 20 

4.  Physical  Features  of  the  United  States 26 

5.  First  Settlements 42 

6.  The  French  in  the  West 130 

7.  Period  of  the  Revolution  —  New  England  (colored) 174 

8.  Boston  and  Vicinity 182 

9.  New  York  and  Vicinity 188 

10.  Period  of  the  Revolution  —  Middle  Colonies  (colored)    ....  190 
n.  Burgoyne's  Expedition;  Washington's  Movement  against  York- 
town;  Yorktown 192 

12.  Period  of  the  Revolution  —  Southern  Colonies  (colored)     .     .     .  200 

1 3.  The  United  States  at  the  Close  of  the  Revolution  (colored)     .     .  206 

14.  The  Northwest  Territory  (colored) 210 

15.  The  United  States  in  1792  (colored) 230 

1 6.  Indian  Land  Cessions  in  Ohio 233 

17.  The  War  of  1812 270 

18.  The  National  Road ;  the  Missouri  Compromise  Act 292 

19.  The  Mexican  War 350 

20.  The  Area  of  Freedom  and  of  Slavery 384 

21.  The  Civil  War  (colored) 412 

22.  The  Defences  of  Washington 414 

23.  The  Battle  of  Gettysburg 436 

24.  The  Siege  of  Vicksburg 440 

25.  Map  of  North  America 478 

26.  Relief  Map  of  the  United  States 480 

27.  Territorial  Growth  (colored) 505 

28.  The  United  States  at  the  Present  Time  (colored) 516 

29.  The  United  States  and  Dependent  Territories  (colored) .     .     .     .  537 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


1.  Medallion  of  Washington  and  Lincoln Frontispiece 

FACING   PAGE 

2.  Extract  from  the  "  Body  of  Liberties  "  of  1641 70 

3.  Advertisement  of  the  "  Flying  Machine  " 152 

4.  The  Pennsylvania  "  Gazette  "  on  the  Stamp  Act 166 

5.  Franklin's  Letter  to  Strahan 184 

6.  Signatures  to  the  Declaration  of  Independence 186 

7.  Signatures  to  the  Treaty  of  Peace  of  1783 212 

8.  Abstract  of  Constitutional  Decisions  by  the  Supreme  Court  of 

the  United  States,  1790-1835  ;  with  portrait  of  Chief  Justice 

Marshall 244 

9.  Key's  "  The  Star  Spangled  Banner  " 272 

10.  A  Railway  Time-Table  of  1843 318 

11.  Morse's  Letter  respecting  the  First  Telegram 344 

12.  Letter  of  John  Brown 390 

13.  Secession  Bulletin 394 

14.  Letter  of  Secretary  Dix  on  the  Flag 396 

15.  Grant's  "  Unconditional  Surrender  "  Despatch 418 

16.  Lincoln's  Proclamation  of  Emancipation 430 

17.  Lincoln's  Gettysburg  Address 438 

18.  Admiral  Farragut's  Letter  from  Mobile 456 

19.  Lee's  Letter  of  Surrender 460 

20.  Vote  on  the  Impeachment  Trial  of  President  Johnson     ....  476 

21.  Diagram  and  Statistics  showing  Increase  of  Manufactures,  espe 

cially  Iron  and  Steel,  with  Imports  and  Exports 526 


THE 

STUDENT'S     AMERICAN     HISTORY. 


For  Authorities  for  this  Chapter,  see  Appendix,  pageiixw.    The  small  figures 
in  the  text  refer  to  A  uthorities  cited  on  page  xxx  of  the  Appendix. 


I. 

THE    DISCOVERY   AND    NAMING    OF    AMERICA. 

(1OOO-1515.) 


THE    NORTHMEN.  -COLUMBUS.-  CABOT.  -  AMERICUS    VESPUCIUS. 

i.  The  discovery  of  America  by  the  Northmen;  "  Vin- 
land  the  Good."  —  The  Scandinavians,  or  Northmen,  were  the 
most  skillful  and  daring  sailors  of  the  middle  ages.  For  them 
the  Atlantic  —  "the  Sea  of  Darkness"  —had  no  terrors.  Be 
fore  the  mariner's  compass  had  come  into  use  in  Europe  they 
made  distant  voyages  in  vessels  often  not  so  large  as  modern 
pleasure  yachts.  Their  only  guides  on  those  perilous  expedi 
tions  were  the  sun,  the  stars,  and  the  flight  of  birds. 

In  the  ninth  century  (875)  the  Northmen  planted  a  colony 
in  Iceland.  Their  sagas  or  traditions  inform  us  that,  late  in 
the  next  century  (981),  Eric  the  Red  set  sail  from  Iceland  in 
search  of  a  strange  land  which  a  Norse  sailor,  blown  out  of 
his  course,  had  sighted  in  the  far  west.1  He  found  it,  and 
giving  it  the  tempting  name  of  Greenland,  lured  a  band 
of  colonists  to  those  desolate  shores.  In  the  year  1000 


2;  :  rrHte /STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1000-1347. 

Leif  Ericson, —  later  known  as  "  Leif  the  Lucky," — a  son  of 
Eric  the  Red,  set  out  from  Greenland  in  qu^st  of  a  land 
which  a  storm-driven  mariner  had  seen  in  the  southwest. 
He  discovered  a  beautiful  country  which  abounded  in  wild 
grapes.  "  From  its  products,  Leif  gave  the  land  a  name,  and 
called  it  Vinland."2  Here  the  Northmen  planted  a  colony, 
and  carried  on  trade  with  Greenland.  In  1347  the  Norse 
records  mention  a  ship's  going  to  this  southern  colony  after 
a  load  of  timber.  That  is  the  last  that  we  hear  of  the  settle 
ment.  The  Northmen  ceased  to  make  voyages  to  the  west,  the 
colonies  they  had  planted  died  out,  all  records  of  them  were 
forgotten,  and  we  have  no  evidence  that  Columbus  ever  heard 
of  the  discovery  of  Vinland.3 

2.  The  locality  of  "  Vinland ";  the  Northmen  and 
American  history.  —  In  recent  years  repeated  attempts  have 
been  made  to  determine  the  locality  of  Vinland,  but  without 
acknowledged  success.  Many  have  supposed  that  Leif  Eric- 
son  landed  on  some  part  of  the  New  England  coast.  The 
descriptions  of  the  country  given  by  the  records  fail  to  throw 
any  decisive  light  on  this  point,  and  no  Norse  graves,  inscrip 
tions,  or  ruins  have  been  found  on  the  mainland  of  America, 
although  the  ruins  of  buildings  erected  by  the  Northmen  are 
still  standing  in  Greenland.  The  conclusion  of  most  eminent 
scholars  respecting  the  settlements  of  the  Northmen  is  that 
"the  soil  of  the  United  States  has  not  one  vestige  of  their 
presence."4  Granting  that  those  bold  sailors  did  establish 
colonies  on  the  mainland  of  America,  as  it  is  certain  they  did 
on  the  coast  of  Greenland,  still  their  work  had  no  permanent 
results,  and  no  direct  connection  with  American  history.  It 
was  simply  a  match  struck  in  the  dark,  sending  out  a  moment 
ary  flash  of  light,  but  nothing  more. 

Later,  however,  after  Columbus  had  made  his  great  voyage, 
the  English  descendants  of  the  Northmen  of  the  Scandinavian 
peninsula  came  to  the  front.  As  colonists  of  the  New  World, 
they  set  their  lasting  mark  on  this  continent.  Hence  we  may 


1420-1487.]      DISCOVERY    AND    NAMING    OF    AMERICA.  3 

say  that  the  old  Norse  daring,  which  braved  the  tempests  of 
the  Northern  Atlantic  centuries  before  Columbus  was  born, 
and  which  conquered  and  settled  a  large  part  of  Britain, 
stands  forth  a  powerful  and  permanent  factor  in  the  making  of 
America.6 

3.  A  new  search  for  lands  beyond  the  Atlantic;  Euro 
pean  trade  with  the  Indies.  —  Nearly  five  hundred  years  after 
Leif  Ericson  feasted  on  wild  grapes  in  Vinland,  the  project  of 
crossing  the  Atlantic  in  quest  of  distant  lands  again  came  up. 
This  time  it  was  not  a  Northman,  but  an  Italian,  who  was  to 
make  the  attempt.  His  venture  was  suggested  by  the  de 
mands  of  commerce. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  fifteenth  century  Venice  had  gained 
control  of  the  lucrative  trade  between  Europe  and  the  Indies. 


That  trade,  however,  was  seriously  hampered  by  the  fact  that 
it  could  not  follow  a  direct  and  continuous  water  route.  The 
Isthmus  of  Suez  barred  the  way.  For  this  reason,  the  spices, 
silks,  and  drugs  brought  from  the  far  East  up  the  Red  Sea 
had  to  be  unloaded,  transported  across  the  desert  to  the  Nile, 


4  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [HST. 

and  reshipped  to  Alexandria  for  the  Mediterranean.6     Europe, 
in  the  interest  of  trade,  called  for  an  all-sea  route  to  the  Indies. 

4.  The  work  of  "  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator ";    Bar 
tholomew    Diaz.  —  Prince     Henry    of    Portugal,    commonly 
known  as   "  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator,"  undertook  to  find 
the  required  route.      For  forty   years   (1420-1460)    his   cap 
tains  were  exploring  the    seemingly  endless  western  coast  of 
Africa,  endeavoring  to  discover  a  way  round  that  mysterious 
continent  into  the  waters  of   the  Indian  Ocean.     Year  after 
year  the  Portuguese  ships  crept  down  that  coast,  but  found  no 
passage  to  the  East.     The  problem  was  unsolved  when  Henry 
died,  but   nearly   thirty   years    later   success    was   practically 
gained.7     Bartholomew  Diaz  (1487)  succeeded  in  doubling  the 
formidable  Cape  of  Storms.     Then  it  was  seen  that  at  last  the 
way  to  the  Indies  was  almost  as  good  as  opened ;    for  that 
reason  the  Cape  of  Storms  received  the  auspicious  name  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.     But  the  length  of  the  new  route  was  a 
serious  drawback,  since  every  bale  of  goods  shipped  from  the 
East  would  have  to  make  a  voyage  of  at  least  twelve  thousand 
miles  in  order  to  reach  the  European  market.     The  question 
arose,  might  it  not  be  possible  to  find  a  better  way  ? 

5.  Columbus  proposes  a  new  and  shorter  route  to  the 
Indies.  —  Christopher    Columbus,    a    native    of    Genoa,    was 
ready  to  answer  that  question.     He  was  an  experienced  mari 
ner,  and  believed  that   he   could  discover  a  far  shorter  and 
more  direct  all-water  route  to  the  much-coveted  Indies.      The 
leading  geographers  of  that  day  regarded  the  earth  as  a  globe.8 
Columbus  held  the  same  idea,  but  he  considered  the  globe  to 
be  much  smaller  than  it  actually  is.     It  embraced,  as  he  sup 
posed,  but  one  ocean  —  the  Atlantic  —  which  surrounded  the 
three  continents   of   Europe,  Asia,   and   Africa.      These  three 
continents,    with    their    outlying    islands,   he    believed    consti 
tuted  all  the  land  there  was.     He  imagined  that  the  Indies 
faced  Europe  at  a  distance  of  less  than  four  thousand  miles. 
His  plan  for  reaching  the  far  East  was  very  simple  ;  he  would 


THE    WORLD    AS    KNOWN    SHORTLY    BEFORE    AND    SHORTLY    AFTER    THE 
SAILING    OF    COLUMBUS. 


Light  arrows  show  voyages  made  up  to  1492;  (light  track,  Da  Gama's  voyage,  1497). 
Dark  arrows,  voyages  of  Columbus  and  Cabot. 

White  crosses,  countries  of  which  something  was  known  before  1492. 
White  area,  including  western  coast  of  Africa,  the  world  as  known  shortly  before  the 
sailing  of  Columbus. 


Columbus  sailed  Aug.  3d,  1 


Left  Canary  1sland8/^ 
Sept.  cth 


1492.]  DISCOVERY    AND    NAMING    OF    AMERICA.  5 

make  for  the  Canaries,  and  then  sail  nearly  due  west,  until  he 
touched  the  coast  of  Asia.9  Such  a  route  would  have  an  im 
mense  advantage  over  the  circuitous  and  dangerous  voyage 
around  Africa,  for  it  would  be  almost  a  straight  line,  and 
would  save  something  like  eight  thousand  miles. 

6.  Columbus  fits  out  vessels  for  the  voyage;  objects  of 
the  undertaking.  —  After  years  of  vain  solicitation,  Columbus 
succeeded  in  getting  the  assistance  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of 
Spain.    He  fitted  out  three  small  vessels  for  the  voyage  ;  of  this 
little  fleet  he  was  to  be  admiral.     To  guide  him  on  his  course 
he  had  the  compass,  an  improved  astrolabe,  or  instrument  for 
determining  the  position  of  a  ship  at  sea  by  taking  observa 
tions  of  the  sun  and  stars,  and  his  carefully  drawn  charts.10    In 
this  great  and  original  undertaking  Columbus  was  not  seeking 
to  find  new  lands,  but  a  new  way  to  reach  old  lands.     His 
three  chief  objects  were  :    i.  To    open  direct  trade  with  the 
Indies.     2.  To  carry  the  Catholic  faith  to  the  nations  of  the 
far  East.     3.  To  gain  for  himself  fame  and  fortune.11 

7.  Columbus  sails;   the  voyage;   he  discovers  land  and 
returns    to    Spain.  —  Columbus    sailed    from    Palos,     Spain, 
August  3,  1492.     He  made  directly  for  the  Canary  Islands12 
which  he  supposed  to  be  in  a  line  with  Japan.     The  route  to 
those  islands  was  well  known.     He  reached  them  August  12, 
and  stopped  more  than  three  weeks  to  refit  his  vessels.     On 
September  6  he  set  out  on  his  ever  memorable  voyage   across 
the  "  Sea  of  Darkness."     He  believed  himself,  as  he  said,  "  an 
agent    chosen  by   Heaven   to   accomplish   a  grand   design."13 
Day  after  day  passed,  but  no  land  was  sighted,  and  the  sailors, 
losing  heart,  cried  out  to  Columbus :   "  Are  there  no  graves  in 
Spain,   that  you   should  bring  us   here  to  perish  ?  " u      They 
were  terrified  at  the  variation  of  the  compass,  and  still  later, 
becoming  desperate,  they  threatened  to   turn  the   ship  back  ; 
but  Columbus  compelled  them  to  keep  on  their  way,  and  on 
October  12,  land  was  sighted.15    It  was  the  low,  sandy  shore  of 
a  small  island.16     Here  he  planted  the  royal  standard  of  Spain, 


6 


THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


[1493. 


named  the  island  San  Salvador  —  or  the  Holy  Redeemer  — 
and  took  possession  of  it  for  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 

The  naked  natives  crowded  round  the  Spaniards  shouting 
"  Come  and  see  the  men  who  have  come  from  heaven."  Going 
south  Columbus  discovered  Cuba,  which  he  believed  to  be  a 
part  of  the  mainland  of  Asia.  Having  left  a  garrison  to  hold 
a  small  fort  on  the  coast  of  San  Domingo  or  Hayti,  he  set  sail 
for  Spain  (January,  1493).  He  was  certain  that  he  had  found 
the  Indies,  and  as  he  had  reached  them  by  sailing  west,  they 
received  the  name  of  the  West  Indies.  For  a  like  reason  he 
called  the  natives  of  these  islands  Indians. 

8.  Letter  of  Columbus ;  arrival  in  Spain ;  reception  at 
court ;  the  Pope  divides  the  earth.  —  Forced  to  put  into 
Lisbon,  Columbus  there  wrote  to  the  royal  treasurer  of  Spain 
describing  his  discoveries.17  In  his  letter  he  declared  that 
he  had  "  accomplished  a  task  to  which  the  power  of  mortal 
man  had  never  before  attained."  At  Palos  all  the  people, 
forming  a  solemn  procession,  came  out  to  receive  him,  and 
when  he  arrived  at  the  royal  court  at  Barcelona  the  King  and 
Queen  stood  up  to  give  him  welcome.18 

News  of  the  wonderful  discovery  was  at  once  sent  to  the 
Pope.  He  received  the  messenger  with  joy.  As  "  lord  of 

the  world  "  he  proceeded  to  divide 
the  newly  discovered  heathen  lands 
between  Spain  and  Portugal,  the 
two  great  exploring  powers.19  Tak 
ing  a  map  of  the  globe,  he  drew 
a  line  from  pole  to  pole  a  hun 
dred  leagues  west  of  the  Azores 
and  of  the  Cape  Verd  Islands.20 
All  lands  found  west  of  that 

The  Pope's   Division  of  the  Wor.d,      ^   nOt    belonging    tO    SOme    Chris- 

as  finally  decided  in  1494.  tian  prince,  he  granted  to  Spain  ; 
all  similar  lands  east  of  it  he  recognized  as  belonging  to 
Portugal.  Thus  by  a  stroke  of  the  pen  through  a  map  of  the 


1493-.]  DISCOVERY    AND    NAMING    OF    AMERICA.  / 

world  the  Pope  gave  Spain  the  entire  continent  of  North 
America.21  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  soon  began  to  establish 
settlements  in  the  West  Indies  and  seized  the  natives  as  slaves. 

9.  What  Columbus  discovered;   his  death;  greatness  of 
his  work.  —  In  the  course  of  his  three  subsequent  voyages 
(1493-1504)  Columbus  discovered  the  mainland  of  Central  and 
South  America,  but  never  touched  any  part  of  what  is  now  the 
mainland  of  the  United  States.    He  died  in  1506  in  the  unshaken 
belief  that  he  had  discovered  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia.22     He 
did  not  dream  that  by  a  happy  accident,  he  had  actually  found 
a  fourth  continent  —  a  "new  world."     It  has  been  well  said  : 
Nothing  like  it  was  ever  done  before,  and  nothing  like  it  can 
ever  be  done  again,  for,  save  the  island-continent  of  Australia, 
Columbus  left  no  new  worlds  for  a  future  explorer  to  reveal. 

The  true  glory  of  the  Genoese  sailor  is  that  he  was  the  first 
civilized  man  who  dared  cross  the  Atlantic  and  thus  lead  the 
way  to  this  fourth  continent.  His  discovery  stands  forth  the 
greatest  secular  event  recorded  in  the  history  of  the  world,  — 
one-half  of  which  had  never  suspected  the  existence  of  the 
other  half. 

10.  John  and  Sebastian  Cabot  plan  a  rival  route  to  the 
Indies. — When  Columbus  returned  to  Spain  at  the  termina 
tion  of   his  first  voyage  the    news  of   his    discovery  created 
"  great  talk  at  the  court  of  Henry  VII.  in  England."     John 
Cabot,  an   Italian  merchant,  was  then  living   at  the  port  of 
Bristol.       His  son    Sebastian    says   that  the    report  of   what 
Columbus  had  achieved  kindled  in  his  own  heart  "  a  great 
flame  of  desire  to  attempt  some  notable  thing."    The  "notable 
thing "  developed  itself  into  a  project  for  reaching  the  spice 
islands  of  the  Indies  by  sailing  westward  on  an  extreme  northern 
course  so  as  to  pass  round  the  "  backside  of  Greenland." 

John  Cabot  entered  into  his  son's  scheme  with  much  enthu 
siasm,  and  hoped  "  to  make  London  a  greater  place  for  spices 
than  Alexandria."  Henry  VII  issued  a  patent  to  the  elder 
Cabot  and  his  sons  giving  them  authority  to  discover  and  take 


8 


THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


[1497. 


•iL 


possession  of  those  heathen  lands  in  the  west  "which  before 
this  time  have  been  unknown  to  all  Christians." 

ii.   First  voyage  of  the  Cabots;   second  voyage;  New 
foundland   fisheries;   results   of   the  first   voyage. John 

Cabot,  probably  accompanied  by  Sebastian,  sailed  from  Bristol 
in  1497.  The  chief  results  of  the  voyage  were  set  forth  on  a 
map,  bearing  this  inscription  :  "  In  the  year  of  our  Lord  1497, 
John  Cabot,  a  Venetian,  and  his  son,  Sebastian,  .  .  .  discovered 

that  land  which  no  man  before 
that  time  had  attempted,  on 
the  24th  of  June,  about  five 
o'clock  in  the  morning."28 

This  land,  which  seems  to 
have  been  Cape  Breton,24  re- 
(  ceived    the    name    of    Prima 

Vista,  or  First  Seen.  Here 
the  Cabots  landed  and,  hoist 
ing  the  English  flag,  claimed 
the  country  for  the  British 
Crown.  The  envoy  of  the 
Duke  of  Milan  wrote  to  the 
duke  from  London  of  this 
claim,  saying,  "  His  Majesty  (Henry  VII.)  has  won  a  part  of 
Asia  without  a  stroke  of  the  sword."  25 

The  next  year  (1498)  the  Cabots  sailed  westward  again. 
They  went  much  farther  north  in  the  hope  of  discovering  a 
short  passage  to  the  Indies.  At  this  point  the  elder  Cabot 
disappears  from  history.  Sebastian  admits  that  the  icebergs 
which  blocked  his  way  chilled  his  enthusiasm  and  made  him 
turn  southward.  He  coasted  along  the  American  mainland 
looking  for  a  passage  through  to  the  East,  until,  as  he  says, 
he  reached  a  point  "  almost  equal  in  latitude  with  the  Straits 
of  Gibraltar." 26  He  then  set  his  face  homeward. 

The  reports  made  by  the  Cabots  of  the  vast  quantities  of 
codfish  seen  by  them  in  the  vicinity  of  Newfoundland  opened 


jLe 


i 


1499-1507.]        DISCOVERY    AND    NAMING    OF    AMERICA.  9 

the  way  to  the  establishment  by  the  English  and  French  of  the 
largest  fisheries  in  the  world.  These  fisheries  had  a  very 
marked  influence  on  American  colonial  history,  and  have  since 
given  rise  to  important  international  questions. 

But  the  crowning  result  of  John  Cabot's  voyage  in  1497  was 
that  he  was  the  first  European  (since  the  days  of  the  Northmen) 
who  set  foot  on  the  continent  of  North  America.  He  thus,  as 
Burke  declares,  gave  the  English  their  claim  to  the  mainland. 
This  laid  the  foundation  for  the  North  American  colonies 
which  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  began  in  the  next  century. 

12.  The  voyages  of  Americus  Vespucius  to  the  "New 
World. "  —  In    1499    (after    Columbus    had   made    his  third 
voyage  and  had  discovered  the  mainland  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Orinoco)  Americus  Vespucius,  a  Florentine,  a  friend  of  Colum 
bus,  sailed  with  a  Spanish  expedition  which  explored  part  of 
the  same  coast.27     Two    years  later  (1501)  he  made  another 
voyage  and  touched  Brazil.     On  his  return  he  suggested  that 
the  lands  he    had  visited  in   the  south  should  be  called  the 
"  New  World."28    The  next  year  (1503)  Vespucius  again  visited 
South  America  and  built  a  fort  on  the  coast  of  Brazil.     On  his 
return  he  wrote  a  brief  account  of  his  voyages,  but  the  original 
manuscript  has  never  been  found. 

13.  How  America  received  its  name.  —  A   copy  of  the 
account    written    by 

Vespucius  chanced 
to  fall  into  the  hands 
of  a  German  named 
Waldseemiiller.  He 
was  a  teacher  of 
geography  in  the 
college  of  St.  Die  — 

The  Village  of  St.  Die",  Eastern   France. 

a  village  of  Lorraine 

now  included  in  eastern  France.  The  college  owned  a  small 
press;  on  it  in  1507  Waldseemiiller  printed  a  thin  Latin  pam 
phlet  bearing  the  title  "An  Introduction  to  Geography."29  In 


io  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1515-. 

it  he  described  the  three  continents  of  Europe,  Asia  and 
Africa  ;  he  then  gave  an  account  of  the  voyages  of  Americus 
Vespucius,  and  closed  by  saying,  "The  fourth  part  of  the 
world  having  been  discovered  by  Americus  it  may  be  called 
.  .  .  the  land  of  Americus  or  America."30 

The  suggestion  met  with  favor.  On  a  German  globe  made 
in  1515  we  find  America  standing  out  in  capitals  on  what 
appears  to  be  a  great  southern  island  in  the  western  Atlantic. 
The  name  was  at  first  confined  to  South  America ;  later  it  was 
applied  to  both  of  the  western  continents. 

14.  How  it  was  discovered  that  America  was  a  continent; 
Magellan;     Behring. —  But  for  a  long  time    North  America 
was  laid  down  on  the  maps  of  that  period  as  an  island.     The 
true  continental  character  of  the  New  World  was  discovered 
gradually.31     Cabot  and  Vespucius  must  have  suspected  it,  but 
it  was  not  until  Magellan  made  his  famous  voyage  round  the 
globe   (1519-1521)   that   the    evidence   became  strong.     The 
Spanish  explorers  of  the  Pacific  coast,  and  Sir  Francis  Drake, 
in  his  voyage  round  the  world  (1577-1579),  confirmed  that  evi 
dence.     But  even  then  the  actual  breadth   of  North  America 
was  not  clearly  recognized,  and  as  late  as  Henry  Hudson's  ex 
pedition  (1609),  European  navigators  thought  that  they  might 
find  a  short  passage    through  the  northern  continent   to    the 
Pacific.    In  the  next  century  Vitus  Behring,  the  Danish  explorer 
(1728),  sailed  through  the  straits  which  have  since  borne  his 
name  and  proved  that  America  was  not  attached  to  Asia  in 
that  quarter.     In  1856  the  discovery  of  the  Northwest  Passage 
completed  this  process,  and  showed  that  America  is  absolutely 
disconnected  from  Asia. 

15.  Summary.  —  In  the  year  1000  Leif  Ericson,  a  North 
man,  discovered  Vinland  on  the  North  American  coast ;    but 
in    the   course   of  a  few  centuries  all  knowledge  of  Vinland 
was  lost.     In  1492  Columbus  in   searching  for  a  new  route  to 
the  Indies  discovered  the  West  India  Islands.     In  1497   John 
Cabot  landed  on  the  North  American  continent  and  claimed  it 


1000-1856.]       DISCOVERY    AND    NAMING    OF    AMERICA. 


II 


for  the  English  Crown.  England  considered  that  this  claim 
gave  her  the  right  to  plant  colonies  in  America.  Between  1499 
and  1503  Americus  Vespucius  made  three  voyages  to  the 
South  American  coast.  His  description  of  the  New  World 
suggested  the  name  America  which  was  given  to  South  Amer 
ica,  and  later  extended  to  the  northern  continent.  The  true 
character  of  North  America  was  discovered  by  Magellan, 
Drake,  the  Spanish  explorers  of  the  Pacific  coast,  Captain 
Behring  and  his  successors. 


II. 

ATTEMPTS    AT    EXPLORING    AND    COLONIZING 
AMERICA. 

(1513-1600.) 

For  Authorities  for  this  Chapter  see  Appendix,  pagexxw.    The  small  figures 
in  the  text  refer  to  A  uthorities  cited  on  page  xxx  of  the  Appendix. 


THE    COUNTRY. —  THE    NATIVES.  -  EFFECTS    OF    THE    DISCOVERY 
OF    AMERICA    ON    EUROPE. 

16.  The  miraculous  spring;  Ponce  de  Leon  discovers 
Florida.  —  Early  in  the  sixteenth  century  a  Portuguese  histo 
rian  wrote  to  the  Pope,  "  There  is  an  island  about  three  hun 
dred  and  fifty  leagues  from  Hispaniola  (Hayti)  ...  on  which 
is  a  never-failing  spring  of  such  marvellous  efficacy  that  when 
the  water  is  drunk,  perhaps  with  some  attention  to  diet,  it 
makes  old  people  young  again."  Ponce  de  Leon,  a  Spanish 
"  cavalier,  who  was,  as  his  epitaph 32  declared,  "  a  lion  by  name 
and  still  more  by  nature,"  resolved  to  set  out  in  search  of  this 
marvellous  spring.  He  hoped  thereby  to  find  new  lands 
and  new  life  at  the  same  time.  It  was  a  compliment  to 
^America  that  men  believed  it  could  give  all  things,  not  only 
gold  and  fame  but  even  one's  lost  youth, 

De  Leon  sailed  (1513)  from  Porto  Rico  with  a  picked  crew 

in  search  of  the  miraculous  fountain.     On   Easter  Day in 

Spanish   called  Pascua    Florida   or  "Flowery  Easter" they 

discovered  land.33  De  Leon  and  his  men  went  ashore  a  few 
miles  north  of  where  the  Spaniards  later  founded  St.  Augustine. 
He  called  the  land  Florida  from  the  name  of  the  day  on  which 
he  had  discovered  it.  Later  (1521)  he  returned  to  colonize 


1513-.]  EXPLORING    AND    COLONIZING    AMERICA.  13 

Florida.  The  Indians  resisted  his  attempt  to  seize  their  coun 
try,  and  in  the  fight  the  stout-hearted  old  cavalier  received  his 
death  wound. 

17.  Balboa  discovers  a  new  ocean;  Magellan  names  it; 
Spanish    exploration    of    the    Pacific    coast.  —  Meanwhile 
Balboa,  the  Spanish  governor  of  a  colony  on  the  Isthmus  of 
Darien,  set  out  (1513)  to  discover  a  sea  said  to  exist  in  the 
southwest.     After  an  exhausting  march  of  nearly  three  weeks, 
over  rocky  hills  and  through  vine-tangled  forests,  the  expedi 
tion  reached  the  foot  of  a  mountain  where  he  called  a  halt. 
Climbing    to    the    top    of    this    height    the    Spaniard    looked 
down  upon  the  shining  waters  of  the  "  South  Sea."     No  white 
man  had  ever  before  beheld  that  greatest  of  the  oceans  of  the 
globe  ;    next    after    Columbus,    Balboa    had    made    the    most 
remarkable  geographical  discovery  recorded  in  history.     A  few 
days  later,  wading  into  the  waters   of  that  sea,   he  drew  his 
sword    and    declared   that    the   Kings    of    Spain    should  hold 
possession   of  the  South    Sea    and  of    its  coasts  and    islands 
"  while  the  earth  revolves,  and  until  the  universal  judgment  of 
mankind."34 

Seven  years  later  (1520)  Magellan  entered  that  ocean  on  his 
voyage  round  the  globe.  He  found  its  waters  so  calm  that  he 
named  it  the  Pacific. 

Cortez  had  begun  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  and  in  the  course 
of  a  little  more  than  twenty  years  (1520-1543)  Spain  had 
explored  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America  as  far  as  Oregon. 

18.  Narvaez  attempts  to  conquer  Florida  ;  the  adventures 
of  Cabeza  de  Vaca.  —  While  Cortez  was  plundering  Mexico, 
Narvaez  started  from  Spain  (1528)  to  conquer  Florida;    but 
lost  his  life  in  the  undertaking.     Cabeza  de  Vaca  and  three 
survivors  of  the  expedition  were  wrecked  on  the  coast  of  Texas. 

He  and  his  companions  managed  to  escape  from  a  long 
captivity  among  the  Indians,  and  set  out  to  cross  the  country 
to  the  Spanish  settlements  on  the  Pacific  coast.  After  two 
years  of  wandering,  they  arrived  (1538)  at  the  city  of  Mexico. 


14  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1539-1542. 

Cabeza  carried  to  the  Spaniards  of  the  Pacific  coast  reports 
of  the  existence  of  the  wonderful  stone  and  adobe  cities  of  the 
Indians  of  New  Mexico  and  Arizona.  This  led  to  the  great 
exploring  expedition  undertaken  (1540)  by  Coronado. 

19.  De  Soto's  expedition;  the  Indians.  —  When   Cabeza 
returned  to   Spain  (1537)  he  reported  that  Florida  was   "the 
richest  country  in  the  world."     Ferdinand  de  Soto,  who  had 
been  with  Pizarro  in    South   America,  heard   this  report  with 
savage  delight.     He  liked  the  "  sport  of  killing  Indians,"  and 
hoped  to  strip  the  Florida  chiefs  of  their  gold  as  Pizarro  had 
stripped  the  unfortunate  ruler  of  Peru. 

In  1539  De  Soto  landed  with  an  army  of  six  hundred  men 

at  Tampa  Bay,  Florida.  The 
Indians  fought  heroically  against 
the  invaders,  but  their  arrows 
were  no  match  for  the  arms 
carried  by  these  white  "  warriors 
of  fire." 

The  Spaniards  chained  a  num 
ber  of  natives  in  gangs,  forced  them  to  serve  as  guides  through 
the  forest,  and  made  them  carry  their  baggage  and  "pound 
their  corn." 

20.  De  Soto  discovers  the  "  Great  River  "  of  the  West; 
his  death.  —  In  the  spring  (1541)  the  Spaniards  came  to  the 
banks  of  the  "  Great  River  "  of  the  West.     At  the  point  where 
they  first  saw  it,  the  river  "was  about  half  a  league  broad,"  of 
"great  depth,"  with  "a  strong  current,"  "the  water  was  always 
muddy,  and  timber  and  trees  were  continually  floating  down." 
Such  is  the  first  description  by  Europeans  of  the  Mississippi.35 

De  Soto  and  his  party  crossed  this  mighty  stream  probably 
not  far  below  the  present  city  of  Memphis,  and  pushed  on  to 
the  vicinity  of  the  Hot  Springs  of  Arkansas.  In  the  spring, 
utterly  discouraged,  they  set  out  to  reach  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
They  got  as  far  as  the  point  where  the  Red  River  unites  with 
the  Mississippi.  There  (1542)  De  Soto  died,  and  was  secretly 


1540-1541.]       EXPLORING    AND    COLONIZING    AMERICA.  I  5 

buried  at  midnight  in  the  turbid  waters  of  the  "  Great  River  " 
which  he  had  discovered.  His  followers  built  boats,  and 
dropping  down  the  stream  succeeded  at  length  in  reaching 
Mexico. 

21.  The  seven  wonderful  cities;  Coronado's  expedition; 
Onate's  expedition.  —  But  the  effect  of  Cabeza  de  Vaca's 
reports  did  not  end  with  De  Soto's  disastrous  expedition. 
Some  Indians  had  told  the  Spaniards  in  Mexico  that  there 
were  seven  wonderful  cities  full  of  gold,  silver  and  precious 
stones  about  forty  days'  journey  northward  in  a  region  called 
Cibola.  Cabeza,  then  in  Mexico,  said  that  he  too  had  heard  of 
these  remarkable  cities.  The  cupidity  of  the  Spaniards  was 
excited  to  fever  point.  A  negro  who  had  been  one  of  Cabeza's 
former  companions  was  sent  out  as  guide  to  a  monk  who  was 
directed  to  bring  back  an  account  of  Cibola.  They  penetrated 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  and  came  in  sight  of  one  of  the  mar 
vellous  cities.  The  next  year  (1540)  Coronado,  the  Spanish 
governor  of  a  Mexican  province,  set  out  with  an  army  to 
conquer  Cibola.  After  a  terrible  march  over  mountains  of 
rock  and  through  suffocating  deserts,  Coronado  reached  one 
of  the  cities  —  the  pueblo  of  Zuni,  it  is  supposed  —  and  took 
it  by  assault,  but  found  no  gold  or  precious  stones. 

From  this  point  he  sent  out  an  exploring  party  in  search  of  a 
strange  river.  They  discovered  the  Canon  of  the  Colorado  — 
the  deepest  gorge  known  to  exist  in  the  earth's  crust.  Led  on 
by  stories  of  gold  to  be  found  farther  north,  Coronado  pushed 
forward  until,  according  to  his  own  computation,  he  reached 
the  fortieth  parallel  of  latitude.  Here,  first  of  white  men,  he 
hunted  buffalo  —  perhaps  on  the  plains  of  Kansas.  The  next 
year  (1541)  he  reached  the  banks  of  a  branch  of  the  Mississippi 
and  set  up  a  cross  bearing  the  inscription:  "Thus  far  came 
the  general  Francisco  Vasquez  de  Coronado."  x  Had  the  bold 
explorer  kept  on  eastward  from  New  Mexico  he  might  have 
met  his  countryman  De  Soto,  who  had  crossed  the  Mississippi 
and  was  moving  westward.37 


1 6  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

More  than  half  a  century  later  Onate,  a  Spanish  military 
leader,  founded  Santa  Fd  (i6o5),38  the  second  oldest  town  in 
the  United  States  ;  his  name  cut  on  the  smooth  white  sand 
stone  of  "Inscription  Rock,"  between  Santa  Fe  and  Zuni,  is 
still  distinctly  legible. 

These  men  cared  nothing  for  America  itself,  but  only  for 
what  they  could  get  out  of  it.  Cortez  summed  up  their  motives 
in  a  single  sentence  when  he  told  the  Mexicans  :  "We  Spaniards 
are  troubled  with  a  disease  of  the  heart  for  which  we  find  gold, 
and  gold  only,  a  specific  remedy." 

22.  French  explorations ;    Huguenot  colonies  planted  at 
the  south.  —  Meanwhile,  a  party  of  Frenchmen  dared  to  dis 
pute  the  claims  of  Spain  to  the  exclusive  possession  of  the 
North   American  continent.      Cartier  had  already  discovered 
and  explored  the  St.  Lawrence  (1535),  and  had  named  a  lofty 
hill  on  an  island  in  that  river  Montreal.     Not  quite  thirty  years 
later  (1562)   Admiral    Coligny,   the  champion  of  the   French 
Protestants,   sent   out   a   number  of    Huguenot  emigrants  to 
plant  a  colony  at  the  South.     Their  object  was  to  build  up  a 
Protestant  commonwealth  at  Port  Royal,  on  the  coast  of  what 
is  now  South  Carolina.     The  attempt  failed.     Two  years  later 
a  new  Huguenot  colony  settled  near  the  mouth  of   the    St. 
John's  River,  Florida,  and  built  Fort  Caroline.    Here  they  were 
joined  by  Jean  Ribaut  with  reinforcements. 

23.  Philip  II.  sends  Menendez  to  exterminate  the  Huguenot 
colonists ;  St.  Augustine ;  the  massacre ;  De  Gourgues's  re 
venge.  —  Philip  II.  of  Spain  was  startled  by  hearing  of  these 
trespassers  on  his  American  dominions.     French  pirates  had 
(1555)  burned  the  Spanish  settlement  of  Havana  and  butchered 
all  of  the  inhabitants.     Philip  was  eager  for  revenge  ;  he  was 
resolved  to  show  no  mercy  to   men  who  in  his  eyes  were  not 
only  intruders,   but   "  heretics."      Pedro  Menendez  was   sent 
over  with  a   fleet  to  deal   summarily  with  the  Huguenots. 

Menendez  arrived  in  time  to  catch  sight  of  Ribaut's  vessels, 
but  could  not  overtake  them.  He  then  dropped  down  to  a 


1565-1567.]       EXPLORING    AND    COLONIZING    AMERICA.  I/ 

point  about  forty  miles  south,  where  he  erected  a  fort  (1565), 
and  thus  laid  the  foundations  of  St.  Augustine,  the  oldest  city 
built  by  white  men  on  the  North  American  continent. 

Meanwhile  Ribaut,  leaving  a  small  garrison  to  hold  Fort 
Caroline,  sailed  to  attack  the  Spaniards,  but  his  fleet  was 
wrecked  on  the  coast.  Menendez,  heard  of  the  disaster, 
marched  rapidly  across  the  country,  surprised  Fort  Caroline 
and  killed  most  of  the  French  in  their  beds.  The  women  and 
children  were  spared.  The  story  of  this  massacre  reached 
France  ;  it  was  reported  that  Menendez  had  hanged  a  number 
of  the  garrison,  and  had  written  above  their  swinging  corpses  : 
"  I  do  this  not  as  to  Frenchmen  but  as  to  Lutherans."  39 

On  his  return  from  Fort  Caroline  Menendez  fell  in  with  some 
of  Ribaut's  shipwrecked  men.  Trusting  to  the  Spaniard's 
mercy  they  surrendered ;  their  hands  were  tied  behind  their 
backs,  they  were  marched  to  St.  Augustine,  and  all,  except  a 
few  sailors  who  professed  to  be  Catholics,  were  put  to  death. 
A  little  later  Ribaut  himself,  with  some  of  his  soldiers,  was 
discovered.  Part  of  them,  including  the  captain,  surrendered. 
They  were  told  that  they  must  die.  "  We  are  of  the  earth,"  said 
Ribaut,  "and  to  earth  we  shall  return — twenty  years  more  or 
less  matters  little."  All  were  stabbed  to  the  heart.  After 
ward  some  of  the  French  who  had  evaded  pursuit  were 
captured.  Their  lives  were  spared,  but  they  were  sent  to  the 
galleys,  a  fate  more  cruel  than  death  itself. 

France  made  no  attempt  to  retaliate,  but  two  years  later 
(1567)  Captain  de  Gourgues,  said  to  have  been  a  French 
Catholic,  sailed  from  France  and  captured  the  Spanish  fort 
on  the  St.  John's.  He  hanged  his  prisoners  on  the  same 
tree  which  it  was  said  Menendez  had  used  for  executing  his 
French  captives.  Over  their  bodies  he  placed  this  inscription: 
"  I  do  this  not  as  to  Spaniards,  but  as  to  Traitors,  Robbers, 
and  Murderers."  Not  daring  to  attack  St.  Augustine,  De 
Gourgues  returned  to  France,  leaving  Spain  supreme  in 
America. 


18 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.          [1576-1584. 


24.  The  English  search  for  a  northwest  passage  to  India ; 
Drake's  voyage  ;  Gilbert;  Raleigh. —  But  soon  a  more  formid 
able  rival  than  the  French  appeared  on  the  scene  to  contest 
the  Spanish  monopoly  of  North  America.  Frobisher,  the  Eng 
lish  navigator  (1576-1578),  made  great  efforts  to  discover 
a  northwestern  passage  to  Asia.  A  little  later  (1579)  Sir 
Francis  Drake,  in  his  voyage  round  the  world,  landed  on  the 
northern  Pacific  coast.  He  took  possession  of  the  country  for 
Queen  Elizabeth  and  named  it  New  Albion.  The  English, 
however,  made  no  attempt  to  plant  a  colony  on  the  western 
coast,  but  a  few  years  afterward  (1583)  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert 
claimed  Newfoundland  for  the  British  Crown.  His  intention 
was  to  colonize  the  country,  but  he  was  lost  at  sea.  The 
year  following  (1584),  Walter  Raleigh,  a  half  brother  of  Sir 
Humphrey,  obtained  a  charter  from  Elizabeth  giving  him 
the  right  to  lay  claim  to  any  land  in  the  west  "  not  actually 
possessed  by  any  Christian  Prince."  Raleigh's  charter  guar 
anteed  to  all  subjects  of  the  Queen  who  should  settle  under  it 
the  same  rights  and  privileges  which  they  enjoyed  at  home. 
Burke  says  of  Raleigh  :  "  He  was  the  first  man  in  England 
who  had  a  right  conception  of  settlements  abroad."  His 
object  was  to  found  an  English  colonial 
empire  in  America,  and  to  put  "a 
bridle  on  the  King  of  Spain," — Eng 
land's  most  formidable  enemy. 

25.  Raleigh  and  Virginia ;  prod 
ucts  of  Virginia ;  the  lost  colony ;  the 
results.  —  Raleigh  sent  out  an  explor 
ing  expedition  (1584).  They  landed 
at  Roanoke  Island  and  brought  back 
such  glowing  accounts  of  the  "good 
land  "  that  Elizabeth  named  it  Virginia 
and  rewarded  Raleigh  with  knighthood.  The  next  year  (1585) 
Raleigh  sent  out  a  body  of  colonists,  but  they  soon  came  back. 
They  had,  however,  discovered  an  Indian  herb  which  the  poet 


C        B       A 


MAP   SHOWING   THE    EARLY   VOYAGES   TO   AMERICA 
WITH   THE    FIRST   SETTLEMENTS. 

The  heavy  black  coast  line  indicates  what  parts  of 
the  two  continents  were  then  known. 


1587.]  EXPLORING    AND    COLONIZING    AMERICA.  19 

Spenser  called  "divine  tobacco."  They  had  also  found 
certain  round  "  roots "  which  "  being  boiled  are  very  good 
food."40 

Sir  Walter  planted  the  Indian  herb  and  the  round  "  roots  " 
in  his  garden  at  Youghal  near  Cork,  Ireland.  By  his  efforts 
the  Potato — the  most  valuable  vegetable  known  to  man  —  and 
Tobacco,  denounced  by  King  James  as  "the  vilest  of  weeds," 
were  introduced  into  use  in  the  British  Isles. 

Not  disheartened  by  the  failure  of  his  first  attempt  to  estab 
lish  a  settlement  in  Virginia,  Sir  Walter  sent  out  emigrants 
(1587)  to  form  another.  This  colony  mysteriously  disappeared 
and  no  trace  of  it  was  ever  found,  save  the  name,  Croatoan,41 
which  the  colonists  had  cut  on  the  bark  of  a  tree  when  they  left 
their  settlement  never  to  return. 

Though  Sir  Walter's  enterprise  had  failed,  the  idea  survived, 
and  was  successfully  carried  out  later  by  a  company  of  London 
merchants.  Raleigh  believed  that  he  should  live  to  see  an 
"  English  nation  "  founded  in  the  New  World.  He  was  not 
disappointed.  His  memorial  window  in  the  church  of  St. 
Margaret  near  Westminster  Abbey,  commemorates  the  fact 
that  he  "  laid  the  corner-stone  of  the  American  Republic." 

26.  The  American  Indians ;  their  character  ;  their  num 
bers.  —  Before  proceeding  to  the  work  of  Raleigh's  successors, 
let  us  consider  the  subject  of  the  Indians  and  their  influence 
on  the  history  of  our  country. 

The  Indians  that  Columbus  met  in  the  West  Indies  were 
usually  gentle,  timid,  and  easily  enslaved  by  Europeans.  But 
no  colonist  ever  accused  the  northern  Indians  of  excessive 
meekness  of  spirit.  In  bloodthirsty  ferocity  and  bull-dog 
tenacity  an  Algonquin  —  or,  still  better,  an  Iroquois  —  was 
a  match  for  the  most  brutal  Spaniard  that  ever  set  foot  on  the 
shores  of  the  New  World. 

The  entire  Indian  population  east  of  the  Mississippi  proba 
bly  fell  short  of  two  hundred  thousand.42  The  same  area 
to-day  supports  a  white  population  of  over  fifty  millions. 


2O  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

Like  the  wild  beasts  of  the  forest,  the  Red  Men  possessed 
the  country  without  occupying  it.  They  required  vast  solitudes 
in  which  to  seek  their  game.  This  was  the  more  necessary 
because  the  dog  was  their  only  domestic  animal. 

The  Indians  cultivated  some  small  patches  of  corn  and 
tobacco.  But  this  area  of  cultivation  remained  practically 
stationary,  since  the  amount  of  corn  which  a  squaw  could  work 
over  with  her  clamshell  hoe  could  never  be  very  great,  when 
measured  by  the  vigorous  appetites  of  a  healthy  Indian  family. 

27.  Influence  of  the  character  of  the  Indian  on  the  early 
settlers.  —  It  was  perhaps  fortunate  for  the  future  of  America 
that  the  Indians  of  the  North  rejected  civilization.     Had  they 
accepted  it  the  whites  and  Indians  might  have  intermarried  to 
some  extent  as  they  did  in  Mexico.    That  would  have  given  us 
a  population  made  up  in  a  measure  of  shiftless  half-breeds. 

It  was  fortunate,  too,  that  the  Indians  whom  the  English 
colonists  encountered  were  generally  warlike.  Had  they  been 
peaceful  and  submissive  the  white  settlers  would  probably 
have  reduced  them  to  slavery,  —  as  they  did  in  the  West 
Indies.  That  would  have  struck  a  serious  blow  at  the  habits 
of  personal  industry  and  of  self-help  acquired  by  the  colonists. 

The  fact  that  the  Red  Man  was  intractable,  independent, 
and  fond  of  fighting  prevented  the  great  body  of  settlers  from 
spreading  rapidly  over  the  country.  It  compelled  them  to  live 
in  a  tolerably  compact  line  along  the  coast,  made  them  vigilant, 
exercised  them  in  the  art  of  war,  and  made  union  for  self- 
defence  a  necessity.  When  later  the  English  settlers  had  to 
fight  the  Canadian  French,  this  training  in  arms,  which  con 
flicts  with  Indians  had  forced  upon  them,  came  into  effective 
play  and  had  decisive  results  on  the  future  of  America. 

28.  The  indebtedness  of  the  colonists  to  the  Indians  for 
food   and   clothing.  —  The  relations  in  which  the  aborigines 
stood  to  the  colonists  as  friends  or   enemies    had    important 
economic  results.     The  first  and  greatest  need  of  the  colonists 
was  an  abundant  supply  of  food.     The  chief  American  cereal 


1492-.]  EXPLORING    AND    COLONIZING    AMERICA.  21 

was  Indian  ccrn.  It  did  not  grow  in  Europe,  and  no  English 
man  ever  saw  a  field  of  it  before  coming  to  this  country.  The 
Red  Men  taught  the  Virginia  settlers  how  to  raise  corn  in  an 
uncleared  forest  by  simply  girdling  the  trees  and  so  letting  the 
sunlight  in.  In  Plymouth  the  Indians  showed  the  Pilgrims 
how  to  make  their  corn  grow  by  putting  a  fish,  as  a  fertilizer 
in  every  hill.  They  showed  them,  too,  how  to  make  maple 
sugar,  and  how  to  spear  fish  through  the  ice  in  winter  and 
pack  them  in  snow  till  wanted  ;  that  was  the  Indian's  "  cold 
storage  "  system. 

From  them,  too,  the  settlers  learned  to  tan  deer-skins  for 
clothing,  to  make  moccasins,  snow-shoes,  and  birch-bark  canoes 
—  all  articles  of  indispensable  use  in  the  American  wilderness. 

29.  Value  of  wampum ;  Indian  labor ;  trade  with  the 
Indians.  —  Next  to  food  and  clothing  one  of  the  greatest  wants 
felt  by  the  colonists  was  some  medium  of  exchange  for  carry 
ing  on  trade  with  the  natives.  The  Indians  themselves  met 
this  want  by  their  wampum  or  shell  money.  For  many  years 
this  currency  was  practically  well-nigh  the  only  one  in  use  in 
certain  parts  of  the  English  settlements.  It  proved  a  most 
important  factor  in  trading  with  the  natives.  The  settlers  also 
used  it  among  themselves  ;  they  bought  merchandise,  hired 
labor,  paid  the  salaries  of  their  schoolmasters  and  ministers, 
and  settled  their  tax-bills  in  clam-shell  money. 

Again,  it  was  the  Indians  who  first  enabled  the  whites  to 
open  commerce  with  the  mother-country.  Fish  and  furs  were 
always  in  demand  in  England  ;  the  Red  Men  were  experts  in 
trapping  beaver,  catching  cod-fish,  and  in  whaling ;  on  this 
account  the  colonists  found  it  profitable  to  hire  their  services. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Indians  were  excellent  customers  for 
the  hoes,  knives,  hatchets,  blankets,  muskets,  ammunition,  and 
rum  which  the  colonists  offered  for  sale.  With  iron  hoes  the 
natives  could  raise  a  much  greater  quantity  of  corn,  and 
Governor  Bradford  states  that  the  Narragansetts  offered  for 
sale  from  five  hundred  to  a  thousand  bushels  at  a  time. 


22  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.  [1492^. 

30.  Indian  trails  and  water-ways ;  fur-trading  posts.  — 

When  the  colonists  had  grown  so  strong  that  they  had  begun 
to  develop  an  inland  commerce,  the  Indian  proved  helpful  in  a 
different  direction.  In  the  course  of  centuries  of  travel  the  Red 
Man's  feet  had  worn  trails  through  the  forests.  The  settlers 
took  the  hint  and  often  laid  out  their  roads  on  the  line  of  these 
trails.  In  the  State  of  New  York  the  turnpike,  the  Erie  Canal, 
and  the  New  York  Central  railroad,  running  nearly  side  by  side 
from  Albany  to  Buffalo,  follow  the  great  Iroquois  trail  extending 
from  the  Hudson  to  Lake  Erie.  In  America  the  Indian  was 
the  first  road  surveyor.43 

The  water-ways  of  the  Indians  were  as  valuable  to  the 
colonists  as  their  trails.  By  means  of  their  light  birch  canoes 
the  natives  could  pass  from  the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Atlantic  on 
the  one  hand  and  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  on  the  other.  They 
transported  immense  quantities  of  furs  from  the  interior  to  the 
sea-coast  for  shipment  to  Europe.  Merchandise  and  household 
goods  were  carried  West  in  the  same  way.  Over  this  great 
network  of  water-ways  the  Indians  were  our  first  pilots.  The 
fur-trading  posts  in  the  West  marked  the  sites  of  what  became 
important  settlements.  Detroit,  Milwaukee,  Chicago,  St.  Louis, 
and  other  Western  cities  began  in  this  way. 

31.  The  Indians  claim  the  continent;    Indian  wars. — 
The   Red   Man  claimed  the  American   continent  as  his  own. 
The  English  colonists  had  to  get  their  lands  from  him  either 
by  purchase,  force,  or  fraud.     Often  the  settlers  bought  the  soil 
at  a  fair  price.     In  other   cases  they  deliberately   drove   the 
natives  from  their  homes  and  hunting  grounds,  or  shamefully 
cheated  them  out  of  their  possessions  by  some  cunning  trick. 

The  result  of  such  unfair  treatment  was  war,  and  war  accom 
panied  by  all  the  hideous  acts  of  cruelty  in  which  the  Indians 
took  delight.  But  the  increase  of  the  white  settlers  made  con 
flict  with  the  Indians  well-nigh  inevitable.  The  interests  of  the 
two  races  were  to  a  certain  extent  antagonistic.  The  white  man 
wanted  to  clear  the  land,  —  in  fact,  had  to  clear  it  in  order  to 


1492-.]  EXPLORING    AND    COLONIZING    AMERICA.  2$ 

live ;  the  Indian  wanted  to  retain  the  primeval  wilderness  as  a 
game  preserve.  Every  tree  which  the  settler's  axe  felled  was  a 
sign  to  the  Red  Man  that  he  must  sooner  or  later  move  further 
west  or  starve.  Hence  it  is  that,  down  to  a  comparatively  late 
period,  Indian  wars  occupy  a  prominent  place  in  our  history. 

32.  Our  alliances  with  the    Indians ;    the   Iroquois,  or 
"  Five  Nations. " — Our  alliances  with  the  Indians  were  often 
as  important  as  our  wars  with  them.     It  was  largely  through 
the  help  of  the  Iroquois  that  the  English  prevented  the  Cana 
dian  French  from  getting  possession  of  New  York. 

Again,  the  English,  through  the  Indians  of  New  York, 
obtained  "  their  first  real  treaty-hold "  on  the  rich  country 
west  of  the  Alleghanies,  between  the  Ohio  and  the  Great 
Lakes.  Those  Indians  claimed  that  region  by  reason  of  their 
conquests  over  other  tribes.  By  a  treaty  made  at  Lancaster, 
Pennsylvania  (1744),  the  Iroquois  ceded  all  their  western 
lands  to  the  King  of  England.  When  the  French  claimed  that 
vast  and  fertile  region  by  right  of  discovery  and  exploration, 
England  replied,  in  behalf  of  her  American  colonies,  that  the 
territory  was  already  hers  by  virtue  of  the  Lancaster  Indian 
treaty.  Whether  the  Iroquois  cession  was  valid  or  not,  it  was 
believed  to  be  so,  and  it  helped  to  open  the  way  for  the  future 
growth  of  the  English  colonies  in  the  West. 

33.  Summary  of  our  relations  with  the  Indians.  —  We 
may  summarize  our  relations  with  the  Indians  as  economic  and 
political.     Under  the  first  head  we  find   that:    i.  The  Indians 
taught  the  settlers  how  to  grow  corn  and  thus  supply  themselves 
with  an  inexhaustible  quantity  of  food.     2.  They  helped  them 
to  open  up  a  highly  profitable  European  trade  in  furs  and  fish. 
3.  They  furnished  the  first  currency  for  obtaining  supplies  to 
carry  on   that   trade.      4.    The   Indian  trails    and   water-ways 
became  permanent  means  of  communication   to   the   settlers, 
and  the  fur-trading  posts  often  grew  into  thriving  cities. 

Under  the  second  head  we  find  that:  i.  The  necessity  of 
defence  against  hostile  tribes  induced  the  colonists  to  keep 


24  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1492-. 

together,  and  trained  them  in  war.  2.  Alliances  formed  with 
the  powerful  Iroquois  Confederacy  of  New  York  served  as  a 
barrier  against  the  designs  of  the  Canadian  French,  and  thus 
favored  the  unity  and  continued  growth  of  the  English  colonies. 
3.  Through  a  treaty  made  with  the  Iroquois  at  Lancaster, 
Pennsylvania,  the  English  obtained  a  formal  title  to  the  lands 
beyond  the  Alleghanies  ;  thus  they  secured  room  for  expan 
sion,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  our  hold  on  the  West. 

34.  Effects  of  the  discovery  of  America  on  Europe.— 
i.  The  success  of  Columbus  gave  rise  to  voyages  of  explora 
tion,  and  opened  new  fields  for  commerce.  Spain  rapidly  rose 
through  the  supply  of  precious  metals  she  obtained  in  Mexico 
and  Peru,  to  be  the  most  powerful  nation  in  Europe.  The  large 
amount  of  gold  and  silver  thus  brought  into  circulation  in  the 
Old  World  stimulated  rival  nations  to  send  out  expeditions  to 
conquer  and  colonize  empires  in  America. 

In  England  and  on  the  Continent  the  increase  of  the  precious 
metals  frequently  enabled  the  peasantry,  who  paid  a  fixed  money 
rent,  to  become  owners  of  the  lands  they  cultivated.  Many 
emigrants  of  the  best  class  who  came  to  this  country  from 
England  sprang  from  that  thrifty  and  industrious  peasantry. 

2.  The    Spaniards    who    settled   the   West    Indies    at    first 
enslaved    the    Indians ;    but    finding    that    negroes    were    far 
more  profitable  as  laborers,  they  gradually  introduced  African 
slavery  into  those  islands.      After  the  English  planted  colonies 
on  the  mainland,  much  of  their  commerce  was  with  the  West 
Indies.    Interference  with  this  trade  by  the  British  Government 
was  one  cause  of  the  American  Revolution. 

3.  North  America  gave  Europe  new  food  products  of  ines 
timable  value.    Chief  among  them  stand  the  potato  and  Indian 
corn.     Besides  these,  the  cod  fisheries  of  Newfoundland  fur 
nished  the  poorer  classes  with  inexhaustible  supplies  of  that 
cheap   and   well-known  fish.      America  also  in  time  supplied 
Europe  with  such  luxuries  as  cocoa  and  tobacco.     Columbus 
found  cotton  in  the  West  Indies,  and  carried  back  with  him 


1492-.]  EXPLORING    AND    COLONIZING    AMERICA.  2$ 

cloth  manufactured  from  it  by  the  natives.  Sugar,  rice,  and 
cotton  had  long  been  produced  in  the  East  Indies;  but  their 
high  price  in  Europe  made  them  the  luxuries  of  the  rich.  Now 
they  were  discovered  growing  wild  in  America.  Eventually 
their  cultivation  in  the  Southern  States  made  them  so  cheap 
that  they  came  into  general  use  throughout  the  civilized  world. 

4.  But  the  crowning  result  of  the  discovery  of  America  was 
that  it  widened  the  intellectual  horizon  to  a  degree  that  no  event 
ever  had  before.  Men  found  that  they  were  living  in  a  grander 
world  than  they  had  imagined.  New  possibilities,  new  oppor 
tunities  were  opened  to  them.  Hope  was  awakened,  enterprise 
stimulated.  "If,"  says  Freeman,  the  eminent  English  historian, 
"  the  New  World  owes  its  being  to  the  Old  World,  the  Old  owes 
to  the  New  the  revival  and  expansion  of  its  being." 

At  best  the  Old  World  was  limited;  men  knew  its  bounds 
and  its  resources.  There,  progress  was  beset  with  difficulty; 
but  no  one  dared  to  fix  the  limits  of  America  or  say  what  marvels 
it  contained.  Here  certainly  was  room  for  all,  and  food  for  all. 
If  in  many  of  its  physical  aspects  —  its  soil  and  climate  —  it 
was  Europe  repeated,  still  it  was  repeated  on  a  colossal  scale, 
with  vaster  forests,  wider  prairies,  loftier  mountain  ranges, 
grander  lakes,  and  nobler  rivers.  Unlike  Europe,  America 
fronts  on  two  oceans;  it  naturally  commands  the  trade  of 
Europe  and  Africa  on  the  one  side,  and  of  Asia  and  the  Indies 
on  the  other. 

America  invited  all  classes  of  men  to  her  hospitable  shores. 
She  seemed  to  say  :  Come  here  and  be  free,  for  here  is  a  virgin 
field  in  which  to  try  not  only  all  experiments  in  the  develop 
ment  of  material  resources,  but  in  government  and  in  the 
organization  of  society  ;  —  here,  in  short,  is  a  New  World  ;  you 
shall  make  of  it  what  you  will.44 

35.  Summary. —  i.  In  1492  Columbus,  while  seeking  a 
direct,  all-water  route  to  the  Indies,  discovered  the  West  India 
Islands  and  opened  them  to  Spanish  occupation.  The  voyages 
of  Americus  Vespucius  suggested  the  name  America  for  the 


26  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1492-1600. 


New  World.  By  the  beginning  of  the  lyth  century  the 
Spaniards  had  discovered  Florida,  the  Mississippi  and  the 
Pacific,  explored  parts  of  the  South  and  West,  made  a  settle 
ment  at  St.  Augustine,  Florida,  and  taken  possession  of 
Mexico  and  New  Mexico. 

2.  Meanwhile,  the  French  had  explored  the  St.  Lawrence  and 
made  an  attempt  to  get  a  foothold  in  the  South,  but  had  been 
driven  out  by  the  Spaniards. 

3.  In  1497  John  Cabot  first  discovered  the  continent  of  North 
America  and  claimed  possession  of  it  for  England.    In  the  next 
century   Sir  Walter    Raleigh    planted    English    settlements    in 
Virginia,  but  they  were  soon  abandoned. 

4.  The  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  left  the  Spaniards  the 
sole  possessors  of  North  America.     So  far  as  could  then  be 
seen,  Spain,  and  Spain  alone,  was  destined  to  control  the  future 
of  the  territory  which  is  now  the  United  States. 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY. 

(See,  in  general,   II' inserts  "America,"  IV. ,  i.-xxx.'t    SAaler's   "United  States,"  and 
"  Our  Continent?) 

The  physical  geography  of  the  United  States  has  had  and  must  continue  to  have 
a  powerful  influence,  not  only  on  the  health  and  industry,  but  on  the  character  and 
progress  of  the  American  people. 

I.  The  English  colonies  were  planted  on  rivers  or  harbors  which  invited  settle 
ment  and  favored  their  commercial  intercourse  with  the  mother  country,  with  the 
West  Indies,  and  with  each  other.     (See  §§  39  et  seq.,  and  173,  177,  178.) 

II.  The  Appalachian  range  barred  the  West  against  the  colonists  and  confined 
them  to  a  long,  narrow  strip  bordering  on  the  sea.     This  limitation  of  soil  had  im 
portant  effects  on  the  occupations  and  the  exports  of  the  settlers,  while  it  encouraged 
the  development  of  union,  political  strength,  and  independence.     (See  §§  173,  196.) 

III.  The  Canadian  French,  on  the  other  hand,  having  control  of  the  St.  Lawrence 
and  the  Great  Lakes,  soon  got  temporary  possession  of  the  Mississippi  valley.     This 
led  to  a  war  which  ended  by  giving  the  West  to  the  English  colonists.     (See  §  172.) 

IV.  The  first  English-speaking  settlements  made  west  of  the  Alleghanies  were 
planted  on  streams  flowing  into  the  Mississippi,  —  a  river  system  35,000  miles  in 
extent,  watering  the  great    central  valley  of   the  continent.     Later,  the  steamboat 
made  that  vast  region  accessible  in  all  directions.     (See  §§  137,  258.) 

V.  After  the  Colonies  secured  their  independence,  the  boundaries  of  the  Ameri 
can  Republic  were  fixed  by  successive  treaties.     These  boundaries  were  determined, 
to  a  great  extent,  by :    i.  coast-lines;  2.  rivers  and  lakes;  3.  watersheds;  4.  moun 
tain  ranges.     In  1783  our  possessions  bordered  upon  the  Atlantic  only;  in  1803  they 
touched  the  Gulf  of  Mexico;  in   1846  they  reached  the  Pacific.     (See  "Table  of 
Boundaries.") 

VI.  The  most  pressing  question  with  every  rapidly  growing   people  is  that  of 
food-supply.     Some   nations   of   Europe  —  notably   Great    Britain  —  can   only  feed 
themselves  by  importing  provisions.     America  is  so  fortunate  in  soil,  climate,  and 
extent  of  territory,  that  the  people  produce  not  only  all  the  breadstuffs  and  meats 
they  require,  but  they  have  an  immense  surplus  for  exportation.     (See  §§  421,  563.) 

VII.  Next  in  importance  to  grain  and  meats  are  cotton,  wool,  timber,  coal,  petro 
leum,  iron,  copper,  and  the  precious  metals.     These  products  are  powerful  factors  in 
the  development  of  modern  civilization,  and  it  is  believed  that  no  continent  is  richer 
in  them  than  our  own.     (See  §§  143,  406,  437,  563.) 

VIII.  While  cotton  fastened  slavery  on  the  South,  the  abundant  water  power  of 
New  England  gave  the  first  impulse  to  American  cotton  manufacturing.     On  the 
other  hand,  the  western  prairies  stimulated  agriculture  and  immigration,  and  encour 
aged  the  building  of  railroads,  which  in  twenty  years  did  more  to  open  up  the  coun 
try  than  two  centuries  had  done  before.     Again,  physical  geography  has  influenced 
legislation  respecting  labor,  the  tariff,  trade,  currency,  and  the  building  of  roads  and 
canals ;  furthermore,  it  determined  decisive  military  movements  in  the  Revolution, 
(see  Washington's  retreat  across  the  Delaware,  §  212,  and  Greene's  retreat,  §  230), 
and  the  Civil  War  (see  §§  467,  468,  485-487). 

IX.  Experience  proves  that  the  physical  conditions  of  the  United  States  favor 
health,  vigor,  and  longevity.     Statistics  show  that  in  size  and  weight  the  American 
people  are  fully  equal,  if   not,  indeed,  superior  to  Europeans,  while  their  average 
length  of  life  appears  to  be  somewhat  greater.     (See  Rhodes's  "  U.  S.,"  III.,  73,  74.) 

X.  The  conclusion  of  eminent  scientists  is  that  no  part  of  the  globe  is  better 
suited  to  the  requirements  of  one  of  the  master-races  of  the  world  than  the  United 
States,  and  such  statesmen  as  Lincoln  and  Gladstone  have  declared  their  belief  that 
this  country  has  a  natural  base  for  the  greatest  continuous  empire  ever  established 
by  man.     (See  §  34.) 


III. 


PERMANENT  ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH  SETTLEMENTS. 


For  Authorities  for  this  Chapter,  see  Appendix,  pageja.\v.     The  small  figures 
refer  to  Notes  on  A  uthorities  cited  on  page  xxx  of  the  Appendix. 


THE     THIRTEEN     COLONIES.  —  FRENCH      EXPLORATION     OF     THE 

WEST. —  WARS   WITH  THE  INDIANS  AND   WITH   THE  FRENCH. 

-GENERAL    VIEW    OF     THE    COLONIES,    1600-1763. 

36.  English  trading  expeditions;  the  fisheries;  Virginia 
colonies  planned. — Although  Raleigh's  attempt  to  plant  a 
colony  in  Virginia  had  failed,  yet  the  English  continued  to  send 
out  occasional  fishing  and  fur-trading  expeditions  to  America. 
By  1600  the  British  Newfoundland  fisheries  employed  not  less 
than  ten  thousand  men  and  boys.45 

Gosnold  (1602)  and  Weymouth  (1605)  made  voyages  to  that 
part  of  Northern  Virginia  which  was  later  named  New  England, 
and  carried  back  favorable  accounts.  Two  commercial  com 
panies,  known  as  the  London  and  the  Plymouth  companies, 
were  formed  in  England  to  plant  permanent  colonies  in  Virginia, 
—  a  territory  then  extending  from  Cape  Fear  to  Halifax.46 

Several  reasons  prompted  this  undertaking:  i.  The  com 
panies  hoped  to  discover  mines  of  precious  metals  in  Virginia 
or  to  find  a  passage  to  the  Pacific  and  the  Indies. 

2.    It  was  believed  that  colonies  in  Virginia  would  draw  off  a 

restless  class  of  disbanded  soldiers  and  of  young  men  out  of  work, 

-  then  numerous  in  England ;    that  they  would  employ  many 

idle  vessels  in   carrying  out  emigrants  and  freight;  that  they 

would  open  new  markets  for  English  goods,  and  finally  that 


28  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

England  would  be  able  to  get  a  cheap  and  abundant  supply  of 
ship-timber,  tar,  and  rosin  from  her  American  colonies. 

3.  Some  of  the  promoters  of  the  enterprise  had  broader 
views  ;  they  looked  beyond  material  gains,  and  resolved  to 
plant  great  and  growing  colonies  in  Virginia  which  should 
secure  to  England  a  mighty  empire  in  America. 

But  the  plans  of  the  Companies  had  opponents.  Hume  says 
that  even  in  1606  there  were  Englishmen  who  thought  it  bad 
policy  to  plant  colonies  in  Virginia,  because  such  settlements 
"  after  draining  the  mother-country  of  inhabitants  would  soon 
shake  off  her  yoke  and  erect  an  independent  government." 47 


I.  VIRGINIA  (1607). 

37.  The  Virginia  Charter  (1606) ;  appeal  to  that  charter.  — 
The  charter48  of  the  London  Company  gave  them  power  to 
establish  settlements  in  Southern  Virginia  anywhere  between  the 
34th  and  38th  degrees  of  north  latitude  (that  is,  between  Cape 
Fear  and  the  Potomac).  To  the  Plymouth  Company  the  King 
by  the  same  charter  granted  the  territory  in  Northern  Virginia 
between  the  41  st  and  45th  degrees  of  north  latitude  (that  is, 
between  the  eastern  end  of  Long  Island  and  the  northern 
limit  of  Nova  Scotia).  The  intervening  country  (38th  to 
41  st  degrees),  embracing  what  is  now  Maryland,  Delaware, 
New  Jersey  and  a  small  corner  of  New  York,  was  open  to 
colonization  by  either  Company,  but  neither  was  to  make  a 
settlement  within  one  hundred  miles  of  the  other. 

The  charter  provided  :  i.  That  each  grant  should  extend 
one  hundred  miles  inland.  2.  That  the  territory  should  be  free 
of  all  tax  to  the  King,  save  a  certain  reservation  (from  a  fifth  to 
a  fifteenth)  of  any  valuable  metals  which  might  be  found. 
3.  The  King  guaranteed  to  the  colonists  and  their  descendants 
the  same  rights  and  privileges  "  as  if  they  had  been  abiding 
and  were  born  within  this  our  realm  of  England."  49 


1806.] 


ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS. 


This  last  important  concession  did  not  go  into  effect  until 
the  establishment  of  the  Virginia  Assembly  (1619)  ;  later  it  had 
an  unforeseen 
result.  On  the 
eve  of  the  Rev 
olution  (1765), 
the  Virginians 
in  justifying 
their  resistance 
to  the  Stamp 
Act  appealed  to 
this  clause  of 
the  origin  al 
charter.  They 
declared  that 
the  first  settlers 
"  brought  with 
them,  and  trans 
mitted  to  their 
posterity,  all  the 
privileges  .  .  . 
that  have  at  any 
time  been  held  ...  by  the  people  of  Great  Britain."  60 

38.  Government  of  the  colony ;  trial  by  jury ;  religious 
worship ;   community    of    goods.  —  The   colony   was   to   be 
governed    by    a  resident    council,    under   the    direction    of    a 
higher  council  in  England,  controlled  by  the  King.51 

Trial  by  jury  was  to  be  granted  in  capital  cases,  and 
religious  worship  according  to  the  usage  of  the  Church  of 
England  was  to  be  established.52  For  the  first  five  years  the 
colonists  were  to  deposit  "  all  the  fruits  of  their  labor  "  in  the 
Company's  storehouse  ;  but  the  Company  was  to  supply  the 
settlers  with  food,  clothing,  and  other  necessaries. 

39.  Settlement  of  Jamestown  (1607)  ;  instructions  to  the 
emigrants;    Captain    John    Smith. — In   1607    the   London 


Grants  made  in  Virginia  (by 
charter  of  I  606)  to  the 
London  and  the  Plymouth 
Companies.  These  grants 
extended  I  00  miles  in 
land. 


3Q  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

Company  sent  out  one  hundred  and  five  emigrants  to  Vir 
ginia.  No  women  or  children  went.  Like  the  California 
pioneers  of  '49  their  object  was  to  find  fortunes  in  the  soil  of 
the  New  World.  They  took  out  pickaxes  to  dig  for  gold.  The 
emigrants  had  particular  orders  to  search  for  mines  of  precious 
metals,  and  to  seek  for  a  passage  to  the  Pacific. 

The  colonists  landed  on  the  banks  of  a  river  which  they 
named  the  James  in  honor  of  the  King.  For  a  like  reason 
they  named  their  settlement  Jamestown  (1607).  Perhaps  the 
ablest  man  in  the  party  was  Captain  John  Smith.  He  became 
one  of  the  governors  of  the  colony,  and  wrote  its  history. 

Most  of  the  settlers  belonged  to  a  class  in  England  who  were 
unused  to  manual  labor,  and  hence  wholly  unfit  to  struggle  with 
the  hardships  of  an  American  wilderness.  Sickness  carried  off 
many,  and  at  one  time  they  came  so  near  starving  that  it  was 
with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  the  breath  of  life  was  kept  in  the 
colony.  A  ship-load  of  glittering  earth  which  they  sent  back 
to  London,  and  which  turned  out  to  be  not  gold  but  simply 
yellow  dirt,  completed  the  disgust  of  the  settlers. 

When  Smith  became  Governor,  he  laid  down  the  scriptural 
rule  that  those  who  would  not  work  should  not  eat.  He 
explored  and  mapped  the  country  bordering  on  Chesapeake 
Bay,  urged  the  cultivation  of  corn,  and  endeavored  by  every 
possible  means  to  put  the  settlement  on  a  self-supporting  and 
paying  basis.63  Whether  Pocahontas  saved  Captain  Smith's 
life  or  not,  he  certainly  seems  to  have  saved  Virginia. 

40.  Provisions  of  the  new  charter  (1609).  —  Two  years 
after  the  settlement  of  Jamestown  the  King  granted  the  London 
Company  (1609)  a  new  charter.  It  provided  :  — 

1.  That   the   government  of  the   colony  should  be  placed 
entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Council  in  England,  who  were  to 
send  out  a  governor  having  almost  absolute  power. 

2.  Virginia  was  now  made  to  extend  two  hundred  miles  north 
and  the  same  distance  south  of  Point  Comfort ;  "  west  and  north 
west  "  it  ran  "  from  sea  to  sea,"  that  is,  to  the  Pacific.54    Event- 


1609.] 


ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS. 


ually  Virginia  made  the  "  sea-to-sea  "  clause  the  basis  for  her 
claim  to  the  greater  part  of  that  vast  region  which,  after  the  Revo 
lution,  came  to  be  called  the  "Northwest  Territory"  (§  237). 

3.    The  new  charter  forbade  any  emigrant's  settling  in  Vir 
ginia  unless  he  took  the  Oath  of  Supremacy  by  which  he  denied 


the  supreme  authority  of  the  Pope.  This,  of  course,  shut  out 
Catholics. 

At  that  time  each  of  the  leading  nations  of  Europe  main 
tained  its  own  form  of  religion.  In  Southern  Europe  the 
established  church  was  Catholic,  in  Northern  Europe  it  was 
Protestant.  When  Spain  planted  her  colonies  in  America  she 
naturally  excluded  the  Protestants  ;  when  England  planted 
hers,  she  just  as  naturally  excluded  the  Catholics. 

41 .  The  colonists  abandon  Jamestown ;  Lord  Delaware ; 
Sir  Thomas  Dale;  the  third  charter  (1612).  —  After  Smith's 
return  to  England  (1609)  the  colonists  became  so  disheartened 
that  they  abandoned  Jamestown  and  set  out  for  their  native 
land.  At  that  moment,  Lord  Delaware,  the  newly  appointed 
Governor,  arrived  and  compelled  the  settlers  to  remain. 


32  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

Lord  Delaware  was  succeeded  (1611)  by  Sir  Thomas  Dale, 
a  stern  disciplinarian,  but  a  man  of  sound  sense.  He  allotted 
three  acres  of  land  to  each  colonist,  on  condition  that  he  should 
deliver  a  certain  quantity  of  corn  annually  to  the  keeper  of  the 
common  storehouse.  This  arrangement  had  a  most  happy  effect  : 
it  secured  to  each  man  a  little  estate  of  his  own,  stimulated 
industry,  and  provided  a  reserve  supply  of  food  for  the  colony. 

A  year  later  (1612)  the  King  granted  to  the  Company  a 
third  and  final  charter.  It  differed  from  the  preceding  ones  in 
putting  the  management  of  the  colony  into  the  hands  not  of  a 
council,  but  of  the  body  of  stockholders  in  England. 

42.  John  Rolfe  begins  the  cultivation  of  tobacco ;  results. 
—  Not  long  after  Governor  Dale's  administration  began,  John 
Rolfe,  who  married  Pocahontas,  planted  a  field  with  tobacco 
(1612)  which  he  sold  at  a  handsome  profit  in  England.  That 
experiment  decided  the  industrial  and  commercial  success  of 
the  colony.  Henceforth  every  man  that  could  turn  planter  did 
so,  and  began  raising  tobacco  for  the  English  market.  The 
soil  and  climate  of  Virginia  favored  the  new  culture,  and  the 
navigable  streams  emptying  into  Chesapeake  Bay  made  it  easy 
for  the  planters  to  ship  their  crop  almost  from  their  own  doors 
direct  to  London. 

Notwithstanding  a  heavy  tax  imposed  on  this  product  by  the 
King,  the  demand  for  it  constantly  increased.  In  1619  the 
Virginians  exported  20,000  pounds  of  tobacco,  and  eight  years 
later  500,000.  Long  before  the  close  of  the  century  the  quan 
tity  sent  abroad  had  risen  (1670)  to  nearly  12,000,000  pounds. 
Charles  II.  thought  that  the  use  of  the  weed  would  be  of  short 
duration,  and  declared  that  the  prosperity  of  Virginia  was 
"wholly  built  upon  smoke  ";  but  from  that  "smoke"  England 
derived,  and  still  derives,  a  goodly  part  of  her  revenue. 

In  Virginia  tobacco  became  (1620)  the  legal  currency,  and 
planters  paid  their  tavern  bills  and  their  taxes  in  rolls  or  hogs 
heads  of  it.  Later  the  Legislature  enacted  laws  stinting  the 
quantity  of  the  plant  which  a  farmer  might  raise,  and  compel- 


161&-.]  ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  33 

ling  him  to  devote  a  certain  number  of  acres  to  corn.  These 
laws  were  necessary  to  prevent  over-production  in  the  one 
case,  and  to  provide  food  in  the  other. 

Economically,  politically  and  socially  the  cultivation  of 
tobacco  had  results  of  the  highest  importance. 

1.  It  encouraged  the  immigration  of  a  class  of  thrifty  and 
industrious  colonists  who  saw  in  Virginia  a  gold  mine  which 
they  could  work  with  a  hoe. 

2.  It  induced  the  exportation  from  England  of  thousands 
of  "indented    apprentices,"  who   were  bound  to  the  planters 
for  a  number  of  years.     Part  of  them  came  voluntarily,  part 
were   kidnapped    in    English    ports    and   shipped   to    Virginia 
against    their  will.     In    a    few  instances,  convicts    known    as 
"jail   birds"   were   sent   over  by  order  of    the  King.      By  a 
later  Act  of  Parliament  convicts  might  be  sent  to  any  of  the 
American  colonies,  though  the  greater  part  seem  to  have  been 
transported  to  the  West  Indies.55     Most  of  these  apprentices 
and  their    descendants    became    what   were   known  as  "  Poor 
Whites,"  or  "  Scrubs."     Occasionally  a  remarkable  man  sprang 
from  these  people.      In  modern  times  "  Stonewall "  Jackson 
was  one,  and  Abraham  Lincoln  says  that  he  was  another.56 

3.  The  demand  for  cheap  and  permanent  laborers  for  raising 
tobacco  led  directly  to  the  introduction  (1619)  of  negro  slavery. 

4.  The  plantations,  by  scattering  the  population  over  large 
areas,  checked  the  growth  of  towns  and  of  public  schools  ;  but 
they  were  highly  favorable  to  the  creation  of  a  well-to-do  and 
high-spirited  rural  aristocracy  who  lived  on  their  estates  much 
after  the  fashion  of  the  county  aristocracy  of  England. 

5.  Finally,  although  tobacco  exhausted  the  soil,  and  in  time 
compelled  the  planters  to  abandon  their  old  farms  and  take 
new,57  yet  this  staple  first  placed  Virginia  on  a  solid  financial 
basis,  and  ensured  the  success  of  the  colony. 

43.  Establishment  of  the  Virginia  Assembly  ;  Virginia 
loses  her  charter;  suffrage;  power  of  the  Assembly  (1619) ; 
local  government.  —  A  majority  of  the  Virginia  Company  in 


34  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.          [1619-1624. 

England  were  members  of  the  Liberal  party  of  that  day.  In 
their  sympathy  for  popular  liberty  they  resolved  to  give  the 
colonists  the  power  to  enact  laws  so  "  that  they  might  have  a 
hand  in  governing  themselves."  M 

Acting  under  orders  from  the  Company,  Governor  Yeardley 
called  on  the  inhabitants  of  the  eleven  boroughs  or  towns  of 
Virginia  to  elect  two  representatives  from  each  borough  to  meet 
with  him  and  his  council.  In  accordance  with  that  summons 
the  first  American  legislature  assembled  in  the  church  at  James 
town  in  the  summer  of  1619.  That  body  had  full  power  to 
make  all  needful  "  general  laws,"  59  but  no  law  was  to  be  in 
force  unless  approved  by  the  Governor  and  "  solemnly  rati 
fied  "  by  the  Virginia  Company  in  England.  The  meeting  of 
that  House  of  Burgesses  or  Assembly  marks  the  beginning  of 
local  self-government  on  the  American  continent. 

At  first  all  free  men  had  the  right  to  vote  for  members  of  the 
Assembly,  but  later  (1670)  it  was  enacted  that  in  accordance 
with  English  law  and  custom  none  but  householders  and  owners 
of  real  estate  should  have  "  a  voice  in  the  election  of  any  bur 
gesses  in  this  country."  w 

In  1621  the  Company  gave  the  colonists  a  written  constitu 
tion  61  confirming  their  right  to  a  legislative  Assembly.  A  little 
later  the  burgesses  enacted  (1623)  that  the  Governor  should 
not  "  lay  any  taxes  .  .  .  upon  the  colony  .  .  .  other  than  by 
the  authority  of  the  General  Assembly." 62  This  enactment 
had  the  effect  of  making  the  Assembly  the  real  ruling 
power. 

The  stockholders  of  the  Virginia  Company  fell  into  disputes, 
and  the  King  took  advantage  of  the  fact  to  annul  the  charter 
(1624)  and  make  the  colony  a  royal  province  ;  but  this  change 
did  not  affect  the  Assembly.  The  local  government  of  the 
province  was  carried  on  by  parish  committees,  who  taxed  the 
people  for  the  support  of  the  Episcopal  Church  and  for  the 
poor.  The  counties  were  governed  by  officers  appointed  by  the 
royal  Governor.  These  officers  levied  taxes  to  build  highways 


1619.]  ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  35 

and  for  other  purposes.  The  general  expenses  of  the  province 
were  met  by  taxes  levied  by  the  Assembly. 

In    time    local  government    throughout    the  South  came  to 
resemble  that  of  Virginia,  —  especially  in  the  county  system. 

44.  The  beginning  of  African  slavery  in  Virginia  (1619). 
—  Not  long  after  the  meeting  of  the  first  American  legislature 

an  event  occurred  which  John  Rolfe,  the  tobacco  planter,  thus 
records:  "About  the  last  of  August  (1619)  came  in  a  Dutch 
man-of-war  that  sold  us  twenty  Negars."  The  purchase  of  that 
score  of  kidnapped  Africans  fastened  slavery  on  Virginia  and 
on  the  United  States.  No  one  then  thought  it  any  more  harm 
to  buy  a  negro  than  to  buy  a  horse.  The  laws  of  Moses  were 
believed  to  sanction  traffic  in  human  beings,  and  the  Attorney- 
General  of  England  declared  that  "  negroes  being  pagans  might 
justly  be  bought  and  sold."  The  English  sovereigns  shared 
in  the  profits  of  the  trade  and  encouraged  the  Virginians  to 
buy  as  many  black  men  as  they  could  pay  for.  Before  the 
American  Revolution,  every  one  of  the  thirteen  colonies  held 
more  or  less  slaves.  But  the  increase  of  negroes  in  Virginia 
was  slow,  since  planters  of  small  means  found  it  cheaper  to 
employ  the  labor  of  "  indented  apprentices."  Later  a  statute 
(1662)  made  slavery  hereditary,  not  only  for  negroes,  but  for 
mulattoes,  by  providing  that  "  all  children  born  in  this  country 
shall  be  held  bond  or  free,  according  to  the  condition  of  the 
mother."  M 

45.  Attempts  to  check  the  importation  of  slaves ;  growth 
of  slavery.  — Eventually  the  Virginians  became  alarmed  at  the 
rapid  increase  of  slaves  and  endeavored  to  check  their  importa 
tion,  but  the  English  Parliament  refused  to  allow  any  restriction 
on  so  lucrative  a  trade.     George   Mason  of  Virginia   declared 
in  the  Federal  Congress  that  "  this  infernal  traffic  originated  in 
the  avarice   of   British  merchants,"  and  Jefferson,  in  his  first 
draft  of  the   Declaration  of   Independence,  made   the   King's 
encouragement   of  the  slave-trade    one   of  the   reasons  which 
justified  the  colonies  in  separating  from  the  mother-country.64 


36  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [IGSI. 

But  although  Jefferson,  Washington,  and  other  leading  Vir 
ginians  (who  were  themselves  slave-holders),  advocated  gradual 
emancipation,  yet  the  majority  of  the  planters  opposed  it. 
After  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution,  and  after  the 
invention  of  the  cotton-gin  made  the  cultivation  of  cotton 
enormously  profitable,  slavery  gained  a  commercial  and  politi 
cal  importance  which  made  it  for  more  than  two  generations 
the  "  central  problem  of  American  history." 

46.  Importation  of  women ;  results ;  Plymouth  Colony ; 
the  situation.  —  But  though  Virginia  was  becoming  prosperous, 
the  colony  still  lacked  one  element  without  vrhich  no  colony 
could  hope  to  thrive.  Very  few  women  had  emigrated  to 
Jamestown.  The  Virginia  Company  resolved  to  remedy  the 
deficiency  and  sent  (1621)  ninety  "young  and  handsome  maids 
to  be  disposed  in  marriage  to  the  most  honest  and  industrious 
planters  .  .  .  who  are  to  defray  the  charge  of  their  passage."  M 
The  charge  was  from  120  to  150  pounds  of  the  best  leaf 
tobacco.  Never  was  that  plant  put  to  better  use. 

When  the  women  came,  homes  began  in  this  part  of  the  New 
World.  Husband,  wife,  children,  —  these  threefold  bonds  made 
the  little  Virginian  commonwealth  sure  of  its  future. 

Five  hundred  miles  to  the  northeast  a  band  of  Pilgrims  had 
recently  (1620)  planted  a  second  English  colony.  They  brought 
their  families  with  them,  —  they  too  had  homes.  The  children 
born  in  these  two  settlements,  at  Plymouth  Rock  and  on  the 
James  River,  would  call  this  country,  and  not  England,  their 
native  land  ;  in  that  way  America  would  come  to  be  a  sacred 
name,  and  mean  what  it  had  never  meant  before. 

Here  then  was  the  situation  in  1621  :  In  Florida  a  few 
hundred  Spaniards  held  a  fort  (St.  Augustine)  on  the  coast ;  at 
Quebec  a  small  number  of  French  Catholics,  who  had  gone 
there  in  1608,  held  another  fort ;  on  the  Hudson  River  a  thrifty 
colony  of  Dutch  traders  had  established  themselves  since  1614. 

In  New  England  and  Virginia  there  were  two  little  settle 
ments  of  English  people.  Of  these  four  rival  colonies  the 


1638-.]      ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH  SETTLEMENTS.         37 

English  homes  alone  were  the  abodes  of  men  who  made  their 
own  local  laws  and  levied  their  own  taxes.  In  that  fact  may  be 
seen  the  germ  of  American  independence. 

47.  Virginia  loses  part  of  her  territory ;  civil  war  in  Eng 
land  ;  cavaliers ;   loyalty  of  Virginia.  —  After  Virginia  lost 
her  charter  (§  43)  she  also  lost  part  of  her  territory  through 
the  King's  grant  (1632)  of  Maryland  on  the  north  and  (1663) 
of  the  Carolinas  on  the  south. 

Shortly  after  Charles  I.  appointed  Sir  William  Berkeley  Gover 
nor  of  Virginia  (1642),  civil  war  broke  out  in  England  ;  the 
Puritan  party  suppressed  the  established  Church  of  England 
for  a  time,  and  set  up  a  short-lived  republic. 

Though  the  people  of  Virginia  were  divided  in  their  political 
and  religious  opinions,  yet  the  ruling  element  staunchly  upheld 
the  Church  and  the  Crown.  The  Assembly  enacted  (1643) 
that  "  all  non-conformists  (that  is,  persons  who  would  not  attend 
the  service  of  the  Episcopal  Church)  should,  when  notified,  be 
compelled  to  depart  out  of  the  colony."  66  Again,  when  Charles 
I.  was  beheaded  (1649)  the  Assembly  declared  his  executioners 
traitors,  and  threatened  death  to  those  who  should  defend  them.67 

But  in  the  end  Virginia  found  it  policy  to  submit  to  the 
authority  of  the  English  Republic.  Governor  Berkeley  retired 
from  office,  but  gave  princely  receptions  to  the  Cavaliers  or 
"  King's  Men,"  who  had  fought  for  Charles  I.  and  who  now 
fled  to  Virginia.  Among  those  who  came  were  the  ancestors 
of  the  illustrious  families  of  the  Washingtons  and  the  Lees.68 

Great  was  the  rejoicing  in  the  "  Old  Dominion  "  when  (1660) 
monarchy  was  restored  in  England,  and  "the  King  came  back 
to  his  own  again."  Governor  Berkeley  again  put  on  his  silk 
robe  of  office,  and  the  Assembly  begged  the  pardon  of 
Charles  II.  for  having  yielded  for  a  time  to  the  "  execrable 
power  that  so  bloodily  massacred  the  late  King  Charles  the 
First  of  blessed  and  glorious  memory."  w 

48.  Navigation  laws  and  other  commercial  restrictions.  — 
Under  Cromwell  the  English  Parliament  enacted  navigation  laws 


38  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

which  forbade  the  importation  into  England  of  any  products  or 
goods  not  brought  in  British  vessels.  The  object  of  those  laws 
was  to  strike  a  blow  at  the  Dutch,  who  had  the  control  of  the 
carrying  trade  of  the  world,  and  to  secure  a  large  part  of  the 
commerce  to  English  shipowners.  Charles  II.  (1660)  signed  a 
bill  which  made  the  navigation  laws  far  more  stringent.  In 
their  revised  form  they  forbade  the  Virginians  exporting  their 
tobacco  —  their  only  really  profitable  product  —  to  any  country 
except  Great  Britain  and  her  dependencies.  A  few  years  later 
(1663)  a  new  statute  prohibited  the  colonists  from  purchasing 
manufactured  goods  from  any  country  but  England.  Finally, 
this  restrictive  legislation  reached  its  climax  in  the  enactment 
of  a  third  law  (1673)  which  prohibited  the  colonies  from 
trading  with  each  other  in  any  article  of  importance.70 

These  laws  were  intended  to  protect  the  interests  of  the 
mother-country.  They  made  it  possible  for  English  merchants 
to  fix  the  price  at  which  the  Virginia  and  other  colonial  planters 
must  sell  their  produce,  and  secondly  to  determine  the  price 
which  the  colonists  must  pay  for  whatever  they  imported.  The 
Virginians  would  have  been  badly  off  indeed  if  they  had  not 
managed  to  smuggle  their  tobacco  out  in  Dutch  vessels  and 
to  smuggle  European  goods  in. 

49.  Charles  II.  grants  Virginia  to  two  of  his  favorites.  - 
We  have  seen  (§  47)  that  the  English  sovereigns  had  carved  huge 
slices  out  of  Virginia,  both  on  the  north  and  the  south.  The 
people  were  dismayed  at  the  loss,  but  congratulated  themselves 
that  the  King  had  not  taken  all,  when  by  a  sudden  act  (1673) 
Charles  did  take  all.  That  monarch  had  two  rapacious  favor 
ites,  the  Earl  of  Arlington  and  Lord  Culpepper  ;  both  wished  to 
fill  their  pockets  at  the  expense  of  the  New  World.  Charles  took 
pity  on  them  and  granted  "  that  entire  tract  of  land  and  water 
commonly  called  Virginia  "  to  have  and  to  hold  for  thirty-one 
years.  He  empowered  these  two  noblemen  to  collect  all  land- 
rents  and  receive  all  revenues;  and  though  they  could  not 
actually  dispossess  any  settler  who  held  his  estate  by  a  clear 


1675.]  ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  39 

title,  they  could  compel  him  to  prove  his  title.  These  powers 
made  Arlington  and  Culpepper  the  owners  and  masters  of  the 
whole  commonwealth  of  Virginia. 

50.  The  "Perpetual  Legislature'*;   the  parish  commit 
tees  ;  taxes ;  war  with  the  Indians.  —  To  add  to  the  miseries 
of  the  colonists,  no  general  election  had  been  held  since  Gov 
ernor   Berkeley's   restoration  to  office  —  a  period  of  thirteen 
years.     Such    a    state    of   things  virtually  deprived  the    colo 
nists  of  representation    in   the   Assembly.      Furthermore,  the 
vestries    or    church    committees,    which    had    the    control    of 
the  affairs  of  each  parish,  had  gradually  become  self-elective 
bodies    or    close    corporations.       This    change    deprived    the 
majority  of  the  parishioners  of  any  voice  in  the  management 
of  local  interests.     Meanwhile  the  "Perpetual  Legislature,"  as 
it  might  well  be  named,  demanded  heavy  taxes  to  keep  up  the 
forts,  and  called  on  the  planters  for  large  levies  of  tobacco  in 
order  to  raise  a  fund  to  buy  out  the  claims  of  Arlington  and 
Culpepper. 

Just  at  this  critical  period  (1675)  the  Indians  on  the  frontier 
rose  against  the  settlers.  King  Philip's  war  was  raging  in 
Massachusetts  and  the  planters  had  good  reason  to  fear  that 
the  hideous  atrocities  committed  by  the  savages  in  New  Eng 
land  would  soon  be  repeated  in  Virginia.  Governor  Berkeley 
took  no  decided  measures  to  protect  the  colonists,  and  it  was 
whispered  that  the  profits  he  derived  from  trade  with  the  In 
dians  made  him  unwilling  to  act. 

51.  Bacon  and  the  Indians;    the  "Bacon  Rebellion.' '  — 
At  this  juncture  Nathaniel  Bacon,  a  wealthy  young  planter,  and 
a  member  of  the  Governor's  council,  asked  for  a  commission  to 
raise  volunteers  to  defend  the  colony.     The  Governor  refused 
his  request.     Bacon,  whose  plantation  had  been  attacked  by 
the  Indians,  raised  a  body  of  men  on  his  own  responsibility 
and  marched  against  the  savages.    Berkeley  denounced  him  as 
a  traitor.       Meanwhile  the  settlers  in  the  lower  counties  sym 
pathized  with  the  young  planter's  energetic  action.     They  rose 


4O  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1676-. 

in  arms  and  compelled  the  election  (1676)  of  a  new  Assembly,  — 
the  first  that  had  been  chosen  for  sixteen  years.  Bacon  was 
elected  a  member.  This  Assembly  broke  up  the  close  parish 
committees,  re-granted  to  the  freemen  of  each  parish  the 
right  to  manage  its  affairs,  and  repealed  the  law  (§  43)  which 
limited  the  right  of  suffrage  to  freeholders  and  householders. 

Governor  Berkeley,  yielding  to  the  pressure  brought  by  the 
people,  not  only  pardoned  Bacon,  but  promised  him  a  commis 
sion  to  raise  volunteers.  The  Governor  did  not  keep  his  word, 
and  Bacon,  suspecting  treachery,  secretly  left  Jamestown  and 
soon  afterward  reappeared  at  the  head  of  five  hundred  men. 
Berkeley  then  gave  him  the  commission  he  demanded,  but 
shortly  after  proclaimed  him  a  "rebel."  This  brought  on  civil 
war.  Jamestown  was  besieged  ;  the  Governor  fled,  and  the 
town  was  burned  to  the  ground.  A  crumbling  heap  of  ruins 
shows  where  the  first  American  settlement  stood  ;  the  capital 
of  Virginia  was  removed  (1690)  to  Williamsburg. 

The  leader  of  the  rebellion  suddenly  died,  the  movement 
collapsed  and  the  reforms  with  it.  The  "  Bacon  Laws,"  includ 
ing  freedom  of  suffrage,  were  repealed,  and  soon  everything  was 
back  in  the  old  ruts.  Berkeley  showed  so  little  mercy  in  dealing 
with  the  Bacon  party  that  even  Charles  II.  said  in  disgust  : 
"  That  old  fool  has  hanged  more  men  in  that  naked  country 
than  I  did  (in  England)  for  the  murder  of  my  father."  71 

But  Bacon's  movement  of  reform  perished  only  in  appearance. 
From  Berkeley's  time  onward  we  mark  a  rising  spirit  of  resist 
ance  to  arbitrary  rule.  When  Governor  Spotswood  (1710-1722) 
insisted  on  settling  clergymen  for  life  over  the  parishes,  the 
people  refused  to  settle  a  minister  for  more  than  a  year.  They 
claimed  that  since  they  were  taxed  to  pay  for  preaching  they 
had  the  right  to  choose  the  preacher.  In  the  end  the  people 
gained  the  day,  and  the  lordly  Spotswood  retired  discomfited 
from  the  field. 

Governor  Dinwiddie  (1752-1758)  found  the  people  just  as 
stubborn  on  another  point.  He  asked  for  contributions  to  fight 


175S-1775.J         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  4! 

the  French  and  Indians  on  the  western  frontier,  but  the  As 
sembly  refused  to  vote  them  unless  he  would  give  up  the  exac 
tion  of  illegal  land-fees.  Worn  out  with  the  long  contest,  the 
Governor  wrote  to  a  friend  that  the  Virginians  were  "  too  much 
in  a  republican  way  of  thinking."  7S  Naturally  the  aristocratic 
planters  of  the  "  Old  Dominion  "  stood  squarely  by  Church  and 
King,  but  none  the  less  they  were  fully  resolved  to  contest  to 
the  death  any  serious  infringement  of  their  rights.  Edmund 
Burke  believed  that  the  ownership  of  slaves  made  the  Vir 
ginians  "  proud  and  jealous  of  their  liberty."  In  his  famous 
speech  on  "Conciliation"  (1775)  he  said:  "In  such  a  people 
the  haughtiness  of  domination  combines  with  the  spirit  of 
freedom,  fortifies  it  and  renders  it  invincible." 

52.  The  spirit  of  independence  in  Virginia ;  the  warrior- 
preacher  ;  the  Continental  Congress.  —  But  this  spirit  of 
freedom  was  not  confined  in  any  way  to  one  class  or  section 
of  Virginia.  Late  in  the  colonial  period  an  industrious  and 
thrifty  population  of  Germans,  Swedes,  and  Scotch-Irish  —  or 
emigrants  of  Scottish  origin  who  came  from  the  north  of  Ireland 
—  settled  in  the  beautiful  Shenandoah  Valley.  They  were  a 
God-fearing  and  liberty-loving  people,  too  poor  to  own  slaves, 
and  so  earning  their  daily  bread  by  the  sweat  of  their  brows. 
From  them  sprang  a  class  of  men  who  made  their  influence  felt 
in  the  Revolution  and  in  the  Civil  War. 

The  Reverend  John  Muhlenberg,  a  clergyman  of  that  section, 
voiced  the  feelings  of  the  hardy  patriots  of  the  stirring  days  of 
1775.  At  the  close  of  a  fervent  discourse  he  said  :  "  Brethren, 
there  is  a  time  for  all  things  —  a  time  to  preach  and  a  time  to 
pray  ;  but  there  is  also  a  time  to  fight,  and  that  time  has  now 
come  !  "  Then  throwing  off  his  gown,  he  stood  before  his 
congregation  a  girded  warrior,  and  coming  down  from  the  pulpit 
commanded  the  drummers  at  the  church  door  to  beat  for 
recruits.  Nearly  three  hundred  of  the  congregation  entered 
the  ranks.  It  was  the  spirit  of  the  "  Bacon  Rebellion  "  revived 
and  intensified.  This  time  it  was  not  to  be  quelled. 


42  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1775. 

The  next  year  —  just  a  hundred  years  to  a  day  from  the  time 
the  "  Bacon  Assembly  "  had  met  at  Jamestown  —  another 
assembly,  the  "  Continental  Congress,"  met  at  Philadelphia. 
On  motion  by  a  delegate  from  Virginia  they  voted  the  adoption 
of  the  Declaration  of  Independence  which  Jefferson  wrote  and 
which  Washington  drew  his  sword  to  defend. 

53.  Summary.  —  Jamestown,  Virginia  (1607),  was  the  first 
permanent  English  settlement  made  in  the  New  World.  There 
(1619)  the  first  American  legislature  was  convened  ;  the  same 
year  saw  the  introduction  of  negro  slaves.  Tobacco  was  the 
great  staple  which  built  up  the  commerce  of  the  colony,  though 
that  commerce  was  seriously  hampered  (1660)  by  the  English 
Navigation  Laws.  Virginia  was  strongly  Royalist,  but  it  was 
also  determined  to  resist  oppression.  There  was  a  period  of 
bad  government,  and  Bacon  (1676)  began  a  movement  of 
reform  which  was  temporarily  successful.  Later  (1775)  the 
spirit  of  independence  made  the  "  Old  Dominion  "  a  leading 
colony  in  the  Revolution. 


II.   NEW   NETHERLAND   OR    NEW   YORK  (1614). 

54.  New  Netherland,  or  New  York  (1614) ;  Henry  Hud 
son's  search  for  a  passage  to  the  Indies ;  the  "  River  of  the 
Mountains. " — In  1609  the  Dutch  East  India  Company- 
England's  great  commercial  rival  —  sent  out  Captain  Henry 
Hudson  to  discover  a  passage  through  America  to  the  Indies. 
While  examining  the  coast  he  entered  that  noble  stream  origi 
nally  called  the  "  River  of  the  Mountains,"  but  which  to-day  bears 
the  name  of  its  English  explorer.  Sailing  up  the  river,  Hudson 
passed  the  Highlands  and  the  Catskills,  and  reached  the  point 
where  Albany  now  stands.  Shallow  water  forced  him  to  turn 
back.  He  was  delighted  with  the  country.  "  It  is  as  beautiful 
a  land,"  said  he,  "  as  the  foot  of  man  ever  trod  upon."  78  After 
a  short  stay  he  returned  to  Europe. 


Quebec  1608^  ^  /  A^ 

fc     (  0V 

*          )  ^  ^   \ 

X 


Charleston  M®) 
Sfpost  Royal  1562 


FIRST  SETTLEMENTS  MADE 
ON  THE  EASTERN  COAST  OF 
NORTH  AMERICA. 


St.AU&ustinel5«5 


Virginia,  by  iU  first  charter  (1606), 
extended  100  miles  inland  ;  by  its 
second  charter  (1609)  it  was  extended 
westward  to  the  Pacific. 

The  charters  of  Massachusetts, 
Connecticut,  North  Carolina,  South 
Settlement  1564  Carolina,  and  Georgia,  made  the  Pa 
cific  the  western  boundary  of  these 
colonies. 

By  the  Treaty  of  1763  (see  page  142 
and  map  facing  page  200)  the  Missis 
sippi  was  made  the  western  boundary 
of  the  British  Possessions,  south  of 
Canada. 


1614-1626.]          ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS. 


43 


55.  The  Dutch  build  fur-trading  stations  (1614)  on  the 
Hudson  River.  —  The  Dutch  at  once  (1610)  sent  out  an  expe 
dition  to  open  fur-traffic   with  the    Indians.     Soon    afterward 
(1614)  they  built  a  few  log  cabins  on  the  southern  portion  of 
Manhattan   Island,   and  erected   Fort  Nassau  just  below  the 
present  site  of  Albany. 

Fort  Nassau  was  practically  at  the  head  of  ship  navigation 
on  the  Hudson.     It  also  stood  at  the  eastern  terminus  of  the 
great  central  Indian  trail  running  to  Lake  Erie.     Such  a  station 
was  admirably  located  for  carrying  on  the  fur 
trade  with  the  Iroquois.     On  the  other  hand, 
the  post   on    Manhattan   Island  would   control 
the   entrance   to   the   river,  and  thus  give   the 
Dutch  a  monopoly  of  one  of  the  most  important 
water-ways  on  the  eastern  coast  of  America. 

56.  A  trading  company  formed;  coloniza 
tion;   purchase  of  Manhattan  Island  (1626). 

—  In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  (1614)  the 
Dutch    Republic    of    the    United    Netherlands 
granted  a  charter 74  to  a  commercial  corporation 
giving  it  the  exclusive  right  to  trade  with  the 
country  called  "  New  Netherland."     The  terri 
tory  bearing  that  name  embraced  not  only  the 
valley  of  the  Hudson,  but  the  entire  region  be 
tween   Virginia   and  Canada.      The   object    of 
the  Company  was  not  to  plant  colonies,  but  to 
engage  in  traffic  with  the  natives.     But   some 
years  later  (1621)  a  new  corporation,  the  Dutch 
West  India  Company,  obtained  a  charter  giving 
them  all  the  rights  originally  possessed  by  the 
first  Company  and  the  privilege  of  sending  over        "^  New  Amsterdam, 
colonists  besides.    They  soon  (1623)  shipped  a  number  of  Wal 
loons,  or  Belgian  Protestants,  to  New  Netherland.     Part  of  the 
emigrants  landed  on  Manhattan  Island,  but  most  of  them  went 
up  the  river  and  helped  to  build  Fort  Orange  —  now  Albany. 


44  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

In  1626  the  Company  sent  out  Peter  Mimiit  as  governor; 
before  the  close  of  the  year  he  purchased  the  Island  of  Man 
hattan  from  the  Indians  for  "  the  value  of  sixty  guilders,"  or 
about  $24.00.  The  town  of  thirty  houses  on  the  Island  now 
received  the  name  of  New  Amsterdam. 

57.  Establishment  of  the  patroon  system.  —  A  few  years 
later  (1629)  the  Company  established  the  patroon  system,  in  the 
hope  of  thereby  promoting  the  rapid  settlement  of  the  colony. 
The  patroon  stood  in  the  place  of  the  old  feudal  lord  ;  under 
him  the  colonist  played  the  part  of  serf  or  semi-slave. 

The  following  were  the  privileges  of  the  master:-  Every 
member  of  the  Company  who  bound  himself  to  take  or  send 
over  at  least  fifty  emigrants  over  fifteen  years  of  age  was  to 
receive  the  honorary  title  of  "Patroon  [or  Patron]  of  New 
Netherland."  i.  He  was  entitled  to  hold  an  estate  having 
sixteen  miles  frontage  on  "one  side  of  a  navigable  river,  or 
eight  miles  on  each  side,"  and  extending  as  far  into  the  country 
"  as  the  situations  of  the  occupiers  will  permit."  2.  As  lord  of 
the  manor,  he  was  empowered  to  hold  civil  and  criminal 
courts  on  his  estate,  and  from  his  decisions  as  judge  there  was 
practically  no  appeal.76  3.  He  had  the  right  to  appoint  officers 
and  magistrates  in  all  cities  and  towns  founded  on  his  lands. 
This,  of  course,  gave  him  almost  entire  control  of  such  places, 
since  the  inhabitants  had  no  voice  in  the  elections.  4.  He  held 
his  estate  "  as  a  perpetual  inheritance,"  and  by  handing  it  down 
in  the  line  of  the  eldest  son  could  keep  his  vast  property  undi 
vided  in  his  family  forever. 

On  the  other  hand,  all  emigrants  taken  or  sent  out  to  New 
Netherland  by  a  patroon  were  held  as  follows  :  i.  They  bound 
themselves  to  serve  him  for  a  term  of  years  (like  the  indented 
apprentice  of  Virginia  planters).  2.  They  agreed  to  grind 
their  grain  in  his  mill  and  to  pay  for  the  grinding.  3.  They 
were  not  to  hunt  or  fish  without  their  master's  permission. 
4.  They  pledged  themselves  not  to  weave  any  cloth  for 
themselves  or  others,  but  to  buy  it  from  the  Company,  on 


1699-1643.]        ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  45 

pain    of    being   severely   punished    and   banished   from    New 
Netherland. 

The  master  and  his  laborer  were  to  "  find  means  for  support 
ing  a  minister  and  a  schoolmaster  and  a  comforter  of  the  sick.'' 
No  patroon  was  permitted  by  the  Company  to  engage  in  the 
fur  trade  except  at  certain  designated  trading  posts ;  he  was  also 
to  pay  an  export  duty  on  all  skins  sent  out  of  the  colony. 

58.  The  Van  Rensselaer  and  other   estates;    how    the 
patroons    lived.  —  Under   this    cumbrous    system    the    most 
important   points   on  the   Delaware   and   Hudson  (Manhattan 
Island  excepted)  were  taken  by  the  patroons.     The  most  noted 
of  them  was  Kiliaen  Van  Rensselaer.     He  obtained  a  grant 
which  embraced   the   greater    part    of  what   are  now  Albany, 
Van    Rensselaer,    and    Columbia    counties,    on    the    Hudson. 
This   princely  estate  covered   more    than    a   thousand    square 
miles,  and  extended  for  twenty-four  miles  along  the  river. 

He  and  his  brother  capitalists  on  the  Hudson  lived  in  the 
midst  of  their  tenants  like  the  feudal  barons  in  their  castles  on 
the  Rhine.  They  collected  their  rents,  held  their  courts,  and 
at  one  time  levied  tolls  on  all  vessels  passing  their  estates.  The 
Van  Rensselaers,  Van  Cortlandts,  Livingstons,  Schuylers  and 
other  wealthy  families  built  elegant  mansions  on  Manhattan 
Island,  or  vicinity.  In  the  summer  they  went  to  their  country 
places,  in  winter  they  returned  to  their  homes  on  the  Island. 
Like  the  Virginia  planters  they  had  their  retinue  of  black 
servants  in  livery  (for  negro  slavery  was  permitted  in  New 
Netherland).  With  the  Virginians,  these  wealthy  Dutch  proprie 
tors  constituted  the  chief  landed  aristocracy  of  America. 

59.  The  Dutch  on  the  Connecticut;  New  Amsterdam  in 
1643  ;  free  trade  and  cheap  lands.  —  Not  satisfied  with  hold 
ing  the  Delaware  and  Hudson  the  Dutch  endeavored  to  estab 
lish  settlements  on  the  Connecticut.     They  first  explored  that 
noble  river,  and  opened  trade  with  the  Indians  on  its  banks  ; 
and  on  land  which  they  purchased  of  the  Pequots  they  built 
a  small  fort  (1633)  where  the  city  of  Hartford  now  stands. 


46  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1543-1647. 

Ten  years  later  (1643)  a  French  Jesuit  priest  visited  New 
Amsterdam  on  Manhattan  Island.  He  describes  the  town  as 
having  a  population  of  four  or  five  hundred  persons  composed 
"of  different  sects  and  nations."76  This  fact  shows  that  the 
germ  of  the  great  city  which  now  stands  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Hudson  was  even  then  assuming  that  many-sided,  cosmopolitan 
character  which  it  has  ever  since  retained.  The  West  India 
Company  had  been  mindful  of  the  demands  of  education  and 
had  established  (1633)  a  good  school  in  New  Amsterdam.  It 
still  flourishes  under  the  name  of  the  "  School  of  the  Col 
legiate  Reformed  Church,"  and  is  the  oldest  institution  of 
learning  in  the  United  States  (§  93). 

But  the  colony  did  not  grow.  The  patroon  system  kept  the 
better  class  of  emigrants  away,  and  there  was  no  freedom  of 
trade.  Most  of  the  early  governors  were  rapacious  or  inef 
ficient,  and  cared  nothing  for  the  best  interests  of  New  Nether- 
land.  At  length  the  government  in  Holland  resolved  to  throw 
open  the  trade  of  the  colony,  and  to  grant  lands  on  easy  terms 
to  all  comers.  These  measures  had  the  desired  effect,  and  emi 
gration  to  the  Dutch  colony  on  the  Hudson  began  in  earnest.77 

60.  Peter  Stuyvesant ;  the  people  demand  a  share  in  the 
government;  the  "Nine  Men  "  ;  attempted  reforms.  — A 
few  years  later  (1647)  Peter  Stuyvesant,  the  last  of  the  Dutch 
governors,  came  into  power.  He  found  no  small  political  dis 
content  among  the  colonists.  Most  of  them  had  come  from 
the  Dutch  Republic  of  Holland  only  to  find  less  liberty  in  the 
New  World  than  they  had  enjoyed  in  the  Old.  While  the 
English  colonists  east  and  south  of  them  made  their  own 
local  laws,  the  settlers  on  the  Hudson  were  under  the  control 
of  a  commercial  company,  whose  prime  object  was  to  pay 
large  dividends  to  its  stockholders.  Governor  Stuyvesant  had 
no  faith  in  democracy,  but  he  could  not  resist  the  demands  of 
the  colonists  for  a  share  in  the  government.  The  people  were 
accordingly  permitted  (1647)  to  elect  eighteen  counsellors, 
from  whom  the  Governor  chose  "  Nine  Men  "  to  assist  him. 


1647-1657.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  4/ 

The  "  Nine  Men "  did  excellent  work.  They  protested 
against  the  heavy  taxes  and  the  enormous  export  duties 
imposed  by  the  West  India  Company.  They  also  called 
attention  to  the  fact  that  the  port  charges  were  so  exorbi 
tant  that  trade  was  kept  away.  Stuyvesant  answered  that  it 
was  no  fault  of  his  if  he  had  to  serve  greedy  and  tyrannical 
masters.  Then  the  "  Nine  Men  "  petitioned  the  home  Govern 
ment  to  take  -the  management  of  the  colony  out  of  the  Com 
pany's  hands,  to  take  off  all  restrictions  on  trade,  to  send  over 
emigrants  free,  to  clearly  define  the  boundaries  of  New  Nether- 
land,  so  as  to  avoid  disputes  with  the  English  colonists,  and 
finally  to  grant  to  the  Dutch  settlers  a  Representative  Assembly 
such  as  their  countrymen  enjoyed  in  Holland.  To  prevent 
trouble  the  West  India  Company  grudgingly  granted  a  larger 
measure  of  political  liberty  than  the  colonists  had  yet  possessed. 
The  better  class  of  citizens  in  New  Amsterdam  were  permitted 
to  elect  a  body  of  magistrates  "  as  much  as  possible  according 
to  the  customs"  of  the  city  of  Amsterdam  in  Holland.  But 
when  the  day  of  election  arrived,  the  imperious  Stuyvesant 
quietly  appointed  all  the  officers  himself. 

61.  Religious  intolerance;  treatment  of  Quakers.  —  In 
matters  of  religion  Stuyvesant  was  as  arbitrary  as  he  was  in 
politics.  He  refused  to  permit  any  congregations  to  worship 
openly  except  those  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  —  the 
established  Protestant  Church  of  Holland.  He  ordered  (1656) 
that  any  one  preaching  without  a  license  should  be  condemned 
to  pay  a  fine  of  one  hundred  pounds,  while  each  hearer  was  to 
pay  a  fine  of  twenty-five.  The  Company  felt  that  this  was 
pushing  matters  too  far,  since  private  dissenting  worship  was 
tolerated  in  Holland.  They  rebuked  the  Governor  and  ordered 
him  to  grant  all  citizens  "  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion 
within  their  own  homes."  78 

The  next  year  (1657)  one  of  that  "Society  of  Friends," 
which  the  Massachusetts  authorities  called  the  "  cursed  sect 
of  Quakers"  (§  96),  came  to  New  Amsterdam.  The  Governor 


48  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1664. 

was  furious.  After  repeated  scourgings  and  solitary  imprison 
ment  in  the  dungeon  of  the  fort,  the  Quaker  was  finally  driven 
out  of  the  province.  Later  the  Governor  issued  a  proclama 
tion  prohibiting  the  public  exercise  of  any  religion  but  that  of 
the  Dutch  Reformed  Church  "in  houses,  barns,  woods,  ships, 
or  fields."  For  a  third  offence  against  this  law  the  offender 
was  to  be  flogged. 

The  Company  again  rebuked  Stuyvesant's  misdirected  zeal. 
This  time  the  hot-headed  Governor  obeyed  orders,  and  persecu 
tion  ceased. 

62.  England  claims  New  Netherland,  takes  it  (1664),  and 
re-names  it  New  York.  —  But  the  end  of  Stuyvesant's  adminis 
tration  and  of  Dutch  rule  in  New  Netherland  was  at  hand. 
England  claimed  the  colony  by  virtue  of  Cabot's  discovery 
(§  n).  The  English  had  two  powerful  reasons  for  insisting 
on  this  claim.  In  the  first  place  the  British  Government  lost 
about  ;£i 0,000  a  year  in  custom  duties  through  the  Dutch 
smugglers  who  secretly  carried  Virginia  tobacco  to  Holland. 

But  the  chief  reason  why  England  was  determined  to  possess 
New  Netherland  was  that  the  King  was  resolved  to  have  a 
strong,  united,  and  compact  line  of  colonies  on  the  Atlantic 
coast.  This  was  impossible  so  long  as  the  Dutch  held  the 
Hudson,  since  a  glance  at  the  map  shows  that  New  Netherland 
was  a  geographical  wedge  separating  New  England  from  the 
English  colonies  on  the  south. 

Although  England  and  Holland  were  then  at  peace,  Charles  II., 
assuming  that  the  country  on  the  Hudson  was  rightfully  his, 
quietly  made  over  the  whole  of  it  to  his  brother  James,  Duke 
of  York  and  Albany.  James  at  once  sent  over  a  fleet  under 
Colonel  Nicolls  to  seize  the  prize.  Nicolls  (1664)  demanded 
the  surrender  of  New  Amsterdam.  Stuyvesant  replied:  "I 
would  rather  be  carried  out  dead  than  give  up  the  fort."  But 
the  people  were  weary  of  the  rule  of  the  West  India  Company 
and  were  willing  to  accept  the  liberal  terms  promised  by  the 
English.  The  high-spirited  Governor  could  not  help  himself, 


1683-1685.]        ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  49 

and  so  sorrowfully  surrendered.  The  Dutch  flag  was  hauled 
down  and  the  red  cross  of  England  rose  triumphantly  in  its 
place.  In  honor  of  its  ducal  owner,  New  Netherland  was  now 
christened  New  York,  Fort  Orange  became  Albany,  and  New 
Amsterdam  took  the  title  of  New  York  City.79 

63.  The  Duke's  Laws;  the  Duke  grants  a  "  Charter  of 
Liberties  "  (1683) ;  repeals  it  (1685).  — Colonel  Nicolls  pre 
pared  a  code  known  as  the  "  Duke's  Laws,"  which  established  : 
(i)  equal  taxation  ;  (2)  trial  by  jury  ;  (3)  the  obligation  of 
military  duty;  (4)  freedom  of  religion  to  all  Christians. 

Later  (1683)  Colonel  Thomas  Dongan,  an  Irish  Catholic, 
who  was  then  Governor  of  New  York,  wrote  to  the  Duke  of 
York :  "  The  people  generally  cry  out  for  an  Assembly." 
The  Duke  reluctantly  granted  the  colony  (1683)  a  Charter 
of  Liberties.  This^provided  :  i.  That  every  freeholder  should 
have  the  right  to  vote  for  representatives  to  an  Assembly, 
whose  laws  (made  by  the  Governor's  Council  and  Assembly 
jointly)  should  be  subject  to  the  Duke's  approval.  2.  No  taxes 
were  to  be  levied,  except  by  consent  of  the  Assembly.  3. 
Entire  freedom  of  religion  was  guaranteed  to  all  peaceable 
persons  who  should  profess  any  recognized  form  of  Christian 
faith.80 

Two  years  later  (1685)  the  Duke  became  King  of  England 
with  the  title  James  II.  It  was  at  the  time  when  his  friend 
and  ally,  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  was  creating  "a  world-wide 
religious  panic"  by  driving  all  Protestants  out  of  France. 
Thousands  of  distressed  and  destitute  Huguenots  fled  to 
England  and  to  the  English  colonies  in  America.  Wherever 
they  settled  they  roused  the  fear  and  hatred  of  the  colonists 
against  the  French  monarch.  James  hated  free  institutions  ; 
as  for  legislatures,  he  said  he  "  could  see  no  use  for  them." 
He  at  once  wrote  to  Governor  Dongan  :  "  Our  will  and  pleasure 
is  that  the  charter  be  forthwith  repealed."  Thus  early  in  its 
career  the  New  York  Assembly  found  the  truth  of  the  Psalmist's 
advice  :  "  Put  not  your  trust  in  princes."  The  King's  mandate 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.          [1685-1686. 


suppressed  the  Assembly  and  reduced  the  colony  to  the  con 
dition  of  a  conquered  province.  To  prevent  the  open  expression 
of  discontent  the  people  were  forbidden  to  have  a  printing- 
press.  On  the  other  hand,  James  II.,  as  a  Catholic,  keenly  felt 
the  severity  of  the  English  laws  against  members  of  that  Church, 
and  he  now  granted  entire  liberty  throughout  the  colony  "  to 
all  persons  of  what  religion  soever."81 

64.  Dongan' s    treaty  with   the    Iroquois;    Sir  Edmund 
Andros.  —  Governor  Dongan  saw  that  the  Iroquois  or  "  Five 
Nations  "  formed    the  real  bulwark  of  New  York  against  the 
hostile  designs  of  the  French  in  Canada.     He  succeeded  in 
securing  the  friendship  of  the  most  important  tribes.     The 
Iroquois  chiefs  said  to  him  :  "  We  will  fight  the  French  as  long 
as  we  have  a  man  left."      Most  of    the  Mohawks  kept  their 
word,  but  Louis  XIV.  entrapped  the  rest  of   the  "Five  Na 
tions  "  into  a  treaty  of  neutrality.      Governor  Dongan  never 

grew  slack  in  his  defence  of  the 
colony  ;  after  he  retired  from  office 
he  mortgaged  his  farm  to  raise 
money  to  equip  the  expedition 
sent  (1690)  against  Canada. 

In  1686  James  consolidated  the 
provinces  of  New  York,  New  Jersey 
and  New  England  under  the  name 
of  the  Dominion  of  New  England 
and  made  Sir  Edmund  Andros 
governor-general  of  the  province 
with  his  headquarters  at  Boston.  The  consolidation  brought 
these  colonies  more  directly  under  the  King's  control  and  by 
putting  Andros  in  command  made  it  easier  to  repel  the  designs 
of  the  French.  Speaking  of  the  new  province,  James  said  :  "  I 
will  make  it  a  tower  of  iron."  82 

65.  Revolution  in   England;    Louis  XIV.   declares  war 
against  England  and  her  colonies ;    excitement  in  Boston. 
—  But  the  reign  of  James  was  near  its  close.     It  was  quite 


Dominior 


1689.]  ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  51 

generally  believed  in  England  that  the  King  intended  to  over 
throw  the  Protestant  religion  and  the  constitutional  rights  of 
the  nation  by  force  of  arms.  William,  Prince  of  Orange,  James's 
son-in-law  and  head  of  the  Dutch  Republic,  was  invited  by  a 
number  of  leading  men  of  both  political  parties  to  come  with 
an  army  to  the  defence  of  English  liberty.  He  did  so,  and 
James  fled  to  France  (1688).  Louis  XIV.  then  declared  war 
against  England  and  her  American  colonies.  When  the  news 
reached  Boston,  the  citizens  rose  and  threw  Andros,  James's 
representative,  into  prison.83 

In  the  city  of  New  York  a  story  was  started  that  Nicholson, 
the  deputy-governor,  was  plotting  to  burn  the  town  and  mas 
sacre  all  Protestants.  What  made  this  report  more  absurd 
was  the  fact  that  there  were  hardly  any  Catholics  at  that  time 
in  New  York,  while  the  Dutch  and  English  Protestant  popula 
tion  numbered  about  three  thousand. 

66.  Frontenac  prepares  to  attack  New  York;  Jacob  Leis- 
ler  seizes  the  fort  and  is  chosen  Governor.  —  The  danger  of 
invasion  from  Canada  was  imminent.  Frontenac,  the  French 
Governor  of  Quebec,  was  preparing  to  attack  the  colony  both 
by  land  and  sea.  Louis  XIV.  had  sent  him  secret  orders  to 
seize  New  York,  and  either  drive  the  people  into  the  wilderness 
to  starve,  or  imprison  them  at  hard  labor.  This  order  did  not 
except  Catholics  even,  unless  they  should  submit  and  swear 
allegiance  to  the  King  of  France.84 

William  of  Orange  had  now  become  King  of  England,  but  as 
Governor  Nicholson  of  New  York  had  not  received  official 
notification  of  the  fact,  he  still  considered  James  II.  as  the 
true  sovereign  and  declined  to  proclaim  William  as  his  suc 
cessor.  For  this  reason  Jacob  Leisler,  captain  of  a  company 
of  New  York  militia,  denounced  the  Governor  as  a  "  Papist." 
The  captain  had  seen  something  of  the  sufferings  of  the  fugi 
tive  Huguenots,  and  hated  the  name  of  Catholic  as  bitterly 
and  blindly  as  Louis  XIV.  hated  that  of  Protestant.  Suddenly 
the  report  came  that  a  French  fleet  was  on  its  way  up  the 


52  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [J689-1690. 

harbor.  The  city  was  thrown  into  a  panic,  and  Leisler, 
heading  a  band  of  citizens,  seized  the  fort,  declaring  that  he 
would  hold  it  until  King  William  should  send  a  Protestant  to 
demand  it.85 

Shortly  after  this  Nicholson  sailed  for  England,  and  an 
Assembly,  partially  representing  the  colony,  created  Leisler 
governor.  The  property  holders  and  conservative  citizens 
were  opposed  to  him,  but  the  masses  gave  him  their  hearty 
support.  For  nearly  two  years  (1689-1691)  he  ruled  New 
York  as  absolutely  as  Louis  XIV.  ruled  France.86 

67.  The  French  Canadians  burn  Schenectady;  Leisler 
calls  the  first  American  Congress;  execution  of  Leisler. - 
Frontenac  now(i69o)  secretly  sent  a  force  of  French  and  Indians 
from  Canada  to  attack  Albany.  They  did  not  dare  assail  that 
place,  but  burned  Schenectady,  then  the  most  western  town 
in  New  York,  and  massacred  most  of  the  inhabitants.  In 
this  emergency  Leisler  took  prompt  action.  He  called  a 
Colonial  Congress  to  meet  (1690)  in  the  city  of  New  York. 
To  this  Congress,  the  first  in  America,  Massachusetts,  Ply 
mouth,  and  Connecticut  sent  delegates  to  confer  with  those  of 
New  York.  It  was  resolved  to  raise  an  army  to  invade  Canada. 

Meanwhile  King  William  had  appointed  Colonel  Sloughter 
Governor  of  New  York.  In  the  autumn  of  1690  an  English 
captain  arrived  who  claimed  to  represent  him,  and  demanded 
the  keys  of  the  fort.  As  the  captain  failed  to  produce  any 
authority  for  making  the  demand,  Leisler  refused  to  give  up 
the  keys.  Fighting  ensued  and  several  persons  were  killed  on 
each  side.  The  next  spring  the  new  Governor  came,  and  the 
fort  was  promptly  given  up  to  him.  Sloughter  at  once  arrested 
Leisler  and  his  son-in-law  Milbourne,  on  a  charge  of  murder 
and  high  treason.  They  were  tried,  convicted,  and  hanged. 
For  many  years  afterward  New  York  was  divided  into  two 
intensely  bitter  factions, —  the  Leislerites  and  the  Anti-Leisler- 
ites.  The  former  represented  the  mass  of  the  people,  the  latter 
the  wealthier  and  more  influential  citizens.  The  Leislerites 


1696-1732.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  53 

looked  upon  their  dead  leader  as  a  martyr  in  the  cause  of 
liberty  ;  their  opponents  denounced  him  as  a  demagogue,  a 
fanatic,  and  a  usurper.87 

68.  Severe  treatment  of  Catholics.  —  Governor  Sloughter, 
acting  under  instructions  from  King  William  (1689),  restored 
the  Assembly  (§  63)  and  granted  "liberty  of  conscience"  to 
all  persons  except  Catholics.     Some  years  later  (1696)  a  plot 
was   hatched    in    France   for   assassinating   King  William  and 
restoring  James  II.  to  the  English  throne.     The  news  of  this 
conspiracy  excited  great  alarm  in  the  province  of  New  York. 
The  colonists  believed  that  the  Canadian   French  were  again 
preparing  to  attack  the  settlements  on  the  Hudson  River,  and 
that  the  Catholics  of  New  York  would  take   sides  with  the 
French,  since  they  both  held  the  same  faith.     In  consequence 
of  this  alarm  the  Governor  of  New  York  commanded  that  all 
persons  not  Protestants  should  be  disarmed.     The  Assembly 
(1700)  ordered  priests  to  leave  the  colony,  under  penalty  of 
imprisonment  for  life.88     The  next  year  (1701)  the  Assembly 
deprived   Catholic   laymen  of  the  right  to  vote.      Meanwhile 
William  had  restored  the  Charter  of  Liberties  (§  63),  but  with 
the  omission  of  the  toleration  clause  which  had  granted  freedom 
of  worship  ; 89  hence  the  new  form  of  charter  virtually  confirmed 
the  action  of  the  Assembly  against  the  Catholics.90     Six  years 
later  (1697)  William  annulled  the  Charter  of  Liberties  on  the 
ground  that  it  gave  too  much  power  to  the  people  ; 91  he  also 
greatly  extended  the  authority  of  the  royal  Governor. 

69.  The  Zenger  case;  freedom  of  the  press  established. 
—  In   1732   a  case  came  before  the  Supreme  Court  of  New 
York  which  had  a  most  important  bearing  on  the  question  of 
popular  rights.    Governor  Cosby,  an  avaricious  and  unscrupu 
lous  ruler,  brought  a  suit  in  that  court  to  obtain  a  sum  of  money ; 
the  court  decided  the  case  against  him.     In  his  rage  the  Gov 
ernor  removed  the  chief-justice  and  appointed  a  new  judge. 

The  colonists  generally  strongly  opposed  the  change.     They 
believed  that  if  a  judge  could  bej;emoved  at  pleasure  there 


54  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1733 

would  be  small  hope  of  getting  justice  from  the  courts.  But 
the  people  protested  in  vain,  for  the  Assembly,  which  was  wholly 
under  royalist  influence,  defended  Cosby,  and  the  only  news 
paper  then  printed  in  the  colony  did  the  same. 

At  this  juncture  Peter  Zenger,  a  German  printer,  boldly  came 
out  (1733)  with  the  first  number  of  an  opposition  paper  —  the 
"  New  York  Weekly  Journal  "  —  devoted  to  the  defence  of  the 
rights  of  the  people.  The  "  Journal  "  did  not  hesitate  to  attack 
the  Governor  in  the  most  high-handed  way.  It  not  only  fired 
broadsides  of  editorials  at  his  administration  but  assaulted 
him  personally  with  showers  of  stinging  jibes  and  satirical 
ballads.92 

The  sheriff  seized  the  offending  paper  and  burned  it.  Shortly 
afterward  the  publisher  of  it  was  arrested  thrown  into  prison 
and  accused  of  "false,  malicious,  seditious,  and  scandalous 
libel."  When  the  case  came  up  for  trial  the  venerable  Andrew 
Hamilton  of  Philadelphia  —  the  foremost  lawyer  of  his  day  — 
volunteered  to  defend  Zenger.  Hamilton  offered  to  prove  the 
truth  of  the  charges  which  his  client  had  made.  The  judge 
refused  to  hear  him,  on  the  ground  that  the  English  law 
declared  "the  greater  the  truth  the  greater  the  libel."93 

Hamilton  then  devoted  his  whole  attention  to  the  jury.  He 
insisted  that  they  should  decide  both  the  fact  and  the  law  of 
the  case.  His  eloquent  defence  of  the  freedom  of  the  press, 
and  the  wit,  sarcasm,  and  skill  with  which  he  attacked  the 
Governor  completely  won  over  the  jury.  They  brought  in  a 
verdict  of  "Not  Guilty."  The  verdict  was  hailed  with  shouts 
of  applause ;  the  fact  that  the  letter  of  the  law  was  really 
against  Zenger  only  made  his  friends  shout  the  louder. 

The  decision  of  this  case  established  the  liberty  of  the  press 
in  New  York  to  criticise  the  acts  of  the  Government,  and  it 
encouraged  other  colonies  to  maintain  the  same  liberty.  That 
freedom,  though  liable  to  gross  abuse,  has  nevertheless  in  many 
cases  proved  itself  a  safeguard  of  the  rights  of  the  people 
against  the  encroachments  of  arbitrary  power.94 


1739-.]      ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH  SETTLEMENTS.         55 

70.  The  Governor  vs.  the  Assembly ;  the  Assembly  limits 
its    money   appropriations.  —  The   joy   shown    at    Zenger's 
acquittal  revealed   the  determined  spirit  of   resistance  which 
existed  against  the  oppressive  use  of   authority.     That  spirit 
soon  manifested  itself  in  another  form.     The  Governor  of  New 
York  regarded  the  Assembly  mainly  as  a  valuable  labor-saving 
machine  for  collecting  taxes  —  of  which  he  pocketed  a  goodly 
share  as  salary  for  his  services.     Virtually  he  said  to  the  repre 
sentatives  of  the  people  :  "  Your  business  is  to  raise  whatever 
money  I  demand  ;   mine  is   to   spend  it   as   I   see  fit."     The 
Assembly  resented  this  attitude  and  (1736)  refused  to  grant 
more   money  annually  than   should   be   required  to   meet  the 
necessary  expenses  of  the  year.     Later  (1739),  they  voted  to 
limit  all    appropriations   to    specified   purposes.      They   were 
determined  to  know  just  how  the  Governor  spent  every  shilling. 
Naturally  he  resented  this  action.     The  result  was  that  from 
this  time  an  almost  incessant  battle  was  waged  between  the 
titled  representatives  of  royalty  on  the  one  hand  and  the  tax 
payers  on  the  other.     The  contest  was  not  confined  to  New 
York,   but  was  carried  on   in   all   the   colonies   in   which    the 
governors  were  not  chosen  by  the  people.     It  grew  more  and 
more  bitter  and  became  in  considerable  measure,  one  of  the 
causes  of  the  Revolution. 

71.  Summary.  —  In    1609    Henry   Hudson  discovered  the 
river  which  now  bears  his  name.     The  Dutch  took  possession 
of  the  country,  named  it  New  Netherland,  founded  the  city  of 
New  Amsterdam   on    Manhattan   Island,   and   established  the 
patroon  system  of  colonization.     In    1664  the    English,  under 
the  Duke  of  York,  seized  New  Netherland  and  named  it  New 
York.     The  people  were  given  representation,  and  for  a  time 
religious  liberty  prevailed,  but  later,  fear  of  French  invasion 
led  to  the   enactment   of    severe   laws    against  the    Catholics. 
Jacob  Leisler  seized  the  fort  of  New  York  in  order  to  defend 
the  colony  against  the  French;  later,  Peter  Zenger  came  forward 
as  the  successful  champion  of  freedom  of  the  press.     The  con- 


56  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1617-1664. 

stant  disputes  between  the  people  and  the  royal  Governors  over 
money  appropriations  became  one  cause  of  the  Revolution. 


III.  NEW  JERSEY  (1617). 

72.  New  Jersey  (1617) ;  The  Dutch  claim  the  country 
between  the  Hudson  and  the  Delaware ;  the  English  King 
grants  the  land  to  the  Duke  of  York  ;  the  name  New  Jersey. 
-  The  Dutch,  after  opening  the  fur  trade  with  the  Indians  on 
the  Hudson,  crossed  over  from  Manhattan  Island  and  built  a 
fort  at  Bergen  (1617)  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river.  Later 
__^  (1623),  they  built  a  fort  on  the  Dela 
ware  nearly  opposite  the  present  site 
of  Philadelphia,  and  claimed  the  terri 
tory  between  these  two  forts  as  part  of 
their  province  of  New  Netherland.95 

The  English  denied  the  validity  of 
the  Dutch  claims  and  insisted  that  the 
discovery  of  the  North  American  con 
tinent  by  Cabot  gave  them  the  right 
to  the  mainland  as  far  south  as  the 
Spanish  settlements  in  Florida.96  In 
accordance  with  this  theory  Charles  II. 
included  this  region  in  a  grant  which 
he  made  (1664)  to  his  brother  James,  Duke  of  York.  The 
Duke  sold  (1664)  the  portion  between  the  Hudson  and  the 
Delaware  to  Lord  Berkeley  and  Sir  George  Carteret.97 

Carteret  had  been  governor  of  the  island  of  Jersey,  and 
during  the  English  Civil  War  had  made  a  most  determined  stand 
for  King  Charles  L,  the  Duke  of  York's  father.  In  honor  of  his 
loyalty  the  Duke  gave  the  colony  the  name  of  New  Jersey. 
It  was  the  first  English  province,  except  Maryland,  which  had 
a  definite,  natural,  western  boundary  —  namely  the  Delaware 
River. 


1665-1677.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  57 

73.  Elizabethtown  founded   (1665);    grant  of  a  liberal 
constitution ;  dispute  about  land  rents.  —  Philip  Carteret,  a 
nephew  of  Sir  George,  went  out  as  governor  to  New  Jersey 
(1664)  with  a  company  of  emigrants.     They  named  their  place 
of  settlement   (1665)    Elizabethtown,  out  of  regard  for  Lady 
Elizabeth,  wife  of  Sir  George  Carteret. 

The  proprietors  of  New  Jersey  granted  the  colonists  a  con 
stitution  which  conferred  the  power  of  taxation  and  of  law- 
making  on  a  legislature  of  which  the  Assembly,  or  Lower 
House,  was  chosen  directly  by  the  people.98  Liberty  of  con 
science  was  granted  to  all  peaceable  persons." 

Berkeley  and  Carteret  later  (1670)  demanded  a  land  rent  of 
a  half-penny  per  acre.  The  settlers  refused  to  pay  it  on  the 
ground  that  they  had  purchased  their  land  from  the  Indians, 
who  were  the  original  and  sole  owners  of  it. 

74.  The  Quakers  purchase  West  Jersey  (1673) ;  William 
Penn ;  Government  of  the  colony;  religion.  —  Disappointed 
in   his   plans  of  colonization,   Berkeley   sold  his  share  of  the 
territory  (1674)  to  two  English  Quakers.     Shortly  after  this 
transaction  the  colony  (1676)  was  divided  into  the  equal  por 
tions  of  East  and  West  Jersey.100    Carteret  held  the  eastern  and 
the  Quaker  proprietors  the  western  half  of  the  province. 

William  Penn's  name  now  first  appears  in  American  history. 
He,  with  several  other  English  Quakers,  obtained  (1676)  pos 
session  of  West  Jersey.  Their  object  was  to  provide  a  refuge 
in  the  New  World  for  their  persecuted  religious  brethren.  A 
settlement  named  Salem  (1676)  was  made  on  the  Delaware,  and 
the  next  year  (1677)  Burlington  was  founded.  Penn,  with  his 
fellow  proprietors,  wrote  to  the  settlers  in  the  true  spirit  of  the 
Golden  Rule,  saying,  "  We  cannot  suffer  if  you  prosper,  nor 
prosper  while  you  are  injured."  101  In  their  instructions  to  the 
commissioners  of  West  Jersey  the  proprietors  declared  :  "  We 
put  the  power  in  the  people."  102 

In  accordance  with  this  principle  the  new  proprietors  granted 
the  colonists  a  charter  (1676)  which  gave  them  a  direct  voice  in 


58  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [i676-i688. 

making  their  own  local  laws  and  in  levying  their  own  taxes.108 
Unfortunately  the  charter  vested  the  executive  power  of  the 
colony  in  a  body  of  ten  commissioners  appointed  by  the  Legis 
lature,  and  in  practice  it  was  found  that  these  commissioners 
generally  made  themselves  masters  of  the  commonwealth.104 

Entire  liberty  of  worship  was  established ;  for  the  charter 
declared  that  no  one  "  on  earth  hath  power  to  rule  over  men's 
consciences  in  religious  matters."  105  But  somewhat  more  than 
twenty  years  later  (1699),  after  the  two  colonies  had  been  united, 
the  people  of  New  Jersey  —  following  the  example  set  by 
England,  or  perhaps  in  obedience  to  a  mandate  of  the  King  — 
refused  to  tolerate  the  Catholic  faith.  That  law  remained  on 
the  statute  books  of  the  State  for  nearly  a  century  and  a  half, 
or  until  1844,  but  it  had  long  been  a  dead  letter. 

75.  The  Quakers  and  the  Indians ;  the  Quakers  buy  East 
Jersey ;  thrift  and  independence.  —  The  Quakers  completely 
gained  the  confidence  of  the  Indians  by  their  fair  dealing.    The 
Red  Men  declared  that  if  they  found  an  Englishman  sleeping 
in  their  path  they  would  not  molest  him,  but  would  say :   "  He 
is  an  Englishman  ;  he  is  asleep ;  let  him  alone."  106 

When  Carteret  died,  Penn  and  his  associates  purchased  (1682) 
the  whole  of  East  Jersey  for  the  sum  of  ^34oo,107  a  sum  which 
would  not  now  buy  a  first-class  business  lot  in  Jersey  City. 
The  colonists  prospered,  and  the  Governor  reported  (1683)  : 
"There  is  not  a  poor  body  in  all  the  province."108 

Their  spirit  of  independence  was  equal  to  their  thrift.  When 
the  Duke  of  York  endeavored  to  collect  toll  on  vessels  going 
up  the  Delaware,  the  people  refused  to  pay  it.  The  King  of 
England  himself,  said  they,  cannot  take  his  subjects'  goods 
without  their  consent,  still  less  can  his  brother,  the  Duke  of 
York.109  In  the  decided  stand  the  Quakers  then  took,  those 
men  of  peace  anticipated  the  utterances  of  the  Revolution. 

76.  Andros ;  New  Jersey  became  a  royal  province ;  Presi 
dent  Witherspoon.  —  In  1688  New  Jersey  was  united  with  New 
York  and  New  England  under  the  government  of  Sir  Edmund 


1688-1765.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  59 

Andros.  After  he  was  forced  to  give  up  his  office  (§  65)  a 
period  of  great  confusion  ensued.  New  Jersey  was  claimed  by 
New  York,  by  the  Quakers,  and  by  the  heirs  of  Carteret.  So 
hot  was  the  dispute  that  the  people  in  despair  declared  that 
there  was  "  no  shadow  of  law  or  government  left,"  but  in  the 
towns  good  order  still  prevailed.110  For  the  sake  of  peace  the 
province  was  surrendered  (1702)  to  the  Crown. 

When  (1765)  England  finally  resolved  to  tax  the  American 
colonists  without  their  consent,  John  Witherspoon,  a  descendant 
of  that  stern  old  Scotch  covenanter,  John  Knox,  led  the  great 
movement  of  revolt  in  New  Jersey.  Later,  after  he  had  accepted 
the  presidency  of  Princeton  College,  he  won  the  reputation  of 
being  "  as  high  a  *  Son  of  Liberty '  as  any  in  America."  He 
helped  to  overthrow  the  Tory,  William  Franklin,  son  of  Benja 
min  Franklin,  and  the  last  royal  Governor  of  the  province. 
Governor  Franklin  declared  that  if  the  colonists  were  right  in 
saying  that  the  British  ministry  had  gone  mad,  the  people  of 
New  Jersey  were  in  the  same  predicament.111  But  the  Ameri 
cans  had  this  advantage  :  they  at  least  had  method  —  the 
method  of  independence  —  in  their  madness,  and  President 
Witherspoon,  with  other  eminent  patriots,  including  Governor 
Franklin's  own  father,  stood  ready  to  risk  their  fortunes  and 
their  lives  to  maintain  that  independence. 

77.  Summary.  —  In  1664  the  Duke  of  York  wrested  the 
country  between  the  Hudson  and  the  Delaware  from  the  Dutch, 
and  sold  it  to  Lord  Berkeley  and  Sir  George  Carteret.  The 
colony  received  the  name  of  New  Jersey,  and  the  first  settlement 
was  made  at  Elizabethtown  (1665).  The  colonists  received  a 
constitution  which  granted  them  liberty  of  conscience  in  matters 
of  religion  and  gave  them  a  voice  in  making  the  laws  and  levying 
the  taxes  of  the  colony.  About  ten  years  later  William  Penn 
and  other  Quakers  purchased  the  western  half  of  New  Jersey 
and  subsequently  the  remaining  half.  Their  object  was  to 
provide  a  refuge  in  America  for  persecuted  people  of  their  own 
faith.  In  1702  the  colony  became  a  royal  province.  When 


60  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1497-. 

(1765)  England  resolved  to  tax  the  colonists  without  their 
consent,  President  Witherspoon,  of  Princeton  College,  headed 
the  movement  of  revolt  which  culminated  in  the  War  for 
Independence. 


IV.  MASSACHUSETTS  (PLYMOUTH  COLONY,   1620). 

78.  Religious  revolution  in  England ;  the  Puritans  and  the 
Separatists.  —  When,  under  Henry  VII.,  John  Cabot  (1497) 
claimed  the  continent  of  North  America  for  England  (§  n), 
that  kingdom,  like  all  Europe,  maintained  the  Catholic  religion 
as  the  only  true  faith.  Had  Henry  planted  colonies  in 
America  he  would  have  established  Catholicism  here  and  would 
have  forbidden  any  other  form  of  worship. 

Under  Henry  VIII.  a  revolution  took  place.  He  repudiated 
the  authority  of  the  Pope  in  England  and  established  a  new 
and  independent  national  Church,  which  was  compelled  to 
acknowledge  the  King  as  its  supreme  head.  Under  Elizabeth 
this  new  national  Church  became  definitively  Protestant, 
although  a  considerable  part  of  the  population  continued  to 
keep  up  the  Catholic  form  of  worship  in  private. 

When  James  I.  came  to  the  throne  he  found  England  divided 
between  the  Catholics,  the  Anglicans  (or  regular  members  of 
the  established  Episcopal  Church),  the  Puritans,  and  the  Sepa 
ratists  (or  Independents).  The  Puritans  were  members  of  the 
established  Church,  who  regarded  the  Protestant  revolution  in 
England  as  incomplete.  They  urged  that  the  English  worship 
should  be  "purified"  (as  they  said)  from  what  Calvin  called 
"  Popish  dregs."  They  desired  the  Episcopal  clergy  to  give  up 
wearing  the  surplice,  making  the  sign  of  the  cross  in  baptism, 
and  using  the  ring  in  the  marriage  service. 

The  Separatists  were  a  branch  of  the  Puritans  who  had  gone 
a  step  farther.  ''Seeing,"  as  they  said,  that  "they  could  not 
have  the  word  freely  preached  and  the  sacraments  administered 


1603-.] 


ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH  SETTLEMENTS. 


6l 


without  idolatrous  gear,  they  concluded  to  break  off  from  public 
churches,  and  separate  in  private  houses."  112 

James  refused  to  permit  any  deviation  from  the  forms  of 
public  worship  established  by  law.  He  believed  that  dissent 
would  lead  to  disloyalty,  and  that  if  divisions  were  tolerated  in 
religion  the  Crown  itself  would  be  endangered. 

He  formulated  this  conviction  of  the  indispensable  unity  of 


'*f  ORKNEY  13. 


The  Pilgrim  and  the  Puri 
tan  Emigration  of  1620 

and  1630. 
O        R        T       H 


C  E 


\ 


Church  and  State  in  his  favorite  saying,  "  No  Bishop,  no  King." 
His  harsh  laws  drove  both  loyal  Catholics  and  loyal  Puritans 
to  despair.  He  said  of  the  latter  class,  "I  will  make  them 
conform  or  I  will  harry  them  out  of  the  land."  113  If  this  was 
to  be  the  King's  policy  toward  the  Puritans  who  still  remained 
in  the  Church,  what  could  the  Separatists  who  had  seceded 
from  it  expect  ? 

79.  A  congregation  of  Separatists  escape  to  Holland; 
why  they  wished  to  emigrate  to  America.  —  A  small  congre 
gation  of  Separatists  were  in  the  habit  of  privately  meeting  at 


62  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [IGOS- 

the  house  of  William  Brewster,  the  postmaster  of  the  village 
of  Scrooby,  in  the  northeastern  corner  of  Nottinghamshire. 
Finding  that  they  could  not  safely  remain  in  England,  they 
resolved  to  go  to  Holland  "  where  they  had  heard  was  freedom 
of  religion  for  all  men."  1H  After  much  suffering  they  suc 
ceeded  (1608)  in  escaping  from  England  and  finally  settled  in 
Leyden.  There  these  plain  English  farmers  learned  different 
trades  and  managed,  by  dint  of  severe  toil,  to  support  them 
selves  and  their  families.  After  ten  years  of  this  life  some  of 
the  exiles  began  to  think  of  embarking  for  America.  William 
Bradford,  one  of  their  most  prominent  men,  gives  the  following 
reasons  for  their  desire  to  emigrate: 

1.  The  hardships  of  their  life  were  so  great  that  many  who 
had  come  to  join  them   went'  back,  preferring,  as  they  said, 
"prisons  in  England  rather  than  liberty  in  Holland." 

2.  Some  of  them  felt  age  creeping  upon  them,  and  saw  with 
sorrow   that   exhausting   labor    was   rendering   their   children 
"  decrepit  in  their  early  youth." 

3.  Furthermore,  it  was  a  sore  grief  to  parents  to   see  that 
oftentimes  their  children,  when  they  grew  up,  were  led  astray 
by  the   "manifold    temptations    of    the    place,"  while    others, 
leaving  their  homes,  went  to  sea  or  entered  the  army. 

4.  Finally,  the  Separatists  saw  that  if  they  should  continue 
to  remain  in  Holland  their    descendants  would  in  time  forget 
not  only  their  native  customs,  but  even  their  native  language, 

—  in  fact,  would  practically  cease  to  be  Englishmen  at  all. 

By  going  to  America  they  hoped  to  build  up  a  strong,  pros 
perous  English  colony,  enjoying  entire  liberty  of  worship,  and 
"  advancing  the  gospel  in  those  remote  parts  of  the  world." 
Lastly,  they  hoped,  as  they  said,  to  serve  as  "  stepping-stones 
unto  others  for  performing  so  good  a  work."  115 

80.  The  Separatists  and  the  "  merchant  adventurers"; 
the  patent;  the  joint-stock  company.  —  As  the  Separatists 
were  too  poor  to  undertake  such  an  expedition  at  their  own 
expense,  they  bargained  with  a  body  of  "merchant  adventurers," 


1620.]  ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  63 

or  speculators,  in  London  to  provide  vessels  for  them  to  cross 
the  Atlantic.  A  patent  granted  by  the  Virginia  Company  gave 
them  the  right  to  settle  "  about  Hudson's  River."  116 

They  agreed  to  take  the  Oaths  of  Supremacy  and  of  Alle 
giance.  They  thus  bound  themselves  to  recognize  the  King  as 
the  lawful  head  of  the  Church  of  England  and  as  their  rightful 
sovereign.117  James  promised  not  to  interfere  with  the  under 
taking,  and  when  told  that  the  emigrants  expected  to  get  their 
living  by  fishing,  replied,  with  a  spice  of  humor :  "  'T  is  an 
honest  trade  ;  't  was  the  Apostles'  own  calling." 

A  joint-stock  company  was  organized,  consisting  of  "mer 
chant  adventurers  "  and  the  outgoing  settlers.  The  conditions 
were  as  follows: 

All  the  emigrants  who  could  not  pay  £10  into  the  general 
fund  were  to  devote  the  results  of  seven  years'  labor  to  the 
"common  stock."118  Out  of  that  stock  they  were  to  receive 
"  meat,  drink  and  apparel."  "  At  the  end  of  seven  years  .  .  . 
the  houses  [and]  lands  [were]  to  be  equally  divided "  among 
the  stockholders ;  each  person  sixteen  years  old  or  upward,  at 
the  time  of  sailing,  to-  receive  one  share  of  the  profits.119 

These  were  hard  terms,  for  they  required  the  colonists  to 
pledge  their  whole  time  and  strength  for  a  long  period  and  for 
a  very  uncertain  result.  Some  of  them  indignantly  declared 
that  such  conditions  were  "  fitter  for  thieves  and  bond-slaves 
than  [for]  honest  men  "  ;  but  they  could  get  no  better. 

In  1620  they  left  Leyden  for  England,  there  to  embark  on 
their  voyage  across  the  Atlantic.  It  was  a  perilous  under 
taking  and  the  prospect  of  success  was  small ;  but,  as  Bradford 
said,  "They  knew  that  they  were  pilgrims,  and  looked  not 
much  on  those  things,  but  lifted  their  eyes  to  heaven,  their 
dearest  country,  and  quieted  their  spirits."  12°  In  his  farewell 
sermon  their  faithful  pastor,  John  Robinson,  spoke  words  of 
cheer,  bidding  them  go  forward  in  the  belief  that  "the  Lord 
had  more  truth  and  light  yet  to  break  out  of  his  holy 
word."  121 


64 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.          [1620-162J. 


All  told,  the  actual  number  of  Pilgrims  who  set  sail  in  the 
"  Mayflower  "  was  less  than  a  hundred.  Among  those  who 
went  with  them  was  Myles  Standish,  an  English  soldier  who 
had  fought  in  the  wars  in  Holland.  He  was  not  "a  member  of 
the  Pilgrim  congregation,  but  simply  a  true,  brave-hearted  man, 
who  was  glad  to  cast  his  lot  with  those  who  were  as  brave  and 
true-hearted  as  himself.  Of  the  Pilgrims  proper  the  most  pro 
minent  were  Bradford,  Brewster,  Win  slow  and  Carver. 

On  reaching  Cape  Cod  the  emigrants  decided  to  settle  on  the 
New  England  coast,  although  their  patent  was  "  for  Virginia  " 
only.  Knowing  this  fact,  some  of  the  hired  men  threatened  to 
use  their  liberty  as  they  pleased.  It  seemed  best,  therefore,  to 
form  a  plan  of  union  for  maintaining  order.122  To  this  end  the 
Pilgrim  Fathers  drew  up  a  compact  (November  21,  1620)  in  the 
cabin  of  the  "  Mayflower."  By  that  compact,  which  received 
forty-one  signatures,  they  formed  themselves  into  "  a  civil  body 
politic"  and  bound  themselves  as  Christians  and  as  loyal 
subjects  of  King  James  to  enact  "  such  just  and  equal  laws  .  .  . 
as  shall  be  thought  most  meet  .  .  .  for  the  general  good  of  the 

colony."  123  They  then  chose 
John  Carver  governor.  After 
Carver's  death  William  Brad 
ford  was  chosen,  and  he  filled 
the  office  for  thirty-one  years. 
After  carefully  exploring  the 
coast,  the  Pilgrims  found  a 
satisfactory  harbor  and  landed, 
December  21,  1620,  on  that 
bowlder  which  has  ever  since 
been  known  as  Plymouth 
Rock.  During  the  ensuing 
winter  death  visited  them 
daily.  When  the  Mayflower  sailed  for  England  in  the  spring 
(1621)  nearly  half  of  the  settlers  were  in  their  graves.  But 
not  one  of  the  little  band  of  survivors  thought  of  returning  in 


1621-1636.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  65 

the  ship,  —  they  had  come  here  resolved  to  make  America  their 
home.  Their  nearest  civilized  neighbors  were  a  few  Dutch  on 
the  Hudson  and  the  Virginia  colonists  five  hundred  miles  south 
of  them. 

81.  The  Pilgrims  and  the  Indians.  — Governor  Carver  made 
a  treaty  with  Massasoit,  chief  of  a  small   neighboring  tribe  of 
Indians.   The  treaty,  though  not  ratified  by  any  oath,  was  faith 
fully  kept  on  both  sides.     Two  years  later  (1623)  the  Indians 
of  a  tribe  at  Weymouth,  about  thirty  miles  north  of  Plymouth, 
conspired  to  kill  off  a  small  independent  colony  of  English  who 
had   settled  at  that  point  (1622)  and  had  provoked  the  sav 
ages  by  their  bad  conduct.     Massasoit  warned  the  Plymouth 
settlers  of  the  plot,  and  told  them  that  if  successful  the  same 
tribe  would  next  attack  them.     Captain  Myles  Standish,  small 
of  stature  but  great  of   heart,  with  eight  followers,  marched 
against  the  savages  and  soon  brought  back  the  head  of  one  of 
the  leaders.     It  was  the  first  and  last  Indian  war  in  which  the 
Pilgrims  took  part  until  they  rose  to  put  down  King  Philip 
(1675)  more  than  half  a  century  later.     The  Indians,  in  fact, 
were  most  helpful  ;   they  showed  the  colonists  how  to  plant 
corn,  trap  game,  and  catch  fish  to  the  best  advantage. 

82.  The    "  Pilgrim    Republic "  ;    freedom    of  worship; 
Government.  —  The  settlers  at  Plymouth,  though  acknowledg 
ing   themselves    subjects    of    King  James,  practically  formed 
themselves  into  a  little  republic.     Their  Church  was  bound  by 
no  creed.      Its  members  simply  signed  a  covenant  by  which 
they  pledged  themselves  "as  the  Lord's  free  people  ...  to 
walk  in  all  his  ways  made  known,  or  to  be   made  known  to 
them."  124      Politically    all   were  equal.       In    the   outset    they 
assembled  in  town-meeting  to  make  necessary  laws,  to  choose 
officers  for  the  colony,  and  to  act  as  a  court  of  justice.     New 
comers  might  vote  (1636)  if  a  majority  of  the  original  colonists 
admitted  them  as  freemen  ;    but  it  was  decreed  that  no  one 
should  settle  within  the  limits  of  Plymouth  except  by  permis 
sion  of  the  Governor  or  two  of  his  Assistants.125     To-day  the 


66  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [i63&-i6:i. 

Government  of  the  United  States,  following  that  wise  precedent, 
determines  what  emigrants  may  or  may  not  land  on  our  shores. 

In  time  the  growth  of  the  colony  made  it  inconvenient  for 
the  whole  population  to  gather  in  a  single  town-meeting,  and 
each  of  the  different  settlements  (1638)  sent  two  representa 
tives  to  Plymouth  to  act  for  them.  But  even  then  the  body  of 
the  people  expressly  retained  the  right  to  repeal  the  laws  made 
by  their  representatives.126 

Later  (1644),  the  right  to  vote  for  a  representative  was  limited 
to  those  who  took  the  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  colony,  —  those  who 
refused  to  do  so  were  ordered  to  leave  the  settlement.127 

After  the  coming  of  the  Quakers  into  the  neighboring  colony 
of  Massachusetts  Bay,  a  statute  (1658)  was  enacted  declaring 
that  persons  of  that  faith  and  all  others  who  "opposed  the 
good  and  wholesome  laws  of  the  colony"  .  .  .  "the  true 
worship  of  God,"  or  who  refused  to  do  military  service,  should 
be  denied  the  right  of  suffrage.128  Finally  (1671),  fifty  years 
after  the  founding  of  Plymouth,  suffrage,  though  not  limited  by 
church  membership,  was  restricted  to  persons  "of  sober  and 
peaceable  conversation,  orthodox  in  the  fundamentals  of  reli 
gion,  and  such  as  have  also  £20  of  ratable  [taxable]  estate."  129 

The  sturdy  independence  of  the  colonists  manifested  itself  in 
a  declaration  which  the  legislature  of  the  "  Pilgrim  Republic  " 
made  in  1671.  That  body  then  resolved  that  "as  free-born 
subjects  of  the  State  of  England  ...  no  act  ...  shall  be 
.  .  .  imposed  upon  us  at  present  or  to  come,  but  such  as 
shall  be  made  ...  by  consent  of  the  body  of  freemen  .  .  . 
or  their  representatives,  legally  assembled."130 

83.  The  "  merchant  adventurers  "  ;  Myles  Standish  goes 
to  England ;  the  Pilgrims  become  free  men.  —  The  growth  of 
the  colony  was  very  slow.  Lack  of  capital  prevented  the  settlers 
from  engaging  in  cod-fishing,  and  the  chief  exports  were  furs 
obtained  from  the  Indians.  The  "  merchant  adventurers," 
who  were  grievously  disappointed  at  the  small  returns  received, 
at  length  refused  to  do  anything  more  to  aid  the  colonists, 


16$o-16i»l.]    ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH  SETTLEMENTS.         6/ 

though  they  insisted  on  holding  them  to  their  labor  contract.131 
Governor  Bradford  wrote  that  the  "  adventurers "  finally 
threatened  in  their  anger  "  that  if  we  ever  do  grow  to  any 
good  estate  they  will  nip  us  in  the  head."  132 

In  these  straits  the  Plymouth  people  sent  Captain  Myles 
Standish  (1625)  to  England  to  seek  help.  He  could  not  get 
the  contract  cancelled,  but  succeeded  at  length  in  borrowing 
£200  for  the  use  of  the  colonists  at  thirty  per  cent  interest.133 

The  next  year  (1626)  the  "merchant  adventurers"  sold  out 
their  share  to  the  colonists  for  ,£1800,  — equal  probably  to  at 
least  $20,000  now, — to  be  paid  in  nine  annual  installments. 
The  whole  colony  went  to  work  with  a  will,  and  in  six  years  had 
discharged  the  debt  and  were  free  men.  In  future  all  that 
they  earned  was  their  own.  Meanwhile  they  tried  to  obtain  a 
royal  charter  which  should  give  them  power  to  regularly 
organize  a  government.  In  this  they  failed  ;  but  they  obtained 
a  patent  from  the  Council  of  New  England  which  granted  them 
a  certain  fixed  territory  (1629),  but  nothing  more.134 

84.  The  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony  absorbs  Plymouth 
Colony  (1691).  —  In  1630  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Company 
settled  Boston.  The  growth  of  the  new  colony  was  compara 
tively  rapid,  and  after  a  time  the  people  of  Massachusetts 
endeavored  to  secure  the  annexation  of  Plymouth.  But  the 
Plymouth  people  preferred  to  stand  by  themselves  ;  as  one  of 
their  chief  men  quaintly  said  :  the  best  of  them  had  no  desire 
"  to  trot  after  the  Bay  horse."  Massachusetts,  however,  suc 
ceeded  in  her  plans,  and  in  1691  a  royal  charter  consolidated 
the  two  colonies.  This,  of  course,  ended  the  history  of  Ply 
mouth  as  a  distinct  colony.  But  the  little  Pilgrim  Republic  had 
made  its  record  and  could  afford  to  merge  its  political  life  in 
that  of  the  stronger  and  richer  Puritan  commonwealth. 

The  Pilgrims  were  the  first  settlers  who  obtained  a  permanent 
foothold  on  the  New  England  coast.  In  religious  matters  they 
showed  remarkable  tolerance.  They  too  were  the  first  colonists 
of  the  New  World  who  established  the  management  of  all  public 


68  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

affairs  in  town-meeting.  Thereby  they  laid  the  foundation  in 
America  of  that  democratic  system  which  ripened  in  time  into 
"government  of  the  people,  by  the  people,  and  for  the  people." 


IVa.     MASSACHUSETTS  BAY  COLONY  (1630). 

85.  The  Puritan  emigration  to  New  England ;  John  Endi- 
cott ;  charter  of  Massachusetts  Bay  Colony.  —  The  emigration 
of  the  Pilgrims  to  America  (1620)  was  the  forerunner  of  a  far 
greater  emigration  on  the  part  of  the  Puritans  ten  years 
later. 

Political  and  religious  persecution  drove  them  to  seek  a 
refuge  in  New  England.  John  Endicott,  a  Puritan  of  the 
Puritans,  conducted  the  first  party  of  emigrants  (1628)  to  a 
point  on  the  shores  of  Massachusetts  to  which  they  gave  the 
biblical  name  of  Salem.  In  his  fiery  zeal  Endicott  (1635) 
slashed  the  red  cross  out  of  the  English  flag,  because  it  seemed 
to  him  an  emblem  of  popery ;  and  he  shipped  two  members  of 
his  council  back  to  England  for  insisting  on  making  use  of  the 
Episcopal  prayer-book  in  public  worship. 

The  year  after  Endicott  sailed,  a  number  of  wealthy  and 
influential  Puritans  obtained  a  royal  charter  135  granting  them 
all  the  territory  in  New  England  lying  between  a  point  three 
miles  north  of  the  River  Merrimac  and  a  point  three  miles  south 
of  the  River  Charles.  Westward  the  grant  extended  to  the 
Pacific.136  This  charter  empowered  the  Massachusetts  Bay 
Company  of  England  (i)  to  make  laws,  provided  they  should  not 
be  "contrary  to  the  laws  of  England";  (2)  to  carry  on  trade  ; 
(3)  to  drive  out  obnoxious  persons  and  intruders.  Nothing 
was  said  about  the  establishment  of  any  form  of  worship  or  of 
religious  liberty.  It  was  practically  the  charter  of  a  trading 
company,  and  it  seems  to  have  been  understood  that  the 
government  of  the  colony  was  to  remain  in  the  hands  of  the 
corporation  in  England.187 


SCALE  OF   MILES 


1630.]  ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  69 

86.  John  Winthrop ;  settlement  of  Boston  (1630) ;  large 
emigration ;    the  Puritan  church ;    Puritan   government.  — 

John  Winthrop,  a  man  of  wealth  and  education,  was  elected 
(1629)  governor  of  the  Company.  Believing,  as  he  said,  that 
the  Puritans  had  "  no  place  left  to  fly  unto  but  the  wilder 
ness,"  m  he  quietly  took  the  charter  with  him  and  led  a  large 
number  of  emigrants  (1630)  from  England  to  Massachusetts. 
Not  liking  Salem,  Winthrop  went  to  Charlestown  ;  a  little  later 
the  colonists  moved  across  the  river  to  the  three-peaked  penin 
sula  of  Shawmut,  which  they  named  (1630)  Boston.139 

One  of  the  first  acts  of  the  settlers  was  to  form  a  covenant 
church  14°  similar  to  that 
of  Plymouth.  Two  Puri 
tan  ministers  were  chosen, 
and  all  the  inhabitants 
were  to  be  assessed  to 
pay  for  the  "  maintenance 
of  these  ministers."  141  Before  the  end  of  the  year  a  thousand 
emigrants,  bringing  many  "  indented  servants  "  (§  42),  arrived, 
and  in  the  course  of  the  next  ten  years  (1630-1640)  more  than 
twenty  thousand  colonists  settled  in  New  England.  They  were 
men  who  came  not  from  hope  of  gain,  but  to  obtain  that  reli 
gious  and  political  liberty  which  was  denied  them  at  home. 
They  represented  the  flower  of  English  Puritanism. 

Meanwhile,  the  original  colonists  (that  is,  the  stockholders  of 
the  Massachusetts  Bay  Company)  had  established  a  government 
which  was  practically  independent  of  both  King  and  Parliament. 
By  the  provisions  of  the  charter  the  freemen  were  to  elect  a 
governor,  deputy-governor,  and  a  council  of  eighteen  assistants. 
This  governing  body  was  to  meet  in  a  "general  court"  and 
make  all  needful  laws,  not  contrary  to  the  laws  of  England.142 

87.  Alteration  in  the  form  of  government ;  limitation  of 
suffrage;  the  "  freeman's  oath." — At  the  first  meeting  of 
the  General  Court  (1630)  the  form  of  government  was  altered. 
The  freemen  then  agreed  to  surrender  a  part  of  their  political 


70  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.          [1631-1662. 

power,  and  to  let  the  Assistants  choose  the  Governor  and  his 
deputy  from  out  their  own  number.  But  less  than  two  years 
later,  the  freemen  (1632)  took  this  power  out  of  the  hands  of 
the  Assistants  and  resumed  their  charter  right  to  elect  the 
Governor  and  his  deputy.143 

Meanwhile  (1631)  a  large  number  of  men  petitioned  the 
General  Court  to  be  permitted  to  vote.  Their  request  was 
granted  on  their  taking  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  the  government. 
Later  (1643)  tne  clause  of  the  magistrates'  oath  requiring 
allegiance  to  the  King  was  dropped,  and  for  many  years  all 
public  recognition  of  royal  authority  ceased  in  Massachusetts. 

88.  Important  laws  enacted;  suffrage  limited  to  church 
members  (1631) ;  the  "  Body  of  Liberties  "  of  1641 ;  liberal 
measures.  —  In  1631  two  very  important  laws  were  enacted. 
Following  the  example  set  by  Plymouth  (§  82),  the  authorities 
prohibited  any  person  from  settling  within  the  territory  of 
Massachusetts  Bay  without  leave  from  the  Company.144 

Secondly,  suffrage  was  limited  by  the  following  statute  :  "  To 
the  end  [that]  the  body  of  the  commons  may  be  preserved  of 
honest  and  good  men  ...  no  man  shall  be  admitted  to  the 
freedom  of  this  body  politic  but  such  as  are  members  of  some 
of  the  churches  within  the  limits  of  the  same."  145 

In  1641  a  "  Body  of  Liberties"  was  adopted  which  protected 
all  classes.  One  of  its  provisions  was  that  "  every  man,  whether 
inhabitant  or  foreigner,"  voter  or  non-voter,  should  have  the 
right  to  make  any  "  necessary  motion,  complaint  [or]  petition  " 
in  any  "  court,  council  or  town-meeting."  146 

Following  this  act  the  General  Court  (1647)  granted  to  all 
persons  of  good  character,  though  they  were  not  church-mem 
bers,  the  right  to  vote  in  town-meeting  on  local  questions. 
They  also  had  the  right  to  serve  on  juries  and  offer  themselves 
as  candidates  for  town-offices.147 

The  liberal  movement  did  not  stop  here.  The  conditions  of 
admission  to  the  Church  were  relaxed  by  a  measure  derisively 
called  by  its  opponents  the  "  Half  -Way  Covenant"  (1662). 


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1634.]  ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  /I 

The  natural  effect  of  the  Half- Way  Covenant,  in  so  far  as  it 
came  into  use,  was  to  increase  the  number  of  church-members, 
and  so  swell  the  list  of  legal  voters.148 

Two  years  later  (1664)  the  General  Court,  finding  it  expe 
dient  to  conciliate  the  King,  made  a  further  concession.  They 
gave  to  all  persons  who  could  show  a  certificate  of  orthodoxy, 
signed  by  an  approved  minister  of  the  colony,  the  right  to  make 
application  for  the  right  to  vote.149 

89.  Establishment  of  a  House  of  Representatives  (1634) ; 
purpose  of  the  Puritans.  —  Meanwhile  an  event  of  no  small 
importance  had  occurred.  The  General  Court  had  levied  a  tax 
to  build  a  palisade  against  the  attacks  of  Indians.  The 
leading  citizens  of  Watertown  refused  to  pay  the  demand,  on 
the  ground  that  there  should  be  no  taxation  without  representa 
tion.150  Their  refusal  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  House  of 
Representatives  (1634)  consisting  of  two  persons  chosen  by 
each  town.  The  men  so  chosen  met  with  the  Governor  and  his 
Assistants  to  advise  with  them  respecting  the  raising  of  public 
money,  and  to  take  part  in  making  all  needful  laws.151  Thus 
Massachusetts  became  the  second  English  colony  (§  43)  to 
obtain  the  privilege  of  representative  government ;  but  in  this 
case  it  was  the  work  of  the  people  themselves,  not,  as  in 
Virginia,  the  gift  of  a  company  resident  in  England. 

The  avowed  purpose  of  the  settlers  of  Massachusetts  was  to 
establish  an  independent  Puritan  State  composed  of  those,  and 
those  only,  who  professed  their  faith.  They  believed  them 
selves  to  be  a  divinely  chosen  people.  "  God  sifted  a  whole 
nation,"  said  Governor  Stoughton,  "  that  he  might  send  choice 
grain  over  into  this  wilderness."  152  Their  intention,  Governor 
Winthrop  declared,  was  "  to  square  all  their  proceedings  by  the 
rule  of  God's- word"  as  they  understood  it.153  They  contended 
that  their  charter  gave  them  the  exclusive  ownership  and  con 
trol  of  Massachusetts  (subject  of  course  to  the  King),  and  in 
that  charter  they  believed  they  found  authority  to  expel  any 
one  who  should  attempt  "  annoyance  to  said  colony."  154 


72  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1534. 

90.  Results  of  the  exclusive  policy  of    Massachusetts; 
resistance  to  the  King.  —  But  this  exclusive  policy  had  very 
important  political  results,      i.   It  moved  the  King  to  demand 
the  surrender  of  the  Massachusetts  charter.155    2.   It  roused  the 
colonists  to  evade  or  resist  that  demand  ;  this  they  did  with 
entire  success  for  more  than  half  a  century.     3.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  restriction  of  the  right  of  suffrage  to  church-mem 
bers  (§  88)  endangered   the   stability  of   the  colonial  govern 
ment.     Only  about  one-fourth  of   the  adult  male  inhabitants 
belonged  to  the  church,  and  the  result  was  that  three-quarters 
of  the  men  of  Massachusetts  had  to  submit,  or  preferred  to 
submit,  to  laws  which  were  made  and  enforced  by  the  remain 
ing  quarter.156 

The  first  demonstration  of  resistance  to  the  King  was  unmis 
takable.  When  he  (1634)  threatened  to  take  away  the  charter, 
the  Massachusetts  authorities  took  decisive  action.  They 
ordered  new  forts  to  be  built  and  an  alarm  signal  to  be  set  up 
on  Beacon  Hill  in  Boston.  Furthermore  they  commanded  that 
citizens  should  be  drilled  in  the  use  of  arms,  and  they  encour 
aged  the  casting  of  bullets  by  making  them  pass  current  as 
money  at  the  rate  of  a  farthing  each.157  Finally,  to  prevent 
the  King's  spies  from  reporting  what  they  were  doing,  they 
passed  a  law  (1637)  ordering  that  no  stranger  or  suspicious 
character  should  be  permitted  to  remain  in  the  colony.158 

91.  Roger  Williams  attacks  the  charter  and  the  laws ;  he 
flies  to  Narragansett  Bay.  —  At  this  critical  period,  when  the 
charter  was  in  peril,  a  new  trouble  arose.    Roger  Williams,  an  im 
petuous  young  Separatist  minister  (§  78),  had  come  over  (1631) 
from  England  to  Boston.     The  Puritan  churches  had  not  yet 
openly  broken  off  all  connection  with  the  Church  of  England. 
Williams  blamed  them  for  not  taking  this  final  step.     After 
preaching  for  a  time  in  Salem,  he  removed  to  Plymouth  and 
labored  for  the   conversion   of    the   Indians.       While    in    the 
"  Old  Colony  "  Williams  wrote  a  book,  apparently  not  intended 
for    publication,    in    which    he    attacked    the    Massachusetts 


1634-1636.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  73 

charter.  He  declared  that  since  the  territory  belonged 
originally  to  the  Indians,  the  King  had  no  power  to  grant  it 
to  the  colonists.159 

Later,  he  withdrew  this  attack,  and  even  offered  his  book  "  to 
be  burnt";  but  he  now  assailed  the  authorities  on  another 
point.160  The  General  Court  had  ordered  (1634-1635)  that 
every  man,  whether  a  church-member  or  not,  should  swear  to 
obey  the  laws  and  to  defend  the  colony.  Those  who  twice 
refused  to  take  this  oath  were  to  be  banished.161 

Williams,  who  had  returned  to  Salem,  preached  against  this 
law.  He  declared  that  the  Puritan  authorities  had  no  moral 
right  to  force  an  unconverted  person  to  take  an  oath.102  He 
also  denied  their  right  to  punish  those  who  refused  to  attend 
religious  meetings,  or  for  violation  of  the  first  four  command 
ments,  except  "  in  such  cases  as  did  disturb  the  civil  peace."  163 

The  General  Court  summoned  the  preacher  to  retract,  but  he 
stood  fast  in  his  "rocky  strength."  The  Court  then  (1635) 
ordered  him  to  leave  the  colony,  but  finally  allowed  him  to 
remain  until  spring,  provided  he  did  not  "  go  about  to  draw 
others  to  his  opinions."  164  Mr.  Williams  insisted  on  preaching 
in  his  own  house  on  the  prohibited  points,  and  the  authorities 
despatched  a  constable  to  arrest  him.  He  fled  through  winter 
snows,  and  at  the  peril  of  his  life,  to  the  hospitable  hut  of 
Massasoit  (§  81)  on  Narragansett  Bay.165  He  remained  in  that 
chief's  smoky  wigwam  until  spring,  when  he  went  forth  and 
founded  (1636)  the  colony  of  Providence. 

92.  The  case  of  Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson.  —  The  Puritan 
authorities  had  next  to  deal  with  a  case  more  aggravating 
even  than  that  of  Roger  Williams.  Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson, 
a  woman  of  "  ready  wit  and  bold  spirit,"  had  formed  a  kind  of 
woman's  club  to  discuss  the  sermons  preached  in  Boston 
and  vicinity.  All  went  well  until  Mrs.  Hutchinson  began  to 
indulge  in  sharp  criticism.  She  commended  the  teaching  of 
her  friend,  the  Reverend  Mr.  Cotton,  and  of  her  brother-in- 
law,  the  Reverend  Mr.  Wheelwright,  but  she  declared  that 


74  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1635-1647. 

the  other  ministers  made  altogether  too  much  of  religious 
ceremonies  and  church  attendance  and  not  half  enough  of 
faith. 

The  discussion  waxed  so  hot  that  Winthrop  said  the  colonists 
were  split  into  two  hostile  parties,  —  one  of  "  works  "  and  the 
other  of  "faith."  A  company  of  militia  who  were,  about  to 
march  against  the  Indians  were  unwilling  to  move,  because  their 
chaplain  was  accused  of  being  "  under  a  covenant  of  works," 
—  or  in  other  words  of  being  more  Jew  than  Christian.  Next 
the  dispute  got  into  politics,  and  there  was  a  Hutchinson  and 
an  anti-Hutchinson  candidate  for  governor. 

Finally,  a  meeting  of  ministers  formally  accused  Mrs.  Hutchin 
son  of  teaching  no  less  than  twenty-nine  "  cursed  opinions."  ] 
Her  brother-in-law,  Mr.  Wheelwright,  who  was  said  to  hold  the 
same  dangerous  views,  was  convicted  of  sedition,  heresy,  and 
contempt,  and  was  banished  (1637)  from  the  colony.  He  went 
with  some  friends  to  New  Hampshire  and  founded  Exeter. 

When  Mrs.  Hutchinson  was  brought  to  trial,  she  declared 
that  God  had  revealed  himself  directly  to  her.  "  How  ? " 
asked  her  examiners.  "  By  the  voice  of  his  own  spirit  to  my 
soul,"  she  replied.167  She  was  expelled  from  the  Church,  "given 
over  to  Satan,"  and  banished.  She,  with  her  husband  and  some 
friends,  made  a  settlement  on  Rhode  Island. 

93.  The  Boston  Latin  School  (1635) ;  Harvard  College 
(1636);  establishment  of  public  schools  (1647).  —  Mean 
while  the  people  of  Massachusetts  were  taking  action  for 
those  who  were  to  succeed  them.  Some  citizens  of  Boston 
(1635)  founded  the  Boston  Latin  School,  —  the  oldest  educa 
tional  institution  established  by  English  settlers  in  the  United 
States  (§  59).  Among  the  early  pupils  of  that  justly  cele 
brated  school  we  find  the  names  of  Benjamin  Franklin  and 
Samuel  Adams,  two  of  the  staunchest  patriots  America  ever 
produced. 

The  next  autumn  the  General  Court  voted  ^"400  —  a  large 
sum  for  the  colonists  of  that  day  —  to  found  a  college. 


J638-1647.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  75 

Two  years  later  (1638)  Reverend  John  Harvard  left  property 
to  it  valued  at  £750,  and  gave  to  it  his  valuable  library. 
In  honor  of  these  bequests  the  institution  was  named  Har 
vard  College.  This  Puritan  university  was  wholly  unsec- 
tarian.  Its  first  seal  had  for  its  motto  the  single,  expressive, 
Latin  word  Veritas.  m 

The  next  year  (1639)  —  the  same  year  in  which  the  first 
press  in  the  English  colonies  was  established  at  Cambridge  — 
the  citizens  of  Dorchester  ordered  that  a  free  school  should 
be  set  up  in  that  town.169  Like  the  Boston  Latin  School,  it 
was  for  boys  only;  girls  then,  and  for  many  years  to  come, 
received  all  their  instruction  at  home.  In  1647  tne  General 
Court  took  action  on  a  broad  scale.  It  declared :  "  in  order 
that  learning  may  not  be  buried  in  the  grave  of  our  fathers  " 
every  township  of  fifty  householders  shall  hire  a  schoolmaster 
"  to  teach  all  such  children  as  shall  resort  to  him  to  write  and 
read."  17°  The  wages  of  the  teacher  were  to  be  paid  in  such 
manner  as  the  people  should  determine  in  town-meeting. 

This  law  of  1647  established  public  schools  that  in  time  were 
to  become  "  cheap  enough  for  all,  and  good  enough  for  the 
best."  It  laid  the  foundation  of  the  free  common  school 
system  of  the  United  States.171 

94.  The  New  England  Confederacy  (1643).  —  In  1643  the 
four  colonies  of  Massachusetts,  Plymouth,  Connecticut  and 
New  Haven  formed  a  political  and  religious  confederation. 
Its  three  chief  objects  were  to  keep  the  Dutch  out  of  the 
Connecticut  Valley,  to  put  down  insurrections  of  the  Indians, 
and  to  assist  masters  to  recover  runaway  apprentices  and 
slaves.172 

But  more  than  this,  the  people  of  these  four  colonies  felt 
that  such  a  union  would  help  them  to  maintain  their  liberties 
in  case  the  King  should  threaten  them.173  The  confederacy 
lasted  about  forty  years.  It  was  a  prophecy  of  that  union 
of  all  the  colonies  which  was  formed  late  in  the  next  century 
and  which  was  destined  to  secure  American  independence. 


76  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1648-1656. 

95.  George   Fox   founds  the   "  Society  of   Friends "  or 
Quakers.  —  Shortly  after  the  New  England  Confederacy  went 
into   operation,  George   Fox,  the   founder   of   the  "  Society   of 
Friends,"  began  to  preach  in  England.     He  declared  that  God 
makes  himself  known  directly  to  the  human  heart,  and  that 
whoever  follows  this  divine  "inner  light"   is  sure  of  salvation. 
The  Puritans  regarded  the  Bible  as  the  supreme  rule  of  life. 
In  their  eyes  George  Fox  was  a  revolutionist,  striking  at  the 
very  foundations  of  both  Church  and  Scripture.     But  more  than 
this,  he  seemed  to  most  men  of  that  age  to  threaten  to  destroy 
the  bonds  that  hold  society  together. 

i.  The  Quakers  conscientiously  refused  to  take  any  form  of 
oath.  They  would  not  give  evidence  in  this  way  in  a  court  of 
justice  or  swear  allegiance  to  any  form  of  government.  2. 
Believing  that  war  was  wrong  they  would  not  bear  arms  in 
defence  of  the  state  or  of  their  own  homes.  3.  They  refused 
to  pay  taxes  for  the  support  of  any  ministry  or  church.  4. 
Believing  that  all  men  are  equal  in  the  sight  of  God,  they 
refused  to  address  any  one,  no  matter  what  his  rank,  by  any 
other  title  than  that  of  "  Friend,"  and  they  would  not  take 
off  their  hats  to  the  King  himself.  They  were  mercilessly 
treated  in  England  ;  and  some  of  them,  driven  half-crazy  by 
brutal  punishments,  indulged  in  actions  which  to-day  would 
be  regarded  as  proof  of  insanity.174  The  General  Court  of 
Massachusetts  hearing  of  these  things  ordered  (1656)  that  a 
day  of  fasting  and  prayer  should  be  kept  for  fear  that  the 
teachings  of  the  English  Quakers  should  spread  abroad. 

96.  Arrival  of  Quaker  missionaries  (1656) ;  action  against 
Quakers;  Episcopalians  and  Baptists. —  Shortly  after  this  day 
of  fasting  and    prayer  two  Quaker  women  arrived  (1656)  at 
Boston.       They  came  to  convert   the   New  England  colonists. 
The  authorities  threw  them  into  jail,  burned  their  books,  and 
as  soon  as  possible  sent  them  to  the  West  Indies. 

The  General  Court  now  enacted  (1656)  a  severe  law  against 
the  "cursed  sect  of  heretics  .  .  .  commonly  called  Quakers." 


1656-3677.]        ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  // 

The  act  imposed  a  fine  of  £100  on  the  master  of  any  vessel 
who  should  bring  one  of  these  people  into  the  colony,  and  it 
ordered  that  every  Quaker  who  entered  Massachusetts  should 
be  severely  flogged  and  then  kept  in  close  confinement  until  he 
could  be  sent  to  distant  parts.175 

But  neither  cruel  scourgings,  nor  the  cutting  off  of  ears,  nor 
threats  of  worse  punishments  could  keep  out  these  fervent 
apostles  of  the  "  inner  light."  They  believed  it  to  be  as  much 
their  duty  to  preach  to  the  Puritan  Fathers  as  the  Puritans 
believed  it  theirs  to  preach  to  the  savages. 

Baffled  and  exasperated,  the  General  Court  finally  resolved, 
as  they  said,  "  to  present  the  point  of  the  sword  toward  the 
Quakers,"  and  let  them  rush  on  it  if  they  would.176  An  act 
was  passed  (1658)  making  it  death  for  a  banished  Quaker  to 
return  to  the  colony.177  The  principle  was  not  new,  for  a  simi 
lar  law  respecting  Jesuit  and  other  Catholic  priests  had  been  on 
the  Massachusetts  statute  books  for  many  years.178  Under 
this  act  four  Quakers  —  one  of  whom  was  a  woman  — who  had 
come  back  after  having  been  twice  banished  were  hanged  on 
Boston  Common  (1661).  These  were  the  first  and  also  the  last 
persons  of  this  faith  who  were  put  to  death  in  Massachusetts. 
But  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  century  later  the  English  authorities 
were  killing  Covenanters  by  hundreds,  and  drowning  women  in 
Scotland  for  refusing  to  conform  to  the  established  Church. 

The  last  exciting  case  of  Quaker  missionary  work  was  that 
of  Margaret  Brewster  (1677).  She  entered  the  Old  South 
Meeting-House  in  Boston  during  the  Sunday  service.  Mar 
garet  was  dressed  in  sackcloth,  her  face  was  smeared  with 
lampblack  and  her  head  covered  with  ashes.  She  had  come, 
she  said,  like  the  prophet  Jonah,  to  call  the  people  of  Boston 
to  repent.  Judge  Sewall,  who  was  present,  says  her  sudden 
appearance  "  occasioned  the  greatest  and  most  amazing  uproar 
that  I  ever  saw."  179  Margaret  was  condemned  to  be  tied  to  a 
cart's  tail  and  whipped  through  the  streets.  With  her  the  con 
flict  ended,  and  the  Puritans  gave  up  trying  to  silence  these 


78  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

new  missionaries.  Quaker  persistence  and  Quaker  non-resist 
ance  had  fairly  carried  the  day. 

Meanwhile  the  Massachusetts  authorities  had  sent  (1660)  a 
most  humble  address  to  the  King.180  They  professed  their 
entire  loyalty.  Later  (1662),  they  promised  His  Majesty  not 
to  drive  out  any  more  Episcopalians  (§  85).181 

Baptists  had  been  forbidden  to  preach  and  had  been 
repeatedly  banished.  President  Dunster  of  Harvard  College 
had  embraced  certain  Baptist  views.  He  was  compelled  to 
resign  (1654)  and  to  give  bonds  not  to  preach.182  But  by  1674 
toleration  so  far  prevailed  that  a  member  of  that  denomina 
tion  wrote  :  "  The  church  of  the  baptized  [at  East  Boston] 
do  peaceably  enjoy  their  liberty."  183 

The  Catholics  first  began  public  worship  in  the  colony  after 
the  establishment  of  our  national  independence.  The  Uni 
tarians  and  Universalists  obtained  toleration  about  the  same 
time  with  the  Catholics. 

97.  Eliot's  work  among  the  Indians  ;  his  Indian  Bible.  - 
The  Reverend  John  Eliot  of  Roxbury — "the  Apostle  to  the 
Indians"    —  had  long  been  engaged  (1646-1675)  in  his  noble 
work.     He  believed  that  the  Red  Men  were  the  descendants 
of  the  lost  tribes  of  Israel.     He  founded  a  settlement  (1651) 
of  "  Praying  Indians  "  at  Natick,  and  (1653)  he  published,  after 
many  "heart-breakings"  and  years  of  toil,  his  translation  of 
the  Scriptures  into  the  Indian  language.     It  was  the  first  Bible 
printed  by  an  English  colonist  on  the  American  continent.     In 
the  terrible  outbreak    of    "  King  Philip's  War "  a  number  of 
Eliot's    "  Praying    Indians "    acted    as  military  guides   to   the 
whites,  while  others  fought  in  behalf  of  the  colony. 

98.  "King  Philip's "  War  (1675-1676);    cause  of   the 
war  ;  events  ;  results.  —  So  long  as  Massasoit  (§  81)  lived  he 
remained  friendly  to   the  whites;  but  his  son,  "  King  Philip," 
had  no  love  for  them.     The  colonists  had  purchased  Indian 
territory  until  they  had  crowded  Philip's  tribe  into  two  or  three 
narrow  necks  of  land  projecting  into  Narragansett  Bay.     The 


1675.] 


ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS. 


79 


savage  chief  saw  that  the  time  was  soon  coming  when  the 
English  would  own  all  the  hunting  grounds,  and  when  his 
people  must  emigrate,  starve,  or  fight.  He  chose  to  fight. 

Philip  looked  upon  Eliot's  "soft-hearted  <  Praying  Indians'" 
(§  97)  with  suspicion  and  contempt.  One  of  these  Indians 
told  (1675)  the  Governor  of  Plymouth  that  "  King  Philip  "  was 
preparing  to  make  war.  Some  of  that  chief's  followers 
murdered  the  informer.  The  Plymouth  authorities  arrested 
and  hanged  them.  Philip  retaliated  by  an  attack  (1675) 
on  Swansea,  the  town  nearest  his  headquarters  at  Mount 
Hope. 

For  some  time  the  war  was  confined  to  southern  Massachu 
setts  and  vicinity,  but  gradually  the  Indian  tribes  in  the  western 
part  of  the  colony  joined 
Philip.  It  now  became 
evident  that  the  struggle 
was  to  be  a  desperate  one, 
especially  in  the  Connecti 
cut  Valley,  where  the  white 
settlements  were  small  and 
scattered.  The  colonists 
had  the  advantage  in  num 
bers  and  in  arms,  but  the 
Indians  knew  the  forests 
perfectly,  they  were  quick 
and  stealthy  as  wild-cats, 
and  they  were  pretty  well 
supplied  with  muskets. 


King  Philip's  War. 

Brookfield  and  Deerfield  were  attacked 
and  burned,  but  Hadley  escaped.  According  to  tradition  that 
town  was  saved  by  the  sudden  appearance  of  a  venerable 
white-haired  man  who  rallied  the  inhabitants  and  drove  off  the 
savages.  The  mysterious  leader  then  disappeared.  He  was 
the  regicide  Goffe  (§  116),  who  had  long  lived  concealed  in  the 
town.18*  A  few  weeks  later  (1675)  the  Indians  surprised  and  cut 
to  pieces  a  body  of  ninety  men,  —  "  the  very  flower  of  Essex,"  — 


8o  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1676. 

at "  Bloody  Brook,"  near  Deerfield.185  Then  the  New  Englanders 
resolved  to  "root  this  nest  of  serpents  out  of  the  world."  m 

The  next  winter  a  colonial  force,  a  thousand  strong,  burst 
into  the  Indian  fort  of  the  Narragansetts,  on  the  west  shore 
of  Narragansett  Bay.  They  set  fire  to  the  wigwams  in  the 
enclosure,  and  scores  of  Indians  —  helpless  old  men,  women 
and  children  —  perished  in  the  flames.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  savages  burned  (1676)  Lancaster,  Groton,  Marlborough, 
Medfield  and  smaller  towns.  The  temper  of  the  Indians  was 
illustrated  by  Canonchet,  chief  of  the  Narragansetts.  He 
was  captured  and  when  told  he  was  to  be  shot,  he  answered, 
"  I  like  it  well,  I  shall  die  before  my  heart  becomes  soft."  187 

A  little  later,  Captain  Turner  of  Boston  gained  a  great  victory 
over  the  savages  near  Turner's  Falls  on  the  Connecticut.  Then 
the  Indians  saw  that  fate  was  against  them,  and  they  began  to 
lay  down  their  arms  and  beg  for  peace. 

It  was  the  custom  in  England  to  sell  prisoners  taken  in  the 
civil  wars.  Following  this  example  the  colonists  sold  many  of 
their  red  captives  as  slaves  to  the  planters  of  the  West  Indies. 
King  Philip's  son,  a  boy  of  nine,  was  disposed  of  in  this 
manner.  Not  long  afterward,  Captain  Church  of  Plymouth,  a 
famous  fighter,  surprised  Philip  near  Mount  Hope.  The 
savage  "king"  was  shot  by  one  of  his  own  men  who  had 
turned  against  him.  At  last  the  colonists  "had  prayed  the 
bullet  into  his  heart."  188  The  death  of  the  great  chief  vir 
tually  ended  the  contest.  This  was  the  last  war  between  the 
whites  and  the  natives  in  southern  New  England,  —  the  power 
of  the  Indians  in  that  section  was  broken  for  ever. 

The  losses  of  the  war  were  very  heavy.  More  than  half  of 
the  towns  in  Massachusetts  had  been  burned,  and  a  tenth  of 
all  the  fighting  men  in  New  England  had  either  fallen  in  battle 
or  had  been  carried  off  captive.  Plymouth  Colony  suffered 
most  of  all.  Its  war  debt  exceeded  in  value  the  entire  per 
sonal  property  of  the  inhabitants,  but  by  years  of  toil  they  at 
last  paid  off  every  dollar  of  it,  principal  and  interest. 


1664-168-']    ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH  SETTLEMENTS.         8  I 

99.  Charles  II.  and  the  Massachusetts  charter ;  the 
charter  falls  (1684).  — Massachusetts  was  next  called  to  deal 
with  a  power  more  formidable  than  Philip's  warriors.  When 
Charles  II.  confirmed  the  Massachusetts  charter  he  did  so  on 
five  conditions  :  (i)  the  colonists  were  to  repeal  all  laws  con 
trary  to  those  of  England  ;  (2)  they  were  to  take  the  Oath  of 
Allegiance ;  (3)  justice  was  to  be  administered  in  the  King's 
name ;  (4)  liberty  of  worship  was  to  be  granted  to  Episcopa 
lians  ;  (5)  all  persons  of  respectable  character,  competent 
estate,  and  orthodox  in  religion,  were  to  be  allowed  to 
vote.189 

The  General  Court  had  partially  complied  with  the  order 
respecting  the  administration  of  justice  in  the  King's  name, 
but  not  with  the  other  demands.  The  Commonwealth  still 
refused  to  permit  appeals  from  the  colonial  courts  to  the  royal 
courts  in  England. 

Commissioners  were  now  (1664)  sent  over  by  the  King  to 
hear  complaints.  Plymouth  Colony,  Rhode  Island,  and  Con 
necticut  agreed  to  comply  with  the  demands  of  the  Crown,  but 
Massachusetts  refused  to  permit  the  Commissioners  to  sit  as  a 
court  of  appeal.190 

Later,  however,  in  the  hope  of  saving  their  charter,  the  Gen 
eral  Court  ordered  the  oath  of  allegiance  to  the  King  to  be 
administered.191  This  submission,  however,  made  little  differ 
ence  in  the  end  ;  for  Charles  was  determined  to  rule  absolutely, 
and  to  leave  no  chartered  rights  in  England  or  in  the  colonies 
to  resist  his  will.192 

Massachusetts  declared  (1681)  that  she  no  longer  withheld 
liberty  of  worship  from  Episcopalians  or  Baptists  (§  96)  ;  but 
it  was  easy  to  find  other  grounds  of  complaint,  and  it  was 
moved  in  the  King's  court  in  London  that  the  charter  be 
annulled  ;  no  time  was  given  to  the  colonists  to  plead  their 
case,  and  (1684)  the  charter  fell.193  This  was  the  end  of  the 
Puritan  commonwealth.  Henceforth  it  was  to  be  ruled  by  the 
Crown. 


82  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [i685-i689. 

100.  Sir  Edmund  Andros  ;  royal  instructions ;  his  rule ; 
his  overthrow. — James  II.,  the  successor  (1685)  of  Charles 
II.,  sent  out  Sir  Edmund  Andros  to  govern  "  the  Dominion  of 
New  England  "  (§  64). 

Andros,  with  his  self-appointed  council,  was  authorized:  (i) 
to  enact  laws  ("as  near  as  conveniently  may  be  to  those  of 
England  ")  ;  (2)  to  organize  courts  of  justice  ;  (3)  to  levy  taxes  ; 
(4)  to  call  out  the  militia  ;  (5)  to  grant  liberty  of  conscience  to 
all  persons,  and  to  encourage  the  Episcopal  form  of  worship.194 

He  faithfully  carried  out  his  instructions.  He  opened  the 
Old  South  Meeting-House  in  Boston  on  Sunday  afternoons  for 
the  Church  of  England  service.  He  imprisoned  the  Reverend 
John  Wise  of  Ipswich,  and  five  other  leading  citizens  of  that 
town,  for  refusing  to  pay  a  tax  levied  upon  them  without  their 
consent. 

By  the  fall  of  the  charter  every  acre  of  land  in  Massachusetts 
was  forfeited  to  the  King.  Andros  gave  the  prominent  real- 
estate  owners  of  the  colony  their  choice  between  paying  an 
annual  ground  rent  to  his  royal  master,  or  surrendering  their 
houses  and  fields.  In  Cambridge,  Lynn,  and  other  towns,  he 
seized  the  commons,  fenced  them  in,  and  leased  them  to 
private  tenants. 

In  order  to  prevent  the  public  discussion  of  political  matters, 
he  prohibited  all  town-meetings  except  one  which  might  be 
held  yearly  to  choose  town-officers.  He  forbade  any  person's 
leaving  New  England  without  a  pass.  The  press  had  always 
been  under  the  supervision  of  a  keeper  appointed  by  the  Gen 
eral  Court.  The  Governor  now  appointed  that  keeper  himself ; 
nothing  could  be  printed  without  a  license.195  Andros  was 
naturally  arbitrary,  but  there  seems  to  be  no  evidence  that  he 
was  either  "  cruel,  rapacious,  or  dishonest."  196  It  was  simply 
inevitable  that  he  should  excite  the  hatred  of  those  who  were 
compelled  to  submit  to  him  and  to  his  royal  master. 

When  the  news  of  the  landing  of  William,  Prince  of  Orange, 
was  received  (1689)  in  Boston,  Andros  wrote:  "There  is  a 


1689-1692.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  83 

general  buzzing  among  the  people,  great  with  the  expectation 
of  [regaining]  the  old  charter."197  The  "  buzzing "  had  a 
sting  in  it.  It  ended  in  the  rising  of  the  citizens.  They  threw 
the  obnoxious  ruler  into  prison,  and  set  up  a  temporary 
government  of  their  own.  Great  was  the  joy  of  the  colonists 
when  William  and  Mary  came  to  the  throne  in  England.  The 
new  King  was  known  to  be  in  strong  sympathy  with  the  prin 
ciples  of  the  Puritan  faith,  and  the  citizens  of  Massachusetts 
believed  that  in  him  they  would  have  a  fast  friend. 

101.  The  new  charter  of  Massachusetts  (1691);  Salem 
witchcraft;  Judge  Sewall.  —  King  William  (1691)  granted 
a  new  charter  to  Massachusetts  which  annexed  Plymouth  and 
Maine  to  the  colony.  It  provided  :  (i)  that  the  Crown  should 
appoint  the  Governor  of  the  colony  ;  (2)  that  the  property- 
holders  among  the  people  should  elect  an  Assembly  ;  (3)  that 
the  Assembly  should  choose  a  council  or  upper  house,  subject 
to  the  approval  of  the  Governor ;  (4)  the  two  houses  of  the 
Legislature  were  to  make  all  laws,  subject  to  the  approval  of 
the  Governor  and  of  the  King  ;  (5)  the  Assembly  was  to  levy 
all  taxes  ;  (6)  the  Legislature  established  the  courts  of  justice,— 
and  the  Governor,  with  the  consent  of  his  council,  appointed 
the  judges ;  (7)  freedom  of  worship  was  granted  to  all  Chris 
tians  except  Catholics.198  The  colony  remained  under  this 
charter  until  the  War  of  Independence. 

The  King  now  appointed  Sir  William  Phips,  Governor.  He 
reached  Boston  (1692)  at  a  time  when  Salem  and  vicinity  were 
in  a  fever  of  excitement  about  witchcraft. 

Belief  in  the  reality  of  witchcraft  was  then  practically  univer 
sal.  In  Great  Britain  alone  thousands  of  poor  old  women 
were  tortured,  hanged,  and  burned  for  that  crime.  The  most 
eminent  men  "  thought  that  they  had  Scripture  authority  for 
that  belief,  and  knew  that  they  had  law  for  it."  ] 

Some  children  in  Salem  formed  a  sort  of  club  for  reading 
stories  about  witches.  They  next  began  to  mimic  the  actions 
of  bewitched  persons.  At  length  they  worked  themselves  into 


84  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [i692-i696. 

a  state  of  nervous  excitement  bordering  on  insanity.  In  that 
condition  they  accused  several  women  of  having  bewitched 
them.  One  of  the  accused  was  a  poor  Indian  servant  ;  she 
was  flogged  so  cruelly  that  in  her  agony  she  confessed  herself 
guilty.  Then  the  whole  community  was  seized  with  a 
frenzy  of  terror ;  before  the  fatal  delusion  ran  its  course 
nineteen  persons  were  hanged  for  having  sold  themselves  to 
Satan. 

Then  came  the  inevitable  reaction.  A  day  of  fasting  and 
prayer  was  held  (1696)  throughout  Massachusetts  to  bewail 
the  "mistakes  "  of  the  witchcraft  trials.  Judge  Sewall  rose  in 
his  place  in  the  Old  South  Meeting-House  and  read  a  written 
confession  of  his  error  in  having  taken  part  in  them.  He 
ended  by  humbly  begging  the  congregation  to  pray  "that 
God  might  not  visit  his  sin  upon  him,  his  family,"  or  "  upon 
the  land."  20°  Later,  one  of  the  girls  who  had  begun  the  terrible 
work  signed  a  written  statement,  still  on  record,  in  which  she 
acknowledged  the  deceit  she  had  employed,  and  which  had 
cost  near  a  score  of  lives.201  But  though  no  more  witchcraft 
cases  came  before  the  courts  in  Massachusetts,  they  continued 
to  be  prosecuted  in  the  Old  Country.  The  English  statute 
punishing  such  offences  with  death  was  not  repealed  until 
forty  years  later  (1736). 

102.  The  power  of  the  purse;  disputes  with  the  Govern 
ors;  Episcopacy;  the  Forest  Laws;  the  Navigation  Laws 
revived.  —  The  new  charter  (§  101)  gave  the  Assembly  the 
exclusive  control  of  the  public  purse.  The  representatives 
chosen  by  the  different  towns  levied  all  taxes,  and  paid  all 
salaries.  This  provision  put  "  the  effective  whip  of  the  money 
power  "  into  the  hands  of  the  colonists,  and  made  them  almost 
independent  of  the  Governor  and  the  King. 

One  great  object  of  the  Governor  was  to  secure  a  fixed 
permanent  salary,  so  that  the  people  could  not  put  a  bridle 
on  his  authority.  The  people,  on  the  other  hand,  were  fully 
resolved  not  to  grant  a  fixed  salary ;  and  not  to  grant  any  for 


1691-1765.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  85 

more  than  a  single  year  at  a  time.  In  this  way  they  made  the 
Governor  realize  that  his  pay  depended  on  his  behavior.  This 
battle  between  the  Executive  and  the  people  was  constantly 
going  on,  not  only  in  Massachusetts,  but  in  every  one  of  the 
royal  colonies  in  America.202 

Another  lively  source  of  irritation  sprang  from  the  fact  that 
the  Governor,  as  the  King's  representative,  always  attended 
the  King's  or  Episcopal  Chapel  in  Boston.  This  excited  the 
distrust  of  many  of  the  descendants  of  the  original  Puritans. 
They  feared  that  the  King  intended  to  appoint  a  bishop  for 
Massachusetts,  and  to  secure  to  the  Episcopal  Church  the 
controlling  influence  in  religion.  No  bishop,  however,  was 
ever  appointed  by  the  Crown  for  any  American  colony. 

The  Forest  Laws  were  another  cause  of  irritation.  The 
tall  straight  pines  of  New  England  were  reserved  for  masts  for 
the  royal  navy.  The  new  charter  forbade  the  colonists  to  cut 
them  down.  But  as  a  fine  tree  would  readily  sell  for  ^"100,  or 
even  more,  the  King's  surveyor  found  it  difficult  to  save  the 
pines.  His  attempts  to  do  so  sometimes  led  to  pitched 
battles  between  his  men  and  the  colonists,  in  which  the  latter 
generally  came  off  victors. 

Later,  the  royal  authorities  made  determined  efforts  to 
enforce  the  obnoxious  Navigation  Acts  (§  48),  which  had 
long  been  a^dead  letter  in  New  England.  This  added  fresh 
fuel  to  the  smouldering  embers  of  discontent.  Samuel  Adams 
and  other  patriots  blew  those  embers  until  they  suddenly  burst 
out  in  the  fierce  flame  of  the  Revolution. 

103.  Summary.  —  Plymouth  Colony  (1620)  and  the  colony 
of  Massachusetts  (1630)  were  established  by  men  seeking 
liberty  of  worship  for  themselves  ;  but  for  themselves  only. 
The  settlers  of  the  first  or  "  Old  Colony  "  were  Separatists  ; 
those  of  the  second,  Puritans.  The  Pilgrims  organized  gov 
ernment  by  town-meeting,  where  all  met  on  terms  of  political 
equality.  Later,  they  established  the  representative  system 
(except  for  local  affairs)  and  restricted  the  right  to  vote  to 


86 


THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1622-1629. 


persons  of  orthodox  faith.  After  an  independent  existence  of 
seventy  years  Plymouth  Colony  was  united  with  Massa 
chusetts. 

The  Puritan  settlers  of  Massachusetts  practically  set  up  an 
independent  religious  republic,  from  which  they  excluded  all 
who  did  not  accept  their  faith  ;  on  the  other  hand  they  were 
the  first  English  colonists  to  establish  a  college  for  higher 
education,  and  a  system  of  public  schools  which  laid  the  foun 
dation  of  free  instruction  in  the  United  States.  In  1684  the 
colony  was  made  a  royal  province.  Later  (1691),  a  new  charter 
was  received  which  remained  in  force  until  the  outbreak  of  the 
Revolution. 


V.     NEW  HAMPSHIRE  (1623). 

104.  Grant  of  territory ;  first  settlements.  —  Two  years 
after  the  Pilgrims  landed  on  Plymouth  Rock,  Sir  Ferdinando 
Gorges  and  Captain  John  Mason  of  England  obtained  a  grant 
(1622)  of  the  country  between  the  Merrimac  and  the  Kennebec 
rivers.203  Their  territory  extended  "  to 
the  farthest  head  of  the  said  rivers  "  and 
sixty  miles  inland.  The  new  province 
was  to  receive  the  name  of  Maine.  A 
few  months  later,  David^Thomson,  a 
Scotchman,  got  possession  of  a  small 
section  of  land  on  the  Piscataqua,  and 
established  a  fishing-station  (1623)  near 
the  mouth  of  that  river.  He  soon 
moved  to  the  vicinity  of  Boston  ;  but  the 
settlement  he  had  formed  on  the  Pisca 
taqua  seems  to  have  been  maintained.204 


Several  years  later  (1627)  Edward  Hilton  came  over  from 
England  and  set  up  a  second  fishing-station  at  what  is  now 
Dover.  Not  long  afterward  (1629)  Gorges  and  Mason  built  a 
fort  for  carrying  on  the  fur  trade.  The  three  founded  Ports- 


1625-.]       ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH  SETTLEMENTS.         8/ 

mouth  on  one  of  the  noblest  harbors  of  the  New  England 
coast.  When  (1638)  the  Reverend  John  Wheelwright  was 
banished  from  Massachusetts  for  heresy  (§  92)  he  began  the 
settlement  of  Exeter. 

105.  Gorges  and  Mason  divide  their  territory  into  Maine 
and    New    Hampshire.  —  Gorges    and    Mason    (1629-1634) 
divided    their  territory.205     Gorges  took  the  part   east  of  the 
Piscataqua  or    Maine,  while    Mason    took    that   between    the 
Piscataqua  and  the  Merrimac.     This    region    he  called   New 
Hampshire, — from  the  county  of  Hampshire,  England,  where 
he  had  once  held  an  important  office. 

An  attempt  had  been  made  by  Sir  George  Popham  to  estab 
lish  a  colony  of  that  name  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec  in 
1607  ;  but  it  was  unsuccessful.  Maine  was  planted  by  small 
settlements,  and  hence  presented  only  "  scattered  beginnings." 
The  first  permanent  one  was  made  (1625)  on  the  rocky  prom 
ontory  of  Pemaquid,  east  of  Bath.  It  promised  so  well  that  it 
received  the  name  of  "the  metropolis  of  New  England."206 

Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges  was  a  staunch  royalist  and  a  zealous 
member  of  the  Church  of  England.  He  fixed  his  capital 
(1640)  under  the  shadow  of  Mount  Agamenticus,  at  what  is 
now  York.  Massachusetts,  under  a  new  interpretation  of  her 
charter,  claimed  part  of  Maine.  By  a  later  charter  (1691)  she 
got  the  whole  of  it,  and  held  it  under  the  name  of  the  "  District 
of  Maine."  2o;  In  1820  this  "  District  "  became  an  independent 
State  of  that  Union  which  the  hardy  and  patriotic  sons  of 
Maine  had  done  their  full  part  to  establish. 

106.  Religious  opinions  ;   land  titles.  —  New   Hampshire 
was   greatly    divided    in    religious   opinions.     A    considerable 
part  of  the  first  settlers  were  "  loyal  to  the  Church  of  England 
and  to  the  King."  208     But  besides  these  there  were  Puritans 
and    Hutchinsonians    (§  92)    at    Dover.       Again,   the  Wheel 
wright  party  (§  92),  who  settled  Exeter,  felt  no  very  fervent 
love  toward  the  old  Bay  Colony,  which  had  driven  them  out  to 
find  homes  in  the  northern  wilderness. 


88  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1630-1642. 

Besides  religious  differences  there  were  serious  disputes 
about  land-titles,  and,  between  the  two,  New  Hampshire  found 
herself  in  a  very  unsettled  condition.  When  Mason  died 
(1635)  his  heirs  insisted  that  the  settlers  on  the  grant  were 
intruders  who  must  either  pay  for  their  farms  or  leave  them. 

While  this  dispute  was  going  on,  Massachusetts  (1630)  laid 
claim  to  a  large  part  of  New  Hampshire.  Her  ground  was 
that  the  Company's  charter  gave  them  the  right  to  all  lands 
as  far  north  as  three  miles  above  the  source  of  the  Merrimac 
River  (§  85),  and  thence  easterly  in  a  straight  line  to  the 
Atlantic.209 

After  many  years  of  litigation,  the  English  courts  finally 
(1680)  decided  against  this  claim;  but  the  Mason  heirs  kept 
up  the  controversy  for  about  half  a  century  longer.  The  early 
settlers  had  a  trying  experience.  When  they  were  not  fighting 
Indians  in  the  forests,  they  were  fighting  in  the  courts  against 
English  claimants  to  their  homes  ;  of  the  two,  they  probably 
dreaded  the  claimants  rather  more  than  they  did  the  savages. 

107.  «  Combinations  "  ;  union  with  Massachusetts  (1642- 
1675) ;  New  Hampshire  becomes  a  royal  province.  —  After 
Mason's  death  the  citizens  of  Dover  signed  a  compact  by 
which  they  bound  themselves  to  obey  the  laws  of  England,  but 
maintained  the  right  of  the  settlers  to  supplement  those  laws 
with  regulations  of  their  own.  Similar  "  combinations  "  were 
formed  (either  earlier  or  later)  by  the  people  of  Portsmouth 
and  of  Exeter.210  In  practice  these  agreements  established 
independent  systems  of  self-government. 

But  New  Hampshire  had  too  small  a  population  to  hold  her 
own  against  the  terrors  of  Indian  attacks,  of  boundary  disputes, 
and  of  private  claimants  to  her  lands.  A  commissioner  sent 
from  Massachusetts  reported  that  the  Piscataqua  people  were 
ripe  for  union  with  the  Bay  colony.211  The  union  took  place 
in  1641.  The  northern  colony  lost  none  of  its  rights  or 
privileges  by  the  annexation.  The  General  Court  of  Mas 
sachusetts  prudently  ordered  (1642)  that  the  freemen  of  New 


2649-1759.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  89 

Hampshire  should  "  have  liberty  ...  to  manage  all  their  town 
affairs,"  and  that  permission  should  be  given  to  each  town  to 
"  send  a  deputy  to  the  General  Court  though  [such  deputies] 
be  not  at  present  church-members."  212 

This  union  lasted  for  more  than  thirty  years  (1642-1675), 
when  the  King  ordered  that  New  Hampshire  should  be  restored 
to  one  of  Mason's  heirs.  A  few  years  later  (1680)  it  became  a 
royal  province.  Governor  Cranfield's  rapacity  made  the  people 
desperate,  and  the  farmers  rose.  Armed  with  clubs,  and  aided 
by  their  good  wives  armed  with  kettles  of  boiling  water,  they 
drove  back  the  Governor's  bands  of  tax-collectors  and  con 
stables. 

1 08.  Settlement  of  Londonderry  (1719) ;  manufacture  of 
linen  ;  Stark ;  Webster ;  Dartmouth  College.  —  Early  in  the 
eighteenth  century  (1719)  a  number  of  Scotch-Irish  (§  52)  immi 
grants  settled  in  New  Hampshire.  They  founded  a  frontier 
town  which  they  called  Londonderry,  in  grateful  remembrance 
of  the  famous  Protestant  city  which  had  been  their  temporary 
home  in  Ireland. 

These  thrifty  settlers  soon  began  a  most  important  industry, 
which  they  had  learned  in  Ireland  ;  this  was  the  raising  of  flax 
and  the  manufacture  of  linen.  In  every  log-cabin  the  music  of 
the  spinning-wheel  was  heard,  and  the  cloth  sent  out  from 
those  humble  homes  in  the  wilderness  became  so  famous  all 
over  New  England  that  British  makers  counterfeited  the  Lon 
donderry  stamp.218 

Another  product  of  which  the  town  had  good  reason  to  be 
proud  was  John  Stark,  who  came  to  the  front  in  the  French 
and  Indian  wars  and  in  the  early  battles  of  the  Revolution. 

About  forty  years  after  the  settlement  of  Londonderry,  a 
farmer  of  Scottish  descent  pushed  far  north  into  what  was 
then  the  wildest  part  of  New  Hampshire.  There  he  made 
himself  a  dwelling-place  under  the  shadow  of  Mount  Kear- 
sarge.  Speaking  of  that  home  in  the  woods,  Daniel  Webster 
said  :  "  My  father  lapped  on  a  little  beyond  any  other  comer  ; 


QO  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1759-1769. 

and  when  he  had  built  his  log-cabin,  and  lighted  his  fire,  his 
smoke  ascended  nearer  to  the  North  Star  than  that  of  any 
other  of  His  Majesty's  New  England  subjects  ;  his  nearest 
civilized  neighbor  on  the  north  was  at  Montreal." 214 

Something  like  ten  years  after  that  cabin  was  erected  a 
band  of  about  thirty  students,  mostly  Indians,  made  their  way 
on  foot  through  the  woods  from  Connecticut  to  what  is  now 
Hanover.  There  they  felled  trees  in  the  forest,  and  erected 
(1769)  the  first  rude  buildings  of  Dartmouth  College.215 

109.  Dispute  between  New  York  and  New  Hampshire; 
the  " beech  seal";  Vermont;  Paul  Jones.  —  In  1763  a 
dispute  arose  between  New  Hampshire  and  New  York  in 
regard  to  the  ownership  of  the  territory  lying  between  the 
latter  colony  and  the  Connecticut  River. 

Both  claimed  it  under  the  royal  grants.216  The  colony  of 
Massachusetts  had  built  Fort  Dummer  (1724)  near  what  is 
now  Brattleboro.  This  was  the  first  settlement  made  in  that 
region.  Governor  Benning  Wentworth  of  New  Hampshire 
(from  whom  Bennington  was  named)  had  already  laid  out 
nearly  a  hundred  and  forty  townships  in  this  disputed  territory. 
These  townships  —  popularly  called  the  "  New  Hampshire 
grants "  —  were  a  favorite  field  for  speculators,  and  lawyers 
grew  rich  from  land  sales  and  the  quarrels  arising  from  them. 

The  King  (1765)  confirmed  the  claim  of  New  York  to  the 
territory  west  of  the  Connecticut  River.  Thereupon  the  Gov 
ernor  of  New  York  ordered  the  settlers  on  the  "New  Hamp 
shire  grants  "  —  later  named  Vermont  —  to  repurchase  their 
lands. 

Ethan  Allen  and  Seth  Warner,  two  "  Green  Mountain  boys," 
headed  a  party  determined  to  resist  these  demands.  They 
armed  themselves  with  tough  "blue-beech  "  rods,  such  as  were 
used  for  taming  unruly  oxen.  When  the  sheriff's  officers  came 
from  New  York  to  eject  the  settlers,  the  "boys"  gave  them  a 
very  warm  reception.  This  they  styled  applying  the  "  beech 
seal."  A  long  and  bloody  contest  would  probably  have  ensued, 


1777.]  ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  QI 

had  not  the  breaking  out  of  the  Revolution  compelled  the  dis 
putants  to  turn  their  energies  to  fighting  a  common  enemy. 

In  the  war  for  Independence  the  "  Green  Mountain  boys," 
led  by  Allen,  Warner  and  other  patriots  of  that  section,  did  the 
cause  of  American  liberty  memorable  service.  In  1777  the 
freemen  of  the  "  New  Hampshire  Grants  "  declared  themselves 
an  independent  State,  under  the  appropriate  name  of  Vermont. 
Vermont  (1791)  headed  the  band  of  States  which,  outside  of 
the  original  thirteen,  first  entered  the  American  Union. 

Early  in  the  Revolution,  citizens  of  Portsmouth,  New  Hamp 
shire,  built  (1777)  the  famous  privateer  "  Ranger,"  which  sailed 
under  the  command  of  Paul  Jones.  The  "  Ranger  "  was  the  first 
vessel  to  hoist  the  "  stars  and  stripes,"  and  the  first  to  force  a 
British  man-of-war  to  strike  her  colors  to  our  national  flag.217 

no.  Summary.  —  Early  in  the  seventeenth  century  a  few 
fishing  and  fur-trading  settlements  were  planted  on  the  New 
England  coast  north  of  the  Merrimac.  Soon  afterward  the 
proprietors  of  the  territory  divided  it ;  the  eastern  part  became 
Maine  and  the  western,  New  Hampshire.  Eventually,  New 
Hampshire  was  annexed  to  Massachusetts,  but  it  retained 
important  features  of  its  own  more  liberal  form  of  government ; 
late  in  the  seventeenth  century  it  became  a  royal  province. 

Scotch-Irish  immigrants  set  up  the  manufacture  of  linen  at 
Londonderry.  Stark  and  Webster  were  the  sons  of  New 
Hampshire  pioneers.  After  a  time  the  settlers  in  the  western 
part  of  the  colony  declared  themselves  an  independent  State 
under  the  name  of  Vermont.  Both  New  Hampshire  and  Ver 
mont  took  active  parts  in  the  War  of  Independence. 


VI.     CONNECTICUT  (1634). 

in.  Connecticut  Valley ;  the  Dutch  emigration  from  Ply 
mouth  Colony  and  from  Massachusetts.  —  Between  Plymouth 
Colony  on  the  east  and  New  Netherland  on  the  west  lay  the 
beautiful  valley  of  the  Connecticut.  James  I.  had  granted  this 


92 


THE  STUDENTS  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


region  to  the  Plymouth  Council  ;  but  no  proper  surveys  had 
been  made,  and  "  the  King  might  as  well  have  given  a  bear 
skin  while  the  bear  himself  was  still  at  large  in  the  forest."  218 

The  Dutch  claimed  the  country  by  virtue  of  exploration  and 
settlement.  They  had  sent  vessels  up  the  Connecticut  (1633) 
and  had  built  a  fortified  fur-trading  house  where  the  city  of 
Hartford  now  stands.  But  the  Puritan  and  Pilgrim  colonists 
on  the  east  refused  to  recognize  the  Dutch  claim.  They  looked 
upon  the  coveted  territory  as  a  "  No-Man's  Land  "  or  "  Lord's 
Waste,"  which  any  Englishman  had  the  right  to  seize.  Acting 
in  this  spirit,  Captain  William  Holmes  of  Plymouth  sailed 
boldly  up  the  Connecticut,  pushed  past  the  Dutch  fort  (1633), 
and  set  up  a  ready-made  rival  trading-house  where  Windsor 
now  stands.  The  next  year  (1634)  emigrants  from  Watertown, 
near  Boston,  built  a  few  log  huts  at  Wethersfield,  —  the  oldest 
town  in  Connecticut.  Soon  afterward  (1635)  about  half  the 
inhabitants  of  Dorchester,  Massachusetts,  moved  to  the  vicinity 
of  Captain  Holmes's  trading-house.  They,  too,  had  a  "  hanker 
ing  mind  "  after  the  rich  river  meadows  of  Windsor. 

But  the  chief  emigration  took  place  the  following  year 
(1636),  when  the  Reverend  Thomas  Hooker,  "the  Light  of 
the  Western  Churches,"  led  the  greater  part  of  his  Cambridge 

congregation  to  the 
Connecticut.  The 
colonists  found  their 
way  through  the 
primeval  forests  by 
the  use  of  the  com 
pass.  After  two 
weeks'  journeying 
they  reached  the 
Connecticut,  crossed 
it  on  rafts,  and  began  the  settlement  of  Hartford. 

The  same  autumn  (1636)  John  Winthrop,  junior,  built  a  fort 
for  Lords  Say  and  Brooke  at  the  mouth  of  the  Connecticut  — 


1636-1644.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  93 

hence  the  town  of  Saybrook.  This  fort  shut  out  the  Dutch 
from  coming  up  the  river.  Eight  years  later  (1644)  the 
Connecticut  colony  (consisting  of  Wethersfield,  Windsor,  and 
Hartford)  purchased  Saybrook,  and  so  got  the  control  of 
the  river  from  its  mouth  to  the  Massachusetts  line  on  the 
north. 

112.  Opposition  of  Massachusetts;  reasons  for  emigra 
tion.  —  Massachusetts  strongly  opposed  this  movement  of  her 
people  into  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut.  She  regarded  it  as 
a  secession  rather  than  an  emigration.  It  was  in  fact  the 
secession  of  the  more  democratic  part  of  the  Puritan  popula 
tion  of  Massachusetts.  But  the  authorities  had  other  reasons 
for  opposing  this  movement  :  (i)  they  did  not  like  to  see  their 
own  slender  numbers  reduced  ;  (2)  they  feared  that  England 
would  hold  them  responsible  for  letting  the  people  take  posses 
sion  of  a  region  for  which  they  had  no  patent  ;  (3)  they  thought 
the  movement  would  bring  on  a  war  with  the  Dutch  and  with 
the  Indians.219  In  regard  to  trouble  with  the  savages,  the 
results  showed  that  their  judgment  was  correct. 

The  Cambridge  emigrants  gave  as  their  reasons  for  going  : 
first,  that  they  needed  more  room  for  pasturing  their  cattle  ; 
secondly,  that  if  they  did  not  seize  the  Connecticut  Valley 
there  was  great  danger  that  the  "  Dutch,  or  other  English " 
might.  Finally,  they  declared  that  it  was  "  the  strong  bent  of 
their  spirits  to  remove  thither."220 

The  phrase  "strong  bent"  was  doubtless  a  mild  way  of 
expressing  the  determination  of  the  leaders  of  the  movement 
to  establish  a  new  government,  which  should  more  fully  repre 
sent  their  own  ideas.  Hooker  was  opposed  to  religious  tests 
for  suffrage.  He  advocated  broader  and  more  tolerant  princi 
ples  in  both  religion  and  politics  than  those  held  by  the 
authorities  in  Massachusetts.221 

After  long  debate  a  reluctant  kind  of  half-assent  was  given 
to  the  emigration,  but  on  the  condition  that  Massachusetts 
should  appoint  commissioners  to  control  the  Connecticut  set- 


94  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [i637-i638. 

tiers.     To  this  the  emigrants  agreed,  but  in  less  than  a  year 
they  had  become  self-governing. 

113.  War  with  the  Pequots ;  the  destruction  of  the  Pequot 
fort;   results.  —  The  settlers   at  Wethersfield,  Windsor,  and 
Hartford  had  hardly  got  their  log-cabins  completed  when  they 
were  obliged  to  unite  in  a  campaign  (1637)  against  the  savages. 
It  was  the  first  war  with  the  Indians  in  New  England.     The 
ferocious  Pequots  —  a  tribe  that  could  muster  nearly  a  thousand 
warriors  —  were  determined  to  drive  the  English  from  the  rich 
valley  of  the  Connecticut. 

Captain  John  Mason  of  Windsor  led  (1637)  his  valiant  little 
army  of  ninety  men  against  the  savages.  Captain  Underhill 
of  Massachusetts  joined  him  with  a  force  of  about  twenty 
more.  Several  hundred  friendly  Narragansetts  and  Mohicans 
went  with  the  expedition. 

Mason  and  Underhill,  with  a  total  attacking  force  of  less 
than  four-score  men,  burst  into  the  Pequot  fort  (on  Pequot 
Hill,  near  what  is  now  Mystic).  They  set  the  wigwams  on 
fire,  and  in  a  few  minutes  the  whole  Indian  village  was  a  sheet 
of  roaring  flame.  When  the  terrified  savages  rushed  madly  out 
of  their  blazing  wigwams,  Mason  and  Underhill  "  entertained 
them,"  as  the  latter  says,  "  with  the  point  of  the  sword."  Out  of 
six  or  seven  hundred  Pequots,  only  "  about  seven  escaped."  222 

The  remainder  of  the  tribe,  who  were  entrenched  in  a  second 
fort  a  few  miles  distant,  fled  westward  in  despair.  All  summer 
they  were  hunted  down  like  wild  beasts.  In  the  autumn 
(1637)  the  miserable  remnant  of  this  once  powerful  people 
surrendered.  The  colonists  gave  part  of  the  prisoners  to  the 
Mohicans  and  Narragansetts ;  the  rest  they  sold  as  slaves  to 
the  West  India  planters.  The  destruction  of  the  Pequots 
secured  forty  years  of  peace  to  the  New  England  settlers,  and 
opened  the  way  to  the  rapid  settlement  of  Connecticut. 

114.  Mr.  Hooker's  sermon;  the  Connecticut  Constitution; 
laws  respecting  suffrage.  —  In  the  spring  following  the  victory 
over  the  Pequots,  the  Reverend  Mr.  Hooker  preached  a  mem- 


1638-1639.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  95 

orable  sermon  (1638)  before  the  General  Court  of  Connecticut. 
He  declared  that  the  foundation  of  every  just  government  must 
be  laid  "in  the  free  consent  of  the  people,"  who  alone  had  the 
right  not  only  to  choose,  but  to  limit  the  power  of  their  rulers.223 

The  next  January  (1639)  tne  Court  framed  a  "Body  of 
Fundamental  Laws  "  based  on  the  republican  principles  which 
Hooker  had  laid  down.  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  first  written, 
and  purely  republican,  constitution  made  by  Americans  for 
Americans  (§§  43,  80).  It  did  not  mention  either  King  or 
Parliament,  but  derived  its  powers  solely  from  the  "free  con 
sent  "  of  the  governed. 

This  constitution  required  that  the  Governor  of  Connecticut 
should  be  "  always  a  member  of  some  approved  congrega 
tion."  224  That  meant  that  he  must  be  orthodox  in  religion. 
But  the  Connecticut  authorities,  unlike  those  in  Massachusetts, 
did  not  restrict  the  right  to  vote  to  church-members. 

A  number  of  years  later  an  act  was  passed  (1657)  forbidding 
Quakers  and  other  "  loathsome  heretics  "  from  settling  in  the 
colony.225  About  the  same  time  the  right  of  suffrage  was 
limited  to  persons  who  had  once  held  office  or  who  owned 
property  to  the  value  of  £30.™ 

The  laws  were  liberal  for  that  day.  Roger  Williams  was  "  a 
welcome  guest  at  Hartford,"  and  there  "never  existed  a  perse 
cuting  spirit  in  Connecticut."  227 

115.  New  Haven  Colony  (1638)  a  republic  founded  on 
the  Bible ;  the  Laws  of  Moses.  —  Meanwhile  a  new  colony 
had  been  planted  (1638)  at  New  Haven.  In  many  respects  it 
differed  widely  from  the  Connecticut  colony.  Its  founders 
were  Theophilus  Eaton,  a  London  merchant,  and  the  Reverend 
John  Davenport,  a  Puritan  minister  of  the  "  straitest  sect."  : 

In  1639  tne  settlers  held  their  first  town-meeting.  They 
voted  :  (i)  "that  the  Scriptures  do  hold  forth  a  perfect  rule  for 
the  direction  and  government  of  all  men  "  ;  (2)  "  that  church- 
members  only  shall  be  free  burgesses."  m  These  ordinances 
were  declared  to  be  unalterable. 


96  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [icas-noi. 

The  settlers  then  chose  twelve  men,  who  in  turn  chose,  from 
among  themselves,  the  "Seven  Pillars."  These  seven,  by 
mutual  agreement,  formed  the  first  church  of  New  Haven 
Colony,  and  also  the  first  court  of  justice.  They  appointed 
the  civil  officers  of  the  commonwealth  and  decided  who  might 
be  permitted  to  vote. 

A  few  years  later  (1644)  the  General  Court  ordered  that  "  the 
judicial  Laws  of  Moses,"  as  laid  down  in  the  Old  Testament, 
should  be  the  rule  for  dealing  with  all  offenders.  These  laws, 
which  resembled  those  of  Massachusetts,  inflicted  the  penalty 
of  death  not  only  on  the  murderer,  but  on  the  presumptuous 
sabbath-breaker,  the  wilful  blasphemer  and  the  stubborn  and 
rebellious  son.230  All  trials  were  conducted  before  the  seven 
judges;  trial  by  jury  was  not  allowed.231  There  is  no  evidence, 
however,  that  capital  punishment  was  ever  inflicted  except  for 
wilful  murder,  and  for  the  commission  of  one  or  two  revolting 
crimes.232  In  England  at  this  date  no  less  than  thirty  offences 
—  of  which  sheep-stealing  was  one  —  were  punished  by  the 
hangman's  halter. 

116.  Establishment  of  a  free  school  (1642)  and  of  a 
college  (1701)  ;  the  regicides.  —  Meanwhile  (1642)  the  colony 
of  New  Haven  had  ordered  a  free  school  to  be  "  set  up " 
(§  93),  and  to  be  supported  out  of  the  public  money  of  the 
town.288 

Two  generations  later  (1701  ;  after  New  Haven  and  Con 
necticut  had  long  been  united)  tradition  tells  us  that  ten 
ministers,  zealous  for  the  cause  of  sound  knowledge  and 
sound  orthodoxy,  met  at  Branford,  near  New  Haven.  Each 
brought  a  few  books,  saying,  "  I  give  these  books  for  the 
founding  of  a  college  in  this  colony."  Such  was  the  humble 
beginning  of  what  is  to-day  "  Yale  University."  It  was  the 
second  in  order  of  birth  of  the  great  New  England  institutions 
of  learning.284 

When  Charles  II.  came  to  the  throne,  Whalley  and  Goffe, 
two  of  the  judges  who  had  signed  Charles  I.'s  death  warrant, 


1660-1687.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  97 

fled  to  Boston.  Thence  the  "regicide  judges  "  went  to  New 
Haven.235 

The  Puritan  colonists  of  New  England  naturally  sympathized 
with  men  who  had  given  the  death-blow  to  that  royal  tyranny 
which  had  driven  them  to  seek  homes  in  the  New  World. 
The  Reverend  John  Davenport  concealed  the  fugitives  in  his 
own  house.  In  a  sermon  full  of  fervor  he  bade  his  congrega 
tion  obey  the  Scripture  command  :  "  Hide  the  outcasts,  betray 
not  him  that  wandereth."  ^  The  emissaries  of  the  Crown 
offered  large  rewards  for  the  capture  of  the  regicides,  but  no 
one,  however  poor,  would  give  information  respecting  them. 
The  King  never  succeeded  in  laying  hand  on  these  two  men 
who  had  helped  to  send  his  father  to  the  block. 

117.  The  Connecticut  Charter  (1662) ;  New  Haven  united 

with  Connecticut;  Andros  and  the  charter In  1662 

Charles  II.  granted  a  charter  to  the  Connecticut  colony,  which 
incorporated  (1665)  the  New  Haven  colony  with  the  other 
settlement.237  The  Connecticut  charter  was  a  remarkable 
instrument.  It  made  the  people  of  that  commonwealth  "  inde 
pendent  except  in  name."  They  could  elect  their  own  governor 
and  legislature,  enact  their  own  laws  (provided  they  should  not 
be  contrary  to  the  laws  of  England),  and  administer  justice 
without  appeal  to  the  English  courts.  The  charter  imposed  no 
restrictions  in  matters  of  religion  or  worship. 

It  was  as  liberal  in  its  gift  of  territory  as  in  its  political 
concessions.  It  secured  to  this  virtual  American  republic  a 
strip  of  land  about  seventy  miles  in  width,  extending  from  a 
point  a  little  west  of  Narragansett  Bay  in  one  unbroken  line 
across  the  continent  to  the  Pacific.  By  these  generous  terms 
Connecticut  embraced,  like  Virginia  and  Massachusetts,  nearly 
one-eighth  the  circumference  of  the  globe. 

In  1687  Governor  Andros,  in  pursuance  of  his  instructions 
from  James  II.  (§  100),  demanded  the  surrender  of  the  Connec 
ticut  charter,  and  went  with  a  military  retinue  to  Hartford  to 
obtain  it.  The  authorities  protested,  but  Andros  was  unyield- 


98  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [i687-m6. 

ing.  He  had  come  for  the  charter,  and  he  was  determined  not 
to  go  away  without  it.  The  discussion  extended  into  the 
evening.  Then,  according  to  tradition,  the  much-coveted  doc 
ument  was  brought  in  and  laid  on  the  table.  The  Governor 
was  about  to  take  possession  of  it,  when  the  candles  were 
suddenly  blown  out  ;  when  they  were  relighted  the  charter 
had  disappeared.  One  of  the  Assemblymen  had  seized  the 
precious  document  under  cover  of  the  darkness,  and  rushing 
out  had  hidden  it  in  the  hollow  trunk  of  the  tree  henceforth 
known  and  venerated  as  the  "Charter  Oak."  m 

Andros  now  took  the  management  of  Connecticut  (§  100) 
upon  himself.  But  his  triumph  was  brief.  When  (1689)  he 
fell  (§  100)  the  colonists  brought  out  the  hidden  charter  and 
reestablished  their  liberty.  From  that  time  the  government 
remained  substantially  unchanged  until  the  adoption  of  the 
State  constitution  in  1818. 

The  growth  of  Connecticut,  like  that  of  her  noble  elms, 
was  silent  and  sure.  As  she  chose  her  own  rulers  and  made 
her  own  laws,  she  was  exempt  from  those  quarrels  with  royal 
Governors  which  kept  most  of  the  colonies  in  a  constant  tur 
moil.  In  the  French  wars  Israel  Putnam,  one  of  Connecticut's 
adopted  sons — "the  man  who  dared  to  lead  where  any  man 
dared  to  follow  "  —  showed  how  her  people  were  being  trained 
for  the  coming  struggle  for  independence.  That  struggle 
brought  such  patriots  as  Putnam,  Roger  Sherman,  and  Gov 
ernor  Jonathan  Trumbull  —  the  original  "  Brother  Jonathan," 
the  friend  and  adviser  of  Washington  —  directly  to  the  front.289 

118.  Summary.  —  The  Connecticut  Valley  was  settled  by 
emigrants  from  Massachusetts  who  desired  to  establish  a 
colony  on  a  broader  basis  of  citizenship.  Connecticut  framed 
the  first  written  and  purely  republican  form  of  constitution 
made  by  Americans  for  Americans.  Later,  a  colony  of  the 
strictest  class  of  Puritans  was  established  at  New  Haven. 
They  limited  the  government  to  church-members.  In  1662 
Charles  II.  united  the  two  colonies  under  a  very  liberal  charter. 


1629-1636.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.          .  99 

Henceforth  Connecticut  became  an  independent  republic  in 
everything  but  name.  Israel  Putnam  led  Connecticut  men  in 
the  "French  and  Indian  War";  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Revolution,  Putnam,  Sherman,  and  Trumbull  took  a  conspic 
uous  part  in  behalf  of  independence. 

VII.     MARYLAND  (1634). 

119.  George  Calvert,  Baron  of  Baltimore;  the  Maryland 
Charter;  laws;  religion.  —  In  1629  George  Calvert,  Baron 
of  Baltimore,  visited  Jamestown,  Virginia,  with  the  view  of 
settling  in  that  province.  The  authorities,  knowing  that  he 
was  a  Catholic,  demanded  that  he  should  take  the  Oath  of 
Supremacy  (§  40),  and  thus  compelled  him  to  leave  the  colony.240 

Two  years  later  (1631)  Charles  I.  granted  Lord  Baltimore  a 
large  tract  of  wild  land  in  Virginia,  north  and  east  of  the 
Potomac  ;  but  before  the  charter  was  signed  Lord  Baltimore 
died,  and  his  son,  Cecil  Calvert,  the  second  Lord  Baltimore, 
received  the  charter.241  It  created  Calvert  and  his  heirs 
"Proprietaries"  or  "true  and  absolute  lords"  of  Maryland  - 
a  name  given  by  the  King  in  honor  of  his  wife,  Queen  Mary, 
who  held  the  same  faith  as  the  Calverts.  By  this  act  Charles 
I.  granted  "the  most  ample  rights  and  privileges  ever  con 
ferred  by  a  sovereign  of  England."  He  gave  Lord  Baltimore 
power  to  set  up  "a  government  almost  independent  of  the 
parent  country."  242 

By  the  charter  the  "  Proprietary  "  could  erect  manors,  create 
a  titled  aristocracy,  wage  war,  call  out  the  entire  fighting  popu 
lation  to  defend  his  province,  establish  courts  of  justice, 
impose  custom  duties,  levy  taxes,  and,  with  the  assent  of  the 
freemen,  could  enact  all  needful  laws  —  provided,  however, 
that  they  should  agree  "  as  far  as  conveniently  might  be  "  with 
the  laws  of  England. 

In  pursuance  of  this  plan,  Lord  Baltimore  ordered  (1636) 
that  land-grants  of  a  thousand  acres  and  upwards  should  be 


IOO 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


[1634-. 


erected  into  manors.  The  lord  of  such  an  estate  was  em 
powered  to  hold  civil  and  criminal  courts.  His  tenants  usually 
enjoyed  a  share  in  the  management  or  government  of  the 
estate.  One  of  the  most  famous  of  these  manors,  on  which 
the  ancient  mansion,  chapel,  and  outbuildings  are  still  to  be 
seen,  was  the  beautiful  domain  of  the  Revolutionary  patriot, 
Charles  Carroll  of  Carrollton,  which  is  still  held  by  one  of  his 
descendants. 

Nothing  in  the  charter  forbade  the  Proprietary  from  opening 
such  places  of  worship  as  he  saw  fit.243  Lord  Baltimore's 
intention  was  to  found  an  aristocratic  province  of  wealthy 
landholders  which  should  also  be  a  place  of  refuge  for  English 
Catholics.244  In  doing  this  he  had  no  intention  of  compelling 
all  colonists  to  contribute  toward  the  support  of  the  Catholic 
Church,  or  of  excluding  any  other  class  of  Christians ;  in  fact, 
under  English  law  he  could  not  have  shut  out  Protestants  had 
he  been  so  disposed.  But  he  was  not  so  disposed  ;  on  the 
contrary,  he  invited  them  to  take  part  in  planting  the  first 
settlement  in  the  American  wilderness  which  was  open  to  all 
believers  in  Christianity.245 

120.   Emigration  to  Maryland;    St.  Mary's  (1634)  first 
English  Catholic  Church ;   Puritans  ;   toleration ;   Quakers. 
—  Leonard  Calvert,  a  brother  of  Lord 
Baltimore,   sailed   (1633)   f°r   Maryland 
with  nearly  two  hundred  colonists.  About 
twenty  of  them  were  Catholic  gentlemen 
who  went  out  to  take  up  lands ;    most 
of  the  remainder  appear  to  have  been 
Protestant  laborers.     A  settlement  was 
made  at  St.  Mary's  in  1634.     Here  an 
Indian  wigwam  was  consecrated  as   a 
It  was  the  first  English   Catholic  church 
No  other  colony  would  have  allowed  it 
Under  English  law  no  colony  could 
Nothing  in  Lord 


place   of  worship. 

opened  in  America. 

to  stand  even  for  a  day. 

have  rightfully  permitted  it  to  do  so  (§  40). 


1634-J649.J         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  IOI 

Baltimore's  charter  granted  him  permission  to  open  such  a 
church  ;  but  it  seems  to  have  been  implied  or  understood. 

From  the  outset,  Protestants  and  Catholics  enjoyed  equal 
and  entire  freedom.  Puritans  from  New  England  were  invited 
to  settle  in  the  new  colony.  Governor  Winthrop  of  Massachu 
setts  wrote  (1643),  tnat  Lord  Baltimore,  "being  himself  a 
Papist,"  offered  "land  in  Maryland  to  any  of  ours  that  would 
transport  themselves  thither,  with  free  liberty  of  religion."*46 

When  Governor  Berkeley  of  Virginia  drove  out  the  Puritans 
from  the  "Old  Dominion,"  a  number  fled  to  Maryland  (1648- 
1649)  and,  like  Roger  Williams,  founded  a  town  which  they 
named  Providence  —  now  Annapolis.  In  1649  the  Maryland 
Assembly,  a  majority  of  whom  were  Catholics,  enacted  a 
statute  which  confirmed  and  fully  established  Lord  Baltimore's 
policy  of  religious  toleration.  That  act  punished  denial  of  the 
Trinity  with  death ;  but  it  declared  that  "  no  person  .  .  .  pro 
fessing  to  believe  in  Jesus  Christ  shall  from  henceforth  be  any 
ways  troubled  ...  in  respect  of  his  or  her  religion  ...  so  as 
they  be  not  unfaithful  to  the  Lord  Proprietary."  247 

Certain  Quakers  were  banished  for  refusing  to  take  the  oath 
of  allegiance  to  Lord  Baltimore  ;  but  even  they  were  not  very 
rigidly  excluded,  for  George  Fox  later  (1672)  declared  that  he 
held  "  a  large  and  heavenly  meeting  "  in  Maryland.248 

121.  The  Virginians;  Clayborne;  Captain  Ingle;  the 
Puritan  commissioners ;  Cromwell ;  William  and  Mary.  — 
Meanwhile  the  Virginia  colonists,  angry  at  the  dismemberment 
of  their  territory,  showed  decided  hostility  to  their  new  neigh 
bors.  William  Clayborne,  a  Virginian,  held  a  trading  station 
on  Kent  Island,  under  a  royal  license,  granted  before  Lord 
Baltimore  received  his  charter.  He  refused  to  vacate  ;  fighting 
ensued.  Finally  the  case  was  brought  before  the  English 
courts  and  was  decided  in  Lord  Baltimore's  favor.  When  the 
Civil  War  broke  out  in  England  between  the  Puritans  and  the 
Royalists,  Clayborne  made  an  attempt  to  repossess  himself  of 
Kent  Island. 


IO2  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.          [1644-1689. 

At  the  same  time  Captain  Richard  Ingle,  an  English  piratical 
adventurer,  who  professed  to  be  a  staunch  Puritan,  seized  St. 
Mary's,  and  compelled  Governor  Calvert  to  fly  to  Virginia. 
Under  the  plea  that  he  had  come  to  help  "  the  distressed 
Protestants  "  of  the  colony,  Clayborne  plundered  the  Catholics 
and  the  Royalists,  broke  up  the  Catholic  missions,  and  arrest 
ing  Father  White  and  the  other  priests,  sent  them  to  England 
in  irons  to  answer  to  a  false  charge  of  treason. 

After  a  time  Governor  Calvert  returned  to  Maryland,  but 
there  was  a  great  outcry  in  England  against  what  was  called 
the  "  Papist  province."  To  take  away  all  cause  for  this 
clamor,  Lord  Baltimore  removed  the  Catholic  Governor,  put  a 
Protestant  in  his  place,  and  gave  the  control  to  that  party.249 

After  Charles  I.  was  beheaded,  Parliament  appointed  three 
commissioners,  one  of  whom  was  Clayborne,  to  reorganize  the 
government  of  Maryland.  Three-fourths  of  the  colonists  were 
Puritans.  They  supported  Clayborne  in  his  avowed  determi 
nation  to  "  root  out  the  Papists."  An  Assembly  was  summoned 
from  which  all  Catholics  were  expressly  excluded.  That  body 
enacted  a  law  (1654)  declaring  :  "that  none  who  profess  and 
exercise  the  Popish  religion  .  .  .  can  be  protected  in  this 
province  by  the  laws  of  England."250  The  extreme  Puritans  in 
England  said  that  at  last  "Babylon  in  Maryland"  had  fallen.261 
The  same  law  that  refused  liberty  of  worship  to  Catholics, 
denied  it  to  Episcopalians,  Quakers,  and  Baptists.252 

Cromwell,  Puritan  though  he  was,  sternly  rebuked  this 
action.  He  declared  that  "Liberty  of  conscience  is  a  natural 
right."  He  gave  orders  that  Lord  Baltimore's  authority  should 
be  respected,  and  that  freedom  of  worship  should  be  restored 
to  all  Christians.253 

When  William  and  Mary  came  to  the  throne  (1689),  they 
were  not  at  once  proclaimed  sovereigns  in  Maryland.  John 
Coode  spread  the  report  that  the  delay  was  the  result  of  a  plot 
on  the  part  of  the  Catholics  and  the  Indians  to  "  cut  off  the 
Protestants  "  of  the  colony.  The  story  was  absurd  on  its  face, 


1689-1775.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  1 03 

for  the  Protestants  greatly  outnumbered  the  Catholics,  and 
could  easily  have  crushed  any  attack.  But  the  report  led  to 
an  insurrection,  and  Maryland  was  split  into  two  hostile  par 
ties,  one  crying  out  against  the  "  villainous  practices  "  of  "  the 
late  Popish  governors "  ;  the  other  denouncing  "  the  wicked 
instigation  of  John  Coode."254 

122.  Maryland  becomes  a  royal  province ;   the  Church 
of  England ;   the  Catholics  ;  Lord  Baltimore ;   the  Revolu 
tion  ;   Articles  of  Confederation.  —  In   consequence  of  this 
turmoil  the  King  decided  (1692)  to  take  the  government  of 
Maryland  into  his  own  hands,  and  the  Assembly  established 
the  Church  of  England  in  the  colony.     Puritans  and  Catholics 
were  now  alike  forced  to  contribute  money  for  its  support,  and 
Catholics   were   forbidden   to  hold    public  worship.255      Later 
(1716),  the  introduction  of  the  "test  oath"  (§  174)  had  the 
effect  of  prohibiting  Catholics  from  holding  any  office  under 
the   Government.      Henceforth   until   the    Revolution,  despite 
the  sturdy  protest  of  such  patriots  as  Charles  Carroll,  citizens 
of  that  faith   "  were   taxed   to   sustain   a  religion  which  they 
believed  heretical,  and  a  Government  in  which  they  had  no 
share."256 

Meanwhile  the  Baltimores  had  become  Protestants,  and 
Maryland  was  restored  (1715)  to  Charles  Calvert,  the  fifth  Lord 
Baltimore.  He  was  a  member  of  the  Church  of  England,  and 
he  and  his  descendants  held  the  province  until  the  War  of 
Independence.  In  1729  the  great  tobacco  planters  on  the 
Patapsco  founded  the  city  of  Baltimore,  as  a  port  from  which 
to  ship  that  staple.  In  the  outset  of  the  Revolution  the  Mary 
land  colonists  burned  the  taxed  tea  that  was  shipped  to  Anna 
polis,  and  sent  sharp-shooters  to  aid  the  Continental  army  in 
besieging  the  British  force  shut  up  in  Boston. 

123.  Summary. —  The  colony  of  Maryland  was  established 
by    Lord    Baltimore    (1634)    mainly  as  a  refuge    for  English 
Catholics.     Liberty  of  worship   was  guaranteed  to  all  Chris 
tians.     Maryland  became  involved  in  a  dispute  with  Virginia 


104 


THE    STUDENTS    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


[1636-. 


in  regard  to  the  possession  of  Kent  Island.  The  republican 
party  in  England  appointed  Clayborne  with  other  commis 
sioners  to  reorganize  the  government  of  Maryland.  The 
commissioners  summoned  an  Assembly  made  up  of  Puritan 
settlers,  who  refused  to  protect  Catholics,  and  prohibited  free 
dom  of  worship  to  any  but  those  of  their  own  faith.  In  1692 
Maryland  became  a  royal  province,  and  the  Church  of  England 
was  made  the  established  form  of  worship. 

Later,  when  the  Baltimores  had  become  Protestants,  the 
government  was  restored  to  them,  and  remained  in  their  hands 
until  the  outbreak  of  the  Revolution. 


VIII.     RHODE  ISLAND  (1636). 

124.  Roger  Williams  founds  Providence;  the  " lively 
experiment. "  — In  the  spring  of  1636  Roger  Williams  (§91), 
with  a  few  friends,  formed  a  settlement  at  the  head  of  Narra- 

gansett  Bay.  In  commemoration 
of  the  many  mercies  he  had  re 
ceived  from  the  Most  High,  he 
called  the  place  "  Providence."  "  I 
desired,"  he  says,  "it  might  be  for 
a  shelter  for  persons  distressed  for 
conscience."  257 

In    the    colony    of    Providence 
absolute   religious   liberty  was 

guaranteed    to    all.      It    was,    as 

Roger    Williams    said,    "  a    lively 

experiment  "  —  one  that  had  never  been  made  before.  More 
than  a  century  earlier  (1515)  Sir  Thomas  More  in  his  romance 
of  Utopia  had  dared  to  hint  at  such  toleration  in  England.  The 
idea  was  regarded  as  an  excellent  jest.  Well-nigh  half  a  cen 
tury  later  (1561)  L'Hopital,  Chancellor  of  France,  likewise 
pleaded,  but  without  success,  for  freedom  of  worship.258  Lord 
Baltimore  (1634)  granted  it  in  Maryland,  but  confined  it  to 


1636-.]      ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH  SETTLEMENTS.        1 05 

trinitarian  Christians  (§  120).  In  Rhode  Island  (1636)  Roger 
Williams,  casting  all  limitations  aside,  welcomed  men  not  only 
of  every  faith,  —  Jew,  Christian,  or  Pagan,  —  but  men  of  no  faith, 
to  the  enjoyment  of  what  he  called  "soul  liberty."259  Complete 
religious  toleration  had  its  origin  in  America.  Later,  Williams 
(1654)  explained  how  this  "soul  liberty"  was  to  be  made 
consistent  with  the  maintenance  of  order.  He  compared  the 
colony  to  the  passengers  in  a  ship.  No  one,  said  he,  must 
"  be  forced  to  come  to  the  ship's  prayers  " ;  but  on  the  other 
hand  no  mutiny  can  be  permitted,  and  no  man's  religious  belief 
can  be  allowed  to  "  disturb  the  civil  peace."  26° 

A  striking  illustration  of  the  practical  working  of  such  broad 
toleration  occurred  a  few  years  later.  The  commissioners  of 
the  New  England  Confederacy  (1657)  requested  Governor 
Arnold  of  Rhode  Island  to  exclude  Quakers  as  a  "common 
pest."  The  Governor  replied  that  they  had  no  law  to  punish 
them.  He  added  ironically  that  the  Rhode  Island  colonists 
had  found  by  experience  that  where  Quakers  were  "  suffered 
to  declare  themselves  freely  .  .  .  [there]  they  least  of  all 
desire  to  come."261 

Meanwhile  several  Baptists  had  emigrated  from  Massa 
chusetts  to  Providence.  Williams  gave  them  a  hearty  welcome, 
and  united  with  them  in  forming  (1639)  the  first  Baptist 
Church  in  America.  He  soon  after  withdrew  from  it,  and 
became  what  was  then  called  a  "  Seeker,"  or  independent 
inquirer. 

125.  Government  of  the  colony;  charter  of  the  colony.  - 
The  government  of  the  colony  was  a  democracy  limited  to  the 
heads  of  families.  Unmarried  men  could  not  vote,  but  must 
bind  themselves  to  obey  the  laws.  Later  (1640),  five  men  called 
"Disposers"  were  chosen  to  manage  affairs,  but  their  action 
might  be  modified  or  set  aside  in  town-meeting.262 

Subsequently,  suffrage  was  restricted  to  owners  of  real  estate, 
and  no  one  could  become  a  citizen  until  he  had  resided  in  the 
colony  for  some  time.268 


io6  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1643-1654. 

Meanwhile,  Williams  had  gone  to  England  to  secure  a  charter 
for  Rhode  Island.  He  procured  one  from  the  Parliamentary 
Commissioners  (1644),  which  gave  the  colonists  full  power  to 
govern  themselves  provided  they  enacted  no  laws  contrary  to 
those  of  England.264 

Twenty  years  later  (1663)  a  royal  charter  was  obtained  which 
confirmed  all  the  privileges  granted  by  the  first  instrument,  and 
which  expressly  provided  that  no  one.  should  be  "  in  any  wise 
molested  ...  for  any  difference  in  opinion  in  matters  of 
religion."  265  This  charter  was  so  broad  and  liberal  that  it 
virtually  made  Rhode  Island  a  "  little  republic."  When  the 
colony  threw  off  the  power  of  the  Crown  in  1776,  the  clause 
in  the  charter  requiring  allegiance  to  the  King  was  struck  out, 
and  one  was  substituted  requiring  allegiance  to  the  Colony; 
with  this  single  change  it  then  stood  until  I842.266 

126.  Limitation  of  suffrage  versus  religious  toleration; 
Brown  University.  —  Meanwhile,  on  paper  at  least,  a  very 
decided  limitation  of  suffrage  had  taken  place.  In  the  statutes 
of  Rhode  Island  of  1719  a  law  which  claims  to  have  dated  from 
i664j3rovided  that  "all  men  professing  Christianity,"  Roman 
Catholics  excepted,  should  be  admitted  to  vote.  There  appears 
to  be  no  evidence  that  this  law  was  ever  enforced ; 267  but 
it  was  five  times  formally  reenacted,  and  it  remained  on  the 
statute-book  until  the  close  of  the  Revolution  (i783).268 

Unquestionably  this  act  was  a  departure  from  the  privileges 
guaranteed  by  Roger  Williams.  It  restricted  political  liberty 
for  a  religious  reason.  It  imposed  a  serious  political  disability 
on  both  Catholics  and  Jews,  nevertheless  it  did  not  directly 
assail  the  great  principle  of  freedom  of  worship. 

Under  this  law  any  one  might  settle  in  the  colony,  but  not 
every  one  could  legally  obtain  the  full  rights  of  citizenship. 
Rhode  Island  still  continued  to  be  a  refuge  for  men  of  all 
creeds  and  of  no  creed ;  and  it  was  humorously  said  that  if 
any  man  had  lost  his  religion  he  would  be  sure  to  find  it  some 
where  in  the  "  Providence  Plantations."  Perhaps  after  all  it 
was  a  good  thing  that  there  was  one  place  in  America  where  a 


1764-.]       ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH  SETTLEMENTS.        IO/ 

man  could  find  the  religion  he  sought,  and  having  found  it 
could  practice  it  in  his  own  way  without  molestation. 

This  principle  found  expression  in  the  establishment  by 
the  Baptists  (1764)  of  Rhode  Island  College,  now  Brown  Uni 
versity.  The  charter  of  that  noble  institution  of  learning 
expressly  forbids  the  use  of  religious  tests,  and  requires  that 
not  only  Baptists,  but  Quakers,  Episcopalians,  and  Congrega- 
tionalists  shall  be  included  in  the  board  of  trustees.269 

Eventually  this  broad  principle  of  toleration  obtained  national 
expression  in  the  first  amendment  to  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States.  Whether  the  "soul  liberty"  enjoyed  in  Rhode 
Island  suggested  that  amendment  or  not,  it  at  least  established 
a  precedent  for  it. 

127.  Independent  spirit  of  Rhode  Island ;  resistance  to 
Great  Britain.  —  It  was  inevitable  that  a  colony  which  excluded 
no  one  should  be  at  times  tumultuous  in  its  exercise  of  indi 
vidual  liberty.  It  was  natural  too  that  Massachusetts  should 
be  strongly  prejudiced  against  a  commonwealth  established  on 
principles  of  religious  toleration  by  a  man  she  had  driven 
out. 

This  feeling  of  personal  independence,  though  at  times 
pushed  to  extremes,  did  good  service  in  the  end.  Governor 
Shirley  of  Massachusetts  (1754)  denounced  it  as  the  "spirit 
of  mobbism."  But  later  that  spirit  struck  the  keynote  of  the 
highest  patriotism  in  its  resistance  to  arbitrary  rule. 

When  (1764)  England  by  her  revival  of  restrictions  on  trade 
with  the  West  Indies  threatened  the  commercial  ruin  of  both 
Rhode  Island  and  Massachusetts,  Stephen  Hopkins,  the  Quaker 
Governor  of  Rhode  Island,  came  out  in  vigorous  defence  of 
the  American  colonies.  With  unmistakable  emphasis  he  declared 
that  "the  Parliament  of  Great  Britain  had  no  more  right  to  make 
laws  for  the  Rhode  Islanders  than  they  had  to  make  them  for 
the  Mohawks."  27°  In  that  spirit  the  sons  of  Rhode  Island,  led 
by  General  Greene,  fought  in  the  Revolution  which  established 
our  national  independence. 


io8 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.         [1638-1655. 


128.  Summary.  —  Roger  Williams  planted  the  colony  of 
Rhode  Island  on  the  basis  of  absolute  religious  freedom  for  all 
men.  He  obtained  a  charter  which  virtually  gave  the  colony 
the  power  of  self-government.  After  a  time  the  right  of  suf 
frage  was  legally  restricted  to  Protestants,  but  there  was  no 
interference  with  liberty  of  worship.  From  the  outset  the 
spirit  of  the  colonists  was  vigorously  independent,  and  mani 
fested  itself  most  effectively  in  the  War  of  the  Revolution. 


IX.    NEW  SWEDEN  OR  DELAWARE  (1638). 

129.  First  settlement  on  the  Delaware ;  Christina.  —  The 
Dutch  made  a  settlement  on  the  Delaware  (1631),  but  it  was 
soon  destroyed  by  the  Indians.  A  number  of  years  later 
Sweden  resolved  to  get  a  share  of  the  American  continent, 
and  to  build  up  a  "New  Sweden,"  which  should  rival  Holland's 
"  New  Netherland  "  and  Britain's  "  New  England." 

The  Swedish  Government  engaged  Ex-Governor  Peter  Minuit 
(§  56)  to  take  over  a  party  of  emigrants.  They  made  a  settlement 
(1638)  on  the  western  bank  of  the  Dela 
ware  within  what  are  now  the  city  limits 
of  Wilmington.  The  emigrants  named 
this  settlement  Christina,  in  honor  of 
the  young  Queen  of  Sweden.  It  was 
the  first  permanent  colony  established 
in  the  Delaware  Valley.  The  Dutch, 
however,  had  no  idea  of  permitting  the 
Swedes  to  get  a  foothold  on  territory 
which  they  claimed  as  their  own.  Gover 
nor  Stuyvesant  sailed  with  an  expedition 
from  New  Amsterdam  and  compelled 
(1655)  the  fort  at  Christina  to  surrender. 
The  Dutch  gave  the  Swedish  colonists  permission  to  remain  in 
the  country,  and  pledged  themselves  not  to  interfere  with 
their  freedom  of  worship.271  When  the  English  captured 


1664-1776.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  IOQ 

(§62)  New  Netherland  (1664)  this  southern  territory  on  the 
Delaware  became  part  of  the  possessions  of  James,  Duke  of 
York. 

130.  William  Penn  purchases  Delaware  ;  its  government; 
Delaware  becomes  independent ;  enters  the  Union.  —  After 
William  Penn  obtained  (1680)  his  grant  of  Pennsylvania  he 
was  anxious  to  secure  a  frontage  on  the  Atlantic.     In  order  to 
accomplish  this  he  purchased  (1682)  the  region  then  called  the 
"  Three    Counties   upon   the    Delaware "   from    the    Duke   of 
York. 

Penn  annexed  these  three  counties  to  his  province  and 
named  them  the  "Territories  of  Pennsylvania";  they  were 
governed  as  part  of  that  province  until  1701.  The  people 
of  the  "  Territories  "  then  succeeded  in  getting  a  charter  from 
Penn  under  which  they  established  a  Legislature  of  their  own.27a 

That  charter  followed  the  "  Frame  of  Government "  of  Penn 
sylvania  and  was  equally  liberal  in  its  terms.  It  granted:  (i) 
Freedom  of  worship  to  all  who  believed  in  "  One  Almighty 
God";  (2)  No  one  could  be  required  to  contribute  toward  the 
support  of  any  form  of  religion  to  which  he  conscientiously 
objected ;  (3)  All  persons  who  professed  belief  in  Jesus  Christ, 
and  who  solemnly  promised  allegiance  to  the  King,  and  fidelity 
to  the  Proprietor  and  to  the  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  were 
eligible  to  office. 

In  1776  the  inhabitants  of  the  "Territories  of  Pennsylvania" 
declared  themselves  an  independent  State.  They  took  the  name 
of  Delaware  from  that  of  the  river  forming  their  northeast 
boundary.  In  the  battles  of  the  Revolution  no  regiment  fought 
more  bravely  than  that  popularly  known  as  the  "  Blue  Hen's 
Chickens,"  or  the  "Gamecocks  of  Delaware."  The  State,  by 
a  prompt,  unanimous,  and  enthusiastic  vote  was  the  first  in  order 
of  time  to  accept  the  Constitution,  and  to  enter  the  new  American 
Union  so  established.278 

131.  Summary.  —  Delaware  was  originally  settled  (1638) 
by  the  Swedes  at  Christina  (now  Wilmington),  but  the  Dutch 


no 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


[1663-. 


from  New  Netherland  soon  got  possession  of  the  province. 
After  the  conquest  of  New  Netherland  by  the  English,  Dela 
ware  was  purchased  from  the  Duke  of  York  by  William  Penn, 
who  annexed  it  to  his  province  of  Pennsylvania.  Eventually, 
the  people  of  Delaware  obtained  a  charter  from  Penn,  and 
established  a  Legislature  of  their  own.  In  1776  they  declared 
themselves  independent  of  Great  Britain,  and  took  an  active 
part  in -the  Revolution.  Delaware  was  the  first  State  to  accept 
the  Constitution  and  to  enter  the  American  Union. 


X.-XI.    NORTH  AND  SOUTH  CAROLINA  (1663). 

132.  Charles  II.  grants  "  Carolina  "  ;  settlements  in  that 
region.  —  Charles  I.  by  his  grant  of  Maryland  (1632)  had 
greatly  reduced  the  area  of  Virginia  on  the  north;  his  son 
Charles  II.  cut  off  a  still  larger  slice  from  the  original  territory 

of  the  "Old  Dominion." 
In  1663  that  lavish  mon 
arch  issued  a  charter  to 
Lord  Clarendon  and  seven 
other  court  favorites,  giv 
ing  them  all  the  region 
along  the  coast  between 
Albemarle  Sound  and  the 
St.  John's  river  of  Flo 
rida.274  Westward  the 
tract  extended  to  the  Pa 
cific.  The  King  named 
the  province  Carolina,  in 
honor  of  himself.  Two 

years  later  (1665)  Charles  extended  this  grant  half  a  degree 
further  north,  and,  in  open  defiance  of  the  claims  of  Spain, 
pushed  the  boundary  on  the  south  until  it  not  only  included 
the  ancient  Spanish  city  of  St.  Augustine  (§  23)  but  overlapped 
it  by  nearly  seventy  miles.275 


1669-.]       ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH  SETTLEMENTS.        I  I  I 

The  Proprietors  of  this  vast  province  might  make  all  needful 
laws,  provided  they  received  "  the  approbation  "  of  a  majority 
of  the  freemen  of  the  colony.276  They  might  also  grant  such 
religious  liberty  as  they  thought  "fit  and  reasonable."277 

Emigrants  from  Virginia  had  already  moved  into  this  country 
and  settled  (1653)  on  the  Chowan  River,  or  Albemarle  district. 
Later  (1665),  Englishmen  coming  from  the  Barbadoes  formed 
a  settlement  at  Cape  Fear,  or  the  Clarendon  district.  When 
George  Fox  (§  95)  pushed  his  way  south  across  the  Great 
Dismal  Swamp  (1672)  and  entered  Carolina  he  received  a  warm 
welcome  from  certain  Quakers  who  had  fled  there,  and  had  built 
colonies  on  the  Chowan  River.278 

133.  "  The  Grand  Model "  ;  provisions  respecting  society, 
laws,  religion.  —  The  proprietors  of  Carolina  adopted  (1669) 
a  cumbrous  and 'complex  constitution,  popularly  known  as  the 
"  Grand  Model."  279  It  was  to  stand  forever,  and  could  not  be 
amended  or  altered.  The  "Grand  Model"  was  mainly  the  work 
of  the  eminent  English  philosopher,  John  Locke.  Feudalism 
had  died  a  natural  death  in  England,  but  Locke  proposed  to 
resurrect  it,  and  transplant  it  in  a  modified  form  to  the  pine 
forests  of  the  New  World. 

The  avowed  object  of  the  "  Grand  Model "  was  to  "  avoid 
erecting  a  numerous  democracy," — or  to  grant  as  little  power 
to  the  people  as  possible.  It  aimed  to  build  up  a  political  and 
social  pyramid.  The  base  was  formed  of  negro  slaves,  subject 
in  all  respects  to  the  "  absolute  power  "  of  their  masters.280  Next 
above  the  negroes  came  the  white  agricultural  laborers.  They 
were  serfs  of  the  soil ;  they  had  no  right  to  vote,  or  even  to 
leave  the  estate  on  which  they  worked,  without  permission  of 
the  owners.  In  that  condition  they  and  their  children  were  to 
remain  "  to  all  generations." 281  Above  these  serfs  came  a 
class  of  well-to-do  but  untitled  landholders  who  had  the  right 
to  vote,  and  a  voice  in  legislation.282 

Above  this  class  was  the  nobility,  holding  vast  estates, 
descending  from  father  to  son  forever.282  Finally  a  corpora- 


H2  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1669-1729. 

tion  of  eight  wealthy  and  titled  Proprietors  crowned  all.  The 
eldest  Proprietor  represented  the  King ;  the  whole  proprietary 
body  was  "  self-renewing  and  immortal." 284 

134.  Mode  of  legislation;  religious  toleration  ;  the  colony 
becomes  a  royal  province.  —  All  laws  were  to  be  made  by  a 
Parliament,  consisting  of  the  "  Proprietors  (or  their  deputies), 
together  with  the  nobility  and  a  small  proportion  of  the  untitled 
landholders."  285     The  Proprietors  could  veto  the  laws  enacted 
by  this  Parliament,  and  so  control  the  government. 

With  respect  to  religion  the  "  Grand  Model "  provided  that 
all  persons  who  acknowledged  "that  there  is  a  God,"  and 
admitted  the  rightfulness  of  taking  oaths,  should  have  freedom 
of  worship.286  Those  who  denied  the  existence  of  God  could 
neither  vote  nor  hold  real  estate.287  Persons  above  the  age  of 
seventeen,  not  members  of  some  religious  society,  could  not 
claim  the  protection  of  the  laws.288  Finally,  the  Church  of 
England  and  "it  alone"  was  to  be  maintained  in  Carolina  by 
public  taxation  —  other  churches  must  support  themselves. 28a 
The  above  provisions  excluded  Quakers,  since  they  refused  to 
take  an  oath,  but  did  not  shut  out  Jews  or  Catholics. 

The  Proprietors,  after  more  than  twenty  years  of  vain  strug 
gle,  gave  up  the  attempt  (1698)  to  enforce  this  peculiar  con 
stitution.  In  1720  the  colony  became  a  royal  province,  and 
the  Crown  divided  it  (1729)  into  North  and  South  Carolina.290 
Under  the  royal  government  religious  liberty  was  granted  to  all 
Christians  except  Catholics.291  f 

135.  Settlement    of    Charleston ;    Huguenot    emigrants ; 
cultivation  of  rice  and  indigo.  —  In  1670  British  emigrants 
settled   on  the  west  bank  of   the  Ashley   River.     Two  years 
later  (1672)  they  founded  the  city  of  Charleston.     The  same 
year  slaves  were  brought  into  the  colony  from  the  Barbadpes.292 
They  increased  until  they  outnumbered  the  white  population. 

In  order  to  escape  the  merciless  persecution  of  Louis  XIV. 
numbers  of  Huguenots  (§  22)  fled  to  America,  and  many 
came  to  Charleston.  These  religious  refugees  represented  in 


1694-1713.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  113 

large  degree  not  only  the  bone  and  sinew,  but  the  brain  and 
conscience  of  France.  From  them  sprang  such  patriots  as 
Henry  Laurens  and  Francis  Marion,  while  from  Huguenot 
settlers  in  other  colonies  came  John  Sevier,  Peter  Faneuil,  John 
Bayard,  James  Bowdoin,  Paul  Revere,  Elias  Boudinot,  and 
John  Jay.293 

For  many  years  the  chief  exports  from  the  Carolinas  were 
derived  mainly  from  the  pine  forests  or  from  traffic  with  the 
Indians.  These  exports  consisted  largely  of  turpentine,  tar, 
pitch,  and  rosin,  or  of  furs  and  deer-skins.  A  bag  of  seed-rice, 
obtained  (1694)  by  chance  from  the  captain  of  a  vessel  who  put 
in  at  Charleston,  led  to  the  cultivation  of  that  valuable  grain. 
In  time  it  became  the  principal  article  of  export  from  South 
Carolina.  Its  production  created  a  great  demand  for  negroes, 
and  planters  reaped  rich  harvests  from  the  swamp-lands  along 
the  coast.294  Had  the  white  settlers  attempted  the  cultivation 
of  those  lands  under  the  fierce  rays  of  a  southern  sun,  they 
would  have  simply  "dug  their  own  graves."295 

Nearly  half  a  century  after  the  introduction  of  rice  culture, 
the  daughter  of  a  planter  near  Charleston  obtained  (1742) 
some  indigo-seed  from  the  West  Indies,  and  succeeded  in 
making  it  grow.  Indigo-raising  rapidly  extended.  Before  the 
outbreak  of  the  War  of  Independence  the  yearly  export  of 
this  product  exceeded  a  million  of  pounds,296  and  it  often 
proved  immensely  profitable. 

136.  Indian  wars ;  Governor  Tryon.  —  The  progress  of 
North  Carolina  was  greatly  retarded  by  wars  (1711-13)  with 
the  formidable  Tuscarora  Indians,  who,  according  to  tradi 
tion,  were  an  offshoot  of  the  ferocious  Iroquois  of  New  York. 
By  the  help  of  South  Carolina  and  Virginia  the  power  of  the 
Tuscaroras  was  (1713)  completely  broken.  The  greater  part 
of  the  tribe  emigrated  north,  and  joined  the  Iroquois  con 
federacy —  hereafter  known  as  the  "Six  Nations."297 

But,  though  small  in  numbers,  the  North  Carolinians  were 
made  of  resolute  stuff  ;  as  they  fought  the  savages,  so  in  a 


114 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


[1771-. 


different  way  they  fought  against  the  exactions  of  the  royal 
Governors.  When  they  demanded  taxes,  the  people  replied  by 
demanding  better  government.  The  watchword  of  these  sturdy 
backwoodsmen  was,  "  No  reforms,  no  money." 

Finally,  the  extortions  of  Governor  Tryon  —  nicknamed  the 
"  Great  Wolf  of  North  Carolina "  —  drove  the  back-country 
colonists  into  open  revolt.  They  organized  bands  of  "  Regula 
tors,"  who  not  only  refused  to  pay  oppressive  fees  and  taxes, 
but  flogged  the  lawyers  and  shut  up  the  courts. 

137.  Battle  of  Alamance;  Robertson  and  Sevier;  the 
Stamp- Act  Congress.  —  Tryon  attacked  a  body  of  the  patriots 
who  had  gathered  near  the  Alamance  River  (1771).  The 
Governor  had  a  much  superior  force,  and  so  gained  the  day. 


Settlement  of  Tennessee  and   Kentucky. 

He  hanged  seven  prisoners  as  "  rebels  "  and  "traitors."  They 
died  as  bravely  as  they  had  fought.  The  battle  of  Alamance 
struck  a  blow  at  unjust  taxation,  and  spilt  blood  that  proph 
esied  the  Revolution. 

More  than  half  a  century  before  (1716),  Governor  Spots- 
wood  of  Virginia  climbed  the  Blue  Ridge,  and,  looking 
down  into  the  great  valley  of  the  West,  drank  the  health  of 


1771-1775.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  I  I  5 

George  I.  in  brimming  tumblers  of  punch.  The  Virginia  Gov 
ernor,  however,  did  not  venture  beyond  the  Shenandoah  Valley 
(§  52)  ;  but  after  the  battle  of  Alamance,  James  Robertson  of 
North  Carolina  led  (1771)  a  band  of  emigrants  into  that 
western  country.  They  resolved  to  move  into  the  remote 
wilderness  out  of  Tryon's  reach.  After  a  long  and  difficult 
journey  over  the  mountains  they  settled  on  the  Wautauga 
River.  There  John  Sevier  of  Virginia  joined  Robertson 
(1772)  ;  these  two  pioneers,  one  of  Scotch,  the  other  of 
Huguenot  descent  (§  135),  laid  the  foundation  of  the  State 
of  Tennessee.298 

James  Harrod  (1774)  led  a  band  of  pioneers  into  the  valley 
of  the  Kentucky.  Soon  afterward,  Daniel  Boone,  the  famous 
hunter,  who  had  long  been  exploring  "the  land  of  promise" 
west  of  the  mountains,  settled  Boonesboro'  (1775)  in  the 
same  valley.  Such  was  the  beginning  of  the  State  of  Ken 
tucky.299 

Meanwhile  the  citizens  of  Charleston  (1765)  had  publicly 
burned  the  obnoxious  Stamp  Act.  A  little  later  Christopher 
Gadsden,  a  "  born  republican,"  with  his  brother-patriot  John 
Rutledge,  met  the  delegates  from  the  united  colonies  in  New 
York  at  that  memorable  Stamp- Act  Congress  (1765),  which  has 
been  called  the  "Day  Star  of  American  liberty."  30° 

138.  Summary.  — -  By  a  sea-to-sea  charter  Charles  II.  granted 
Carolina  (1663)  to  Lord  Clarendon  and  a  number  of  associates. 
An  attempt  was  made  to  govern  the  colony  under  a  constitu 
tion  called  the  "  Grand  Model,"  but  the  people  demanded  a 
voice  in  the  government ;  the  constitution  was  cast  aside,  and 
the  colony  became  a  royal  province,  which  was  soon  afterward 
divided  into  North  and  South  Carolina.  Meanwhile  a  settle 
ment  had  been  made  at  Charleston  which  attracted  many 
Huguenot  emigrants.  The  introduction  of  slavery  made  the 
cultivation  of  rice  and  indigo  very  profitable  in  South  Carolina, 
while  the  northern  province  engaged  largely  in  the  export  of 
the  productions  of  the  pine  forests  and  of  furs. 


u6 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


[1681-. 


The  resistance  of  the  settlers  of  North  Carolina  to  the 
oppressive  measures  of  Governor  Tryon  led  to  the  battle  of 
Alamance,  —  a  forerunner  of  the  Revolution.  Shortly  after 
ward  emigrants  from  the  Carolinas  settled  the  Kentucky  and 
the  Tennessee  country. 

Gadsden  and  Rutledge  of  South  Carolina  took  a  prominent 
part  in  the  Stamp- Act  Congress,  which  asserted  the  principles 
of  American  liberty. 


XII.     PENNSYLVANIA   (1681). 

139.  Grant  of  Pennsylvania  to  William  Penn ;  Penn's 
object ;  provisions  of  the  charter.  —  William  Penn,  one  of 
the  most  influential  of  the  English  Quakers,  inherited  from  his 
father,  Admiral  Penn,  a  claim  against 
the  Crown  for  £16,000.  Charles  II. 
discharged  the  debt  by  issuing  (1681) 
a  charter  granting  his  creditor  an  im 
mense  tract  of  land  bordering  on  the 
western  bank  of  the  Delaware,  and  ex 
tending  five  degrees  into  the  interior.301 
Out  of  respect  to  the  memory  of  Penn's 
father,  the  King  named  the  new  prov 
ince  Pennsylvania.802 

Penn's  object  was  to  make  what  he 
called  a  "Holy  Experiment";  in  other 
words,  to  found  a  commonwealth  in 

America  where  all  Christians  might  dwell  together  on  the  broad 
basis  of  the  Golden  Rule.303  Such  toleration  did  not  exist  in 
the  old  country.  Those  who  did  not  uphold  the  established 
form  of  worship  were  regarded  as  virtually  disloyal.  Penn 
declared  that  according  to  the  current  of  thought  then 
prevailing  in  Great  Britain,  "  No  Churchman  meant  no  Eng 
lishman,  and  no  conformist  meant  no  subject."304  In  despair 


1681-.]       ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH  SETTLEMENTS.        I  I  / 

of  obtaining  religious  liberty  at  home,  he  now  turned  to  the 
New  World. 

The  charter  made  him  (i)  the  "  true  and  absolute  Proprietary 
of  the  country"  ;  (2)  acting  with  the  freemen  of  the  colony  he 
had  power  to  make  all  needful  laws,  provided  they  were  not 
repugnant  to  the  laws  of  England  ;  all  legislation  was  subject 
to  the  King's  veto  ;  (3)  the  Church  of  England  might  be  estab 
lished  in  the  colony,  but  no  restrictions  were  to  be  imposed  on 
other  forms  of  Christian  worship  ;  (4)  the  Proprietary  had  the 
sole  power  to  erect  courts  and  appoint  judges  for  the  colony ; 
(5)  it  was  expressly  provided  that  the  English  Parliament  should 
have  the  right  to  levy  not  only  custom  duties,  but  taxes  on  the 
people  of  Pennsylvania.  This  last  provision  had  never  before 
been  inserted  in  any  colonial  charter.305  For  nearly  a  hundred 
years  it  remained  as  harmless  as  a  sheathed  sword,  then  out  of 
it  suddenly  sprang  the  War  of  Independence. 

140.  Emigration  to  Pennsylvania  (1681) ;  Penn's  "  Frame 
of  Government. "  —  Penn  at  once  (1681)  sent  over  several 
hundred  emigrants  to  Pennsylvania.  They  formed,  he  declared, 
"the  seed  of  a  nation."  He  said  to  them,  "  You  shall  be 
governed  by  laws  of  your  own  making."  306  All  settlers  could 
buy  land  at  the  rate  of  forty  shillings  a  hundred  acres,  but  on 
each  lot  they  were  required  to  pay  to  the  Proprietary  of  Penn 
sylvania  a  perpetual  annual  rent  of  one  shilling.  This  trifling 
rent  became  the  cause  of  most  vexatious  disputes. 

Penn  drew  up  a  "  Frame  of  Government "  in  which  he  care 
fully  limited  his  own  power  and  that  of  the  Proprietaries  who 
should  succeed  him.307  He  imposed  these  checks  in  order 
"  that  the  will  of  one  man  "  might  "  not  hinder  the  good  of 
a  whole  country." m  "  Liberty  without  obedience,"  said 
he,  "  is  confusion, "  but  "  obedience  without  liberty  is 
slavery."309 

One  of  the  most  important  provisions  of  Penn's  constitution 
was  that  no  child  should  be  brought  up  in  idleness,  but  that 
all  should  learn  some  useful  trade. 


n8  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

In  1682  Penn  himself  sailed  for  Pennsylvania,  taking  with 
him  about  a  hundred  emigrants,  "mostly  English  Quakers."310 
He  landed  at  Chester,  on  the  Delaware,  and  there  took  formal 
possession  of  his  province.311 

141.  The  "  Great  Law"  ;  Philadelphia  founded  (1682)  ; 
treaty  with  the  Indians.  —  At  Chester,  Penn  summoned  an 
Assembly  of  the  people.  Together  the  Proprietary  and  the 
Assembly  enacted  (1682)  the  "Great  Law,"  which  provided 
that  "God"  might  "have  his  due,  Caesar  his  due,  and  the 
people  their  due."  312 

The  most  important  points  in  this  code  were  :  i.  The  right 
to  vote  for  members  of  the  Assembly  was  restricted  to  men  of 
good  character  who  held  the  Christian  faith  and  were  tax 
payers.318  2.  Only  those  who  professed  Christianity  could 
hold  office  or  sit  in  the  Legislature.314  3.  Every  colonist  might 
demand  trial  by  jury  ;  murder,  but  murder  only,  was  punishable 
by  death  ;  the  prisons  were  not  to  be  places  of  punishment 
only,  but  schools  of  industry  and  of  reformation.  The  laws  of 
the  colony  were  to  be  printed  and  taught  to  all  children.  4. 
"  No  person  "  who  should  confess  "  Almighty  God  to  be  the 
creator  and  ruler  of  the  world  "  should  in  any  way  be  molested 
or  "  compelled  to  frequent  or  maintain  any  religious  worship." 315 

Later  in  that  year  (1682)  Philadelphia  was  founded.  Its 
scriptural  name  gave  fit  expression  to  Penn's  spirit  of  brotherly 
love.  Shortly  afterward  he  met  the  Indians  in  solemn  council, 
under  the  spreading  branches  of  a  huge  elm.  The  ferocious 
Iroquois  despised  the  less  warlike  Delawares  whom  they  had 
conquered.  With  these  Delawares  the  Proprietors  of  Penn 
sylvania  concluded  that  famous  treaty  which  secured  the  un 
broken  friendship  of  that  peaceable  tribe  of  Red  Men  for 
more  than  sixty  years,  or  as  long  as  the  Quakers  held  control 
of  the  province.316  So  completely  did  the  founder  of  the 
colony  gain  the  confidence  of  the  natives  by  his  fair  dealing, 
that  the  highest  praise  a  Delaware  Indian  could  give  a  white 
man  was  to  say  :  "  He  is  like  William  Penn."  817 


1684-1688.]        ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  119 

142.  Disputes   in  the  colony ;    growth  of  Philadelphia ; 
first  printing-press.  —  Perm  had  no  sooner  returned  to  Eng 
land  (1684)  than  quarrels  broke  out  between  the  settlers  and 
the  Deputy-Governor.     From  that  time  forward  there  was  little 
peace  in  the  colony.     One   chief  ground  of   dispute  was  the 
claim  of  the  Assembly  to  limit  the  Governor's  expenditure  of 
money  to  certain  objects.318 

But  notwithstanding  these  stormy  political  discussions,  the 
new  colony  prospered  in  a  very  remarkable  degree.  In  the 
short  space  of  fourteen  years  from  its  foundation,  Philadelphia 
was  described  as  a  "  noble  and  beautiful  city  "  of  "  above  two 
thousand  houses,"  and  the  capital  of  a  province  having  more 
than  twenty  thousand  inhabitants.319 

It  could  also  boast  of  the  first  permanent  printing-press  set  up 
south  of  New  England  (i686).320  On  that  press,  which  Benjamin 
Franklin  may  have  worked  later,  William  Bradford  printed  the 
attacks  of  the  political  disputants  of  his  day.  It  was  a  war  of 
pamphlets,  making  up  in  vehemence  what  they  lacked  in  size. 

143.  Quaker  remonstrance  against  slavery  (1688);   iron 
and    coal    mines   opened.  —  Nothing,    however,    issued    from 
Bradford's  press  had  such  deep  meaning  as  a  paper  drawn  up 
(1688)  by  the  Quakers  of  Germantown.     That  paper,  which 
seems  never  to  have  been  printed,  voiced  the  first  organized 
movement  in  the  colonies  against  slavery,  for  negro  bondage 
had  already  been  introduced  into  Pennsylvania.321     This  anti- 
slavery  protest  was  the  forerunner  of  a  movement  which,  three 
generations  later  (1776),  had  a  practical  issue.     On  the  eve  of 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  the  Quakers  of  Pennsylvania 
commanded  all  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends  in  that  State 
to  free  their  slaves.     A  few  years  later  (1780)  the  State  passed 
an  act  —  the  first  on  record  —  which  provided  for  the  gradual 
emancipation  of  that  species  of  human  property  which  Penn 
himself  had  once  seen  no  harm  in  holding.3-2 

Meanwhile  the  people  of  Pennsylvania  had  discovered  one 
of  the  greatest  sources  of  their  future  wealth.  They  had 


I2O  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1755-1757. 

opened  iron  mines  (1720),  had  set  up  an  iron  furnace,  and 
later  (1755)  had  exported  a  considerable  quantity  of  that  metal 
to  England.323  Toward  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century 
(1791)  anthracite  coal  was  accidentally  discovered  at  Mauch 
Chunk  mountain.  The  use  of  this  coal  for  fuel  and  for  iron 
manufacturing  led  to  the  development  of  the  two  leading  indus 
tries  of  the  State.324 

144.  The  Quakers  and  the  French  and  Indian  wars;  a 
struggle  for  life ;  dispute  with  the  English  Proprietaries  of 
the  colony.  —  Until  the  outbreak  of  the  French  and  Indian 
wars  (1750)  the  history  of  Pennsylvania  was  comparatively 
uneventful.  The  Quakers  were  non-resistants,  and  though  a 
part  of  them  justified  purely  defensive  war,  others  felt  that 
they  could  not  conscientiously  aid  in  equipping  troops  to  fight 
the  invaders.325  This  reluctance  led  a  few  years  later  (1756) 
to  their  ceasing  to  exercise  political  power  in  the  colony.326 

After  Braddock's  defeat  (1755)  (§  168)  the  Pennsylvanians 
found  themselves  engaged  in  a  fierce  struggle  for  life.  The 
knife  of  the  savage  was  at  their  throats,  and  the  settlers  on  the 
western  frontier  were  flying  in  despair.  Then  the  people  girded 
themselves  for  battle,  and  volunteers  rushed  forward.  The 
war  spirit  was  stimulated  to  the  highest  degree  by  the  offer  of 
a  bounty  of  $130  for  every  Indian  scalp  brought  in.327 

But  the  English  Proprietors  of  Pennsylvania  who  had  suc 
ceeded  Penn  showed  little  interest  in  the  welfare  or  safety  of 
the  colony.  Their  object  was  to  get  all  the  revenue  they  could 
out  of  it,  and  to  spend  nothing  for  it.  They  owned  tracts  of 
land  in  the  province  valued  at  .£10,000,000,  but  they  refused 
to  pay  a  single  penny  in  taxes  on  this  vast  property.  On  the 
other  hand,  they  insisted  that  the  colonists  should  raise  troops 
at  their  own  expense  to 'defend  the  interests  of  the  province, 
and  at  the  same  time  to  protect  the  untaxed  real  estate  of  the 
Proprietors  residing  three  thousand  miles  away.828 

The  Assembly  indignantly  refused  to  shed  the  blood  of  the 
people  of  Pennsylvania  for  the  sake  of  the  English  owners. 


1757-1767.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  121 

They  sent  Benjamin  Franklin  (1757)  to  London  to  protest 
against  the  selfish  greed  of  the  Proprietors,  and  to  demand 
that  they  should  bear  their  share  of  the  burdens  of  the  colonial 
government.  Franklin  succeeded,  after  a  long  and  vexatious 
contest,  in  getting  an  order  from  the  authorities  in  England, 
commanding  that  the  surveyed  lands  belonging  to  the  Pro 
prietors  should  be  taxed  in  future.329  Henceforth  the  suc 
cessors  of  the  illustrious  founder  of  Pennsylvania  could  no 
longer  boast  that  their  possessions  in  America  were  exempt 
from  public  charges,  yet  were  protected  at  public  cost. 

145.  Settlement  of  the  boundary  question ;  Mason  and 
Dixon's  line;  services  of  Dickinson,  Franklin,  and  Morris. 
—  Later,  another  serious  controversy  was  satisfactorily  con 
cluded.  Ever  since  the  settlement  of  Philadelphia,  the  ques 
tion  of  the  southern  boundary  line  of  the  colony  had  been  a 
matter  of  dispute  between  Penn  and  Lord  Baltimore,  or  their 
successors.  Penn's  charter  fixed  that  boundary  at  the  fortieth 
degree  of  north  latitude,  but  it  was  found  that  this  parallel 
not  only  ran  north  of  Philadelphia,  but  that  it  wholly  shut 
out  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware  from  any  part  of  Delaware 
Bay.  The  intent  of  the  charter  was  clearly  to  secure  to 
Penn  a  certain  amount  of  sea-coast,  hence  a  new  survey  was 
demanded.  This  was  finally  made  (1763-1767)  by  Mason  and 
Dixon,  two  skilled  English  surveyors.  They  fixed  the  southern 
boundary  at  39°  43'.  When  practicable,  milestones  were  set 
up  along  this  parallel  for  the  whole  distance  of  280  miles.330  On 
every  fifth  stone  the  arms  of  the  Penn  family  were  carved  on  the 
northern  side,  and  those  of  the  Baltimores  on  the  southern  side. 
"  Mason  and  Dixon's  Line  "  was  destined  to  have  political  sig 
nificance,  for  it  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  dividing  mark,  east 
of  the  Ohio  River,  between  the  free  and  the  slave  States.331 

But  a  far  greater  struggle  was  now  at  hand.  George  III. 
asserted  the  right  of  the  Crown  to  tax  the  colonists  without 
asking  their  consent.  John  Dickinson  protested  in  his  "  Farm 
er's  Letters,"  m  The  progress  of  the  Revolution  soon  kindled 


122  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [me-. 

the  whole  thirteen  colonies  into  a  blaze.  The  three  most 
eminent  citizens  of  Pennsylvania  —  Franklin,  Dickinson,  and 
Robert  Morris  —  met  on  the  floor  of  the  first  Continental  Con 
gress  assembled  at  Philadelphia  (1776).  Franklin  served  on 
the  committee  which  drafted  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 
At  the  same  time  Dickinson  drew  up  the  Articles  of  Con 
federation,  —  the  first  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 
Morris  later  devised  methods  for  finding  means  to  carry  on  the 
war.  Thus,  in  a  high  political  and  financial,  as  well  as  in  a 
purely  geographical  sense,  Pennsylvania  proved  herself  the 
"  Key-stone  State  "  of  the  Union. 

146.  Summary.  —  The  colony  of  Pennsylvania  was  founded 
by  William  Penn  as  a  refuge  for  the  persecuted  brethren  of  his 
faith.     The  corner-stone  of  his  new  American  commonwealth 
was  the  "  Golden  Rule."     Religious  toleration  was  granted  to 
all  who  believed  in  God  as  the  creator  and  ruler  of  the  world. 
The  right  to  vote  and  to  hold  office  was  granted  to  those  who 
professed  the  Christian  faith.     The  Pennsylvanians,   notwith 
standing  their  disputes  with  the  Governors  of  the  colony,  pros 
pered  in  a  remarkable  degree.    The  Quakers  organized  the  first 
general  movement  against  slavery,  and  the  "  Key-Stone  State  " 
was  the   first  to  pass  an  act  of   emancipation.     Three  of   its 
leading  citizens,  Franklin,  Morris,  and  Dickinson,  took  a  very 
prominent  part  in  the  movement  which  secured  our  national 
independence. 

XIII.     GEORGIA  (1733). 

147.  Oglethorpe   and   associates  found    Georgia;    their 
objects ;  the   charter.  —  Of  the  thirteen  colonies,   none  had 
a  nobler  origin  than  Georgia,  the  last  of  the  series.     In  answer 
to  a  petition  made   by  the  soldier   and   philanthropist    James 
Oglethorpe  and  others,  George  II.  granted  (1732)  to  him  and 
his  associates   a  tract  of    land    for   twenty-one   years,   in    the 
southern  part  of  South  Carolina  (§  I32).333    The  tract  embraced 


1732-1733.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS. 


123 


the  country  bordering  on  the  Atlantic  between  "  the  most  north 
ern  part "  of  the  Savannah  and  "  the  most  southern  stream  "  of 
the  Altamaha  Rivers  ;  "  westerly  "  it  extended  "  from  the  heads 
of  the  said  rivers"  to  the  "South  Seas"  or  the  Pacific.334 

Oglethorpe  had  three  chief  objects  in  view  :  i.  To  give  the 
worthy  and  honest  poor 
of  England  —  especially 
those  confined  in  debtors' 
prisons  —  an  opportunity 
to  begin  life  anew  under 
more  favorable  circum 
stances  than  the  Old 
World  could  offer  them. 

2.  To    furnish    a    refuge 
to  the  persecuted  Protes 
tants  of  southern  Europe. 

3.  To   protect    the    Caro 
linians  against  the  attacks 
of  the  Spaniards  of  Flor 
ida  by  building  up  a  settlement  on  the  southern  frontier.335 

The  new  colony  was  named  Georgia,  in  honor  of  the  King. 
The  Company,  with  Oglethorpe  as  their  head,  were  to  hold  the 
region  "  in  trust  for  the  poor."  They  had  full  power  to  make 
needful  laws,  subject  of  course  to  the  King's  approval.  The 
charter  granted  freedom  of  worship  to  all  persons  except 
Catholics.336  For  ten  years  every  settler  was  to  have  an  allot 
ment  of  land  free  of  rent ;  after  that  time  he  was  to  pay  four 
pence  annually  for  every  hundred  acres.  All  estates  were  to 
descend  in  the  male  line  from  father  to  son.  This  provision 
caused  much  dissatisfaction  to  those  who  had  no  children  but 
daughters,  and  the  law  was  soon  modified  (1739),  so  that 
women  could  inherit  land. 

148.  Vexatious  regulations ;  slavery  excluded ;  the  pro 
duction  of  silk.  — The  weak  part  of  Oglethorpe's  philan 
thropic  scheme  was  that  it  treated  the  settlers  of  Georgia  not 


Savannah  and  the  Alta- 
maha  rivers  to  their  sources, 
and  thence  westerly  to  the 
Pacific. 


124  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1732-1733. 

as  men  but  as  children.  The  colonists  had  no  votes  and  no 
voice  in  the  Government.  Furthermore,  for  nearly  twenty  years 
they  could  obtain  no  clear  title  to  land.337  But  these  were  not 
the  only  regulations  which  irritated  the  emigrants.  In  England 
distilled  liquors  had  recently  supplanted  beer  to  a  great  extent, 
and  had  caused  a  decided  increase  in  drunkenness.  The  trustees 
of  Georgia  determined  to  banish  intemperance  from  their 
model  commonwealth  in  the  wilderness.  For  this  reason  they 
"absolutely  prohibited"  the  importation  of  alcoholic  spirits  into 
the  province.338  This  prohibition  cut  off  the  people  from  trading 
with  the  West  Indies,  one  of  whose  chief  exports  was  rum,  and 
so  retarded  the  growth  of  Georgia. 

The  trustees  also  forbade  the  colonists  holding  slaves, — 
though  every  other  American  colony  held  them.  Oglethorpe 
declared  that  slavery  was  "  a  horrid  crime  "  contrary  to  "  the 
gospel"  and  to  "the  fundamental  law  of  England."339  Political 
and  prudential  reasons  also  influenced  the  trustees.  They 
wished  to  make  the  colonists  self-supporting  ;  they  believed 
that  slave  labor  would  create  habits  of  idleness  on  the  part  of 
the  large  planters,  while  the  poor  whites  would  starve  because 
unable  to  compete  with  the  blacks.340  Furthermore,  the  trustees 
thought  that  nothing  but  a  compact  white  population  could 
serve  as  a  barrier  against  the  invasions  of  the  savages  and  the 
Spaniards;341  hence  they  did  not  object  to  the  importation  of 
white  apprentices,  whose  'services  were  sold  for  a  term  of  years. 

It  was  confidently  expected  that  by  white  labor  alone  the 
colony  would  become  a  great  silk-producing  settlement.  Mul 
berry  trees,  the  leaves  of  which  are  the  natural  food  of  the 
silkworm,  grew  wild  in  that  region.  The  work  of  raising  and 
caring  for  the  worms  was  so  easy  that  much  of  it  could  be  left 
to  the  women  and  children.  Oglethorpe  thought  that  "forty 
or  fifty  thousand  persons  "  might  be  employed  in  this  way. 

The  colonial  seal  adopted  by  the  trustees  was  symbolical 
not  only  of  this  industry,  but  of  the  unselfish  motives  of  the 
founders  of  the  province.  On  it  was  represented  a  group  of 


1733-1736.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  125 

silkworms  spinning  their  cocoons,  while  underneath  was  the 
appropriate  motto  :•  "  Non  sibi,  sed  aliis,"  —  "  Not  for  them 
selves,  but  for  others." 

149.  Settlement  of   Savannah  (1733) ;  the  Salzburgers ; 
Scotch  Highlanders.  —  With  these   shining   prospects  before 
him,  Oglethorpe  set  sail  in   1733  with  a  company  of  "sober, 
industrious,    and   moral   persons,"   to    take   possession   of   the 
"Promised  Land."     A  settlement  was  made  on  a  high   bluff 
on  the  Savannah  River.     There  a  city  named  from  the  river 
was  laid  out.     The  site  was  admirably  chosen,  and  Savannah 
is  to-day  the  largest  cotton-exporting  port  in  the  United  States, 
New  Orleans  alone  excepted. 

The  year  following  the  settlement,  a  band  of  German  Prot 
estants,  who  had  been  driven  out  of  Salzburg,  Austria,  by 
religious  persecution,  arrived  (1734)  at  Savannah.  They  estab 
lished  themselves  about  thirty  miles  north  of  that  town,  at  a 
place  which  they,  like  the  Israelites  of  old,  named  "  Ebenezer," 
or  "Stone  of  Help."342  More  such  refugees  soon  followed. 

Later  (1736),  the  trustees  sent  over  a  number  of  Scotch 
Highlanders  to  protect  the  southern  frontier.  The  Scotch 
men  erected  a  fort  on  the  Altamaha  and  another  at  Frederica 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  to  repel  Spanish  invasion. 

The  next  year  the  fur-trading  post  of  Augusta  was  established 
on  the  upper  waters  of  the  Savannah  River.  It  became  an 
important  and  highly  profitable  center  of  traffic  with  the  Indian 
tribes  west  of  the  mountains.  From  this  point  at  a  later  period 
two  thousand  pack-horse  loads  of  valuable  skins  worth  about 
.£50,000  were  annually  sent  to  Europe.843 

150.  The   Wesleys;    Whitefield    and    slavery.  —  Among 
those  who  early  came   to   Savannah  were  John   and   Charles 
Wesley.    John  came  to  do  missionary  work  ;  his  brother  Charles 
acted  as  secretary  to  Oglethorpe.    John  Wesley,  though  just  be 
ginning  his  career,  was  a  preacher  of  great  power.     "  I  went  to 
America,"  said  he,  "to  convert  the  Indians ;  but  oh  ! "  he  added 
"who  shall  convert  me  ?  "  W4     Out  of  that  strong  religious  con- 


126  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1747-1749. 

viction  sprang  the  Methodist  Church,  which  he  organized  in 
England,  —  a  Church  destined  to  do  much  toward  shaping  the 
history  of  that  country  and  of  our  own. 

The  Wesleys  were  followed  by  that  noted  Methodist  revivalist, 
the  Reverend  George  Whitefield,  whose  impassioned  appeals 
not  even  the  imperturbable  Franklin  could  entirely  withstand. 
Whitefield  came  to  Georgia  to  found  an  orphan  asylum  near 
Savannah.  In  order  to  get  more  money  for  its  support,  he 
purchased  a  plantation  (1747)  in  South  Carolina,  stocked  it 
with  slaves,  and  gave  the  products  and  profits  to  his  "  House 
of  Mercy." 

John  Wesley,  who  later  (1772)  denounced  slavery  as  the 
"sum  of  all  villanies,"  had  not  then  taken  any  open  stand 
against  it.  Whitefield  was  outspoken  in  its  favor.  He  declared 
that  Georgia  would  never  flourish  "without  negroes  are  al 
lowed."345  To  grant  the  settlers  land,  said  he,  yet  refuse 
them  slaves  to  work  it,  is  like  tying  the  colonists'  legs,  and 
then  ordering  them  to  walk.346  Whitefield  had  a  large  number 
of  the  people  on  his  side.  The  attempts  to  produce  silk  had 
ended  in  failure,  and  the  settlers  implored  the  trustees  to  permit 
them  to  buy  negroes.347 

151.  The  introduction  of  negroes  and  the  importation  of 
rum.  —  Meanwhile  some  of  the  colonists  succeeded  in  hiring 
negroes  from  the  planters  in  South  Carolina.  They  got  them 
at  first  for  short  periods,  but  later  hired  them  for  life.  The 
trustees  saw  that  slavery  in  one  form  or  another  was  certain  to 
creep  in,  and  they  at  length  (1749)  reluctantly  gave  their  consent 
to  its  open  and  legal  introduction. 

They  also  conceded  the  importation  and  sale  of  rum,  a  liquor 
which  had  long  been  smuggled  into  the  colony.  The  establish 
ment  of  slavery  led  to  the  formation  of  large  plantations  for  rais 
ing  rice  and  other  products  suited  to  the  soil.  This  change  in 
the  labor  system  placed  Georgia  on  an  industrial  equality  with 
South  Carolina,  and  the  free  importation  of  rum  from  the  West 
Indies  gradually  gave  rise  to  a  prosperous  trade  with  those  islands. 


1740-1752.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  I2/ 

152.  Oglethorpe  and  the  Spaniards.  —  Meanwhile  the  col 
ony,  feeble  as  it  was  in  numbers,  served  as  an  effectual  barrier 
against  the  encroachments  of  the  Spaniards.     Oglethorpe  had 
strengthened  the  southern  frontier  with  forts,  and  had  secured 
the  friendship  of   several   Indian  tribes.     In   1740  he  led  an 
expedition   against  the   Spanish   settlement   at   St.   Augustine 
(§  23).       In  retaliation  the  Spaniards  (1742)  besieged  Fred- 
erica  (§  149)  ;  but  the  fort  held  out  against  the  attack. 

General  Oglethorpe  had  valiantly  defended  the  colony,  but  the 
colonists  were  greatly  dissatisfied  with  the  government  by  the 
trustees,  and  were  constantly  sending  complaints  to  London. 
The  General  went  to  England,  and  refuted  these  charges.  He 
never  returned  to  the  colony,  and  the  trustees  appointed  a 
President  and  council  of  four  to  administer  the  affairs  of  the 
province,  but  the  discontent  remained  unabated.  The  people 
of  Georgia  felt  able  to  take  care  of  their  own  interests,  and 
were  weary  of  the  paternal  government  by  which  those  in 
authority  kept  them  in  leading-strings. 

In  1751  the  trustees  surrendered  their  charter  to  the  Crown. 
They  had  found  that  the  profit  did  not  equal  the  expense,  and 
they  gladly  gave  up  their  well-meant  but  badly  managed 
experiment. 

153.  Georgia  becomes  a  royal  province ;  American  rights.— 
By  the  surrender  of  the  charter,  Georgia  now  (1752)  became  a 
royal  province,  and  so  continued  until  the  Revolution.     This 
was  a  decided  change  for  the  better,  since,  as  in  the  other  royal 
provinces,  an  Assembly  was  created,  and  the  people  thus  obtained 
a  voice  in  the  Government.348    Even  then  —  after  twenty  years' 
existence  —  the  colony  had  gained  so  little  in  numbers  that  the 
entire  population,  including  slaves,  was  estimated  at  less  than 
five  thousand.349 

At  the  opening  of  the  War  for  Independence,  the  patriot 
party  in  Georgia  took  a  firm  stand  for  "American  rights." 
When  the  port  of  Boston  was  closed  as  a  punishment  for  the 
destruction  of  the  taxed  tea,  the  people  of  Georgia  generously 


128  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1775-. 

sent  nearly  six  hundred  barrels  of  rice  to  feed  the  suffering 
poor  of  the  Massachusetts  capital. 8<w  After  the  battles  of  Lex 
ington  and  Concord,  the  citizens  of  Savannah  seized  a  quantity 
of  the  King's  powder  which  was  stored  there.  Part  of  it  they 
retained  for  themselves  ;  tradition  says  that  they  sent  the 
remainder  to  the  Continental  Army  at  Cambridge.  It  arrived 
in  season  for  effectual  use  at  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill.351 

General  Oglethorpe  must  have  heard  of  these  proceedings 
with  no  small  interest.  He  lived  to  see  Georgia  take  its  place 
among  the  United  States,  and  to  see  England  sign  a  treaty  of 
peace,  recognizing  the  independence  of  the  American  nation.352 

154.  Summary. —  Georgia,  the  last  of  the  thirteen  colonies, 
was  founded  (1733)  for  purposes  of  charity,  and  as  a  refuge  for 
the  oppressed  Protestants  of  Germany.     For  a  time  its  growth 
was  hampered  by  vexatious  regulations,  and  by  laws  restricting 
trade  and  excluding  slavery.     In  1751  Georgia  became  a  royal 
province,  and  the  people  through  their  Assembly  obtained  a 
voice  in  the  Government.     At  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution, 
the  patriot  party  in  Georgia  took  an  active  part  in  aiding  Massa 
chusetts,  and  in  furnishing  powder  for  the  Continental  Army. 

EXPLORATION  OF  THE  MISSISSIPPI  VALLEY. 

155.  The  French  in  the  West ;  the  French  and  the  Indians ; 
Catholic  missions.  —  While  the  English  colonists  were  getting 
possession  of  the  strip  of  Atlantic  coast  east  of  the  Alleghanies, 
the  French  in  Canada  were  rapidly  pushing  westward. 

The  fact  that  powerful  Indian  tribes  held  that  unknown 
region  greatly  facilitated  the  progress  of  the  French.  Cham- 
plain,  the  "  Father  of  New  France,"  first  conceived  the  idea  of 
acquiring  possession  of  the  western  country  by  conciliating  the 
natives.  With  the  exception  of  his  fatal  mistake  of  entering  into 
an  alliance  with  the  Canadian  Indians  against  the  Iroquois  of 
New  York,  he  was  successful  in  his  plans.  The  English  did  not 
understand  the  Indian  character ;  the  French  endeavored  to 


1615-1673.]        ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  I2Q 

adapt  themselves  to  the  Red  Man's  ways,  and  so  won  his  last 
ing  friendship.  This  they  could  do  the  more  readily  as  their 
purpose  at  the  outset  was  not,  like  the  English,  to  plant  colonies, 
but  to  establish  fur-trading  posts,  which,  of  course,  did  not 
interfere  with  the  Indian's  control  of  the  forest.353 

Champlain  induced  a  number  of  Franciscan  friars  to  come 
over  as  missionaries  (1615),  and  begin  the  work  of  converting 
the  savages.  He  meant  to  save  the  heathen,  and  at  the  same 
time  save  the  cause  of  France  in  the  New  World. 

Taking  his  life  in  his  hands,  one  of  these  gray-robed  friars 
leaving  Quebec  (1615)  resolutely  turned  his  face  toward  the 
west,  and  struck  out  into  the  pathless  wilderness.  He  reached 
Lake  Huron,  and  there  set  up  his  altar  in  an  Indian  wigwam 
on  the  shore  of  Thunder  Bay.354 

Ten  years  later  (1625)  the  Jesuit  Fathers  in  France  came 
over  to  help  the  Franciscans.  The  Jesuits  infused  new  life 
into  the  undertaking.  Cardinal  Richelieu,  then  the  power 
behind  the  throne,  was  determined  that  no  emigrants  but 
French  Catholics  should  land  in  Canada.  The  Jesuits,  on 
their  side,  resolved  to  win  over  the  entire  native  population  of 
New  France  to  the  faith  they  preached. 

These  "  peaceful  soldiers  of  the  cross  "  braved  hunger,  cold, 
torture,  and  death.855  Long  before  William  Penn's  band  of 
colonists  had  built  the  first  log-cabin  on  the  banks  of  the 
Delaware,  the  French  priests  —  or  "Black  Gowns,"  as  the 
Indians  called  them  —  had  planted  missions  at  Mackinaw, 
Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Green  Bay,  and  at  Kaskaskia  on  the 
Illinois.  They  were  the  first  white  men  to  discover  the  salt 
springs  of  Onondaga,  New  York,  and  the  copper  mines  of 
Lake  Superior.  They,  too,  first  described  and  mapped  out  the 
upper  Great  Lakes  and  the  streams  flowing  into  them. 

156.  Joliet  and  Marquette  discover  the  Mississippi  (1673). 
—  The  Indians  told  the  Jesuits  that  there  was  an  immense  river 
in  the  west  which  flowed  southward  to  an  unknown  distance. 
When  Count  Frontenac  (§  66)  became  Governor  of  Canada 


130  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1673-. 

(1672),  he  sent  Joliet,  a  noted  fur-trader,  accompanied  by  Father 
Marquette,  to  discover  the  river.  The  French  hoped  that  it 
emptied  into  the  Gulf  of  California,  and  that  it  would  open  the 
long-sought  way  across  the  continent  to  the  Pacific. 

Starting  from  the  Straits  of  Mackinaw  (1673)  Marquette 
and  Joliet  paddled  their  birch-bark  canoes  to  Green  Bay. 
From  that  point  they  laboriously  pushed  their  way  up  the 
rapids  of  the  Fox  River,  —  "a  way,"  said  the  good  Father,  "as 
hard  as  the  path  to  Heaven."  Leaving  the  head-waters  of  the 
Fox,  they  carried  their  canoes  across  the  country  a  short  distance, 
and  embarked  on  the  Wisconsin.  For  a  week  they  floated  down 
with  the  current,  until  on  a  beautiful  day  in  June,  says  Mar 
quette,  "  we  safely  entered  the  Mississippi  with  a  joy  that  I 
cannot  express." 

157.  Voyage  down  the  Mississippi,  and  return. —  Down 
that  great  river  they  glided  day  after  day.     They  passed  the 
mouth  of  the  Illinois,  the  castellated  rocks,  the  painted  lime 
stone  cliffs,  and  the  roaring  flood  of  the  muddy  Missouri. 

Still  keeping  on,  Marquette  and  Joliet  reached  the  mouth  of 
the  placid  Ohio,  and  two  days  later  passed  the  point  where  De 
Soto  (§  20)  had  crossed  the  Mississippi  more  than  a  hundred 
and  thirty  years  before.  Thence  moving  southward  in  the 
shadow  of  forests  of  cottonwood,  magnolia,  and  cypress,  they 
came  to  the  mouth  of  the  Arkansas.  There  the  natives 
warned  them  that  they  would  encounter  hostile  tribes,  and  per 
haps  Spaniards,  if  they  ventured  farther  down  the  stream. 

The  explorers  resolved  to  go  back  and  report  what  they  had 
seen.  Under  the  fierce  rays  of  a  July  sun  they  began  the  exhaust 
ing  toil  of  pushing  their  canoes  northward  against  the  powerful 
current.  In  time  they  reached  the  Illinois,  and,  crossing  over 
from  a  tributary  of  that  stream  to  the  Chicago  River,  they 
entered  the  waters  of  Lake  Michigan,  where  the  greatest  city 
of  the  Northwest  now  stands.356 

158.  La  Salle's  expedition  to  the  Illinois  country  (1679- 
80).  —  Six  years  later  (1679)  La  Salle,  the  commander  of  Fort 
Frontenac  (now  Kingston),  set  out  to  secure  the  possession  of 


THE    FRENCH    IN   THE   WEST. 


167»-16ao.]    ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH  SETTLEMENTS.        13! 

the  Mississippi  to  France,  and  to  open  up  trade  with  Mexico.357 
He  made  his  way  to  the  Niagara  River.  There,  a  short  dis 
tance  above  the  Falls,  he  built  the  "  Griffin,"  the  first  vessel 
ever  launched  on  the  waters  of  the  upper  Great  Lakes. 

La  Salle  with  his  little  party,  among  whom  was  Father 
Hennepin,  a  Franciscan  friar,  sailed  (1679)  to  Green  Bay. 
At  Green  Bay  he  loaded  the  "  Griffin  "  with  furs,  and  sent  the 
vessel  back  to  Niagara  with  orders  to  obtain  a  cargo  of  sup 
plies,  and  return  to  him  at  the  Chicago  River  or  vicinity. 
The  vessel  was  never  again  heard  of.  La  Salle  then  embarked 
with  his  men  in  a  fleet  of  canoes  for  the  St.  Joseph  River 
on  the  east  side  of  the  lake.  At  that  point  (1679)  the 
commander  constructed  Fort  Miami.  He  then  ascended  the 
St.  Joseph,  and  crossing  over  the  portage  to  the  head  waters 
of  the  Kankakee  River,  descended  that  stream,  entered  the 
Illinois,  and  kept  on  until  (1680)  he  reached  Peoria  Lake. 
There  he  constructed  Fort  Crevecceur.  This  fort  marks  the 
first  attempt  made  by  white  men  to  take  permanent  possession 
of  what  is  now  the  State  of  Illinois.358 

La  Salle  spent  the  winter  (1679-80)  at  the  fort,  anxiously 
hoping  for  news  of  the  arrival  of  the  "  Griffin  "  with  provisions 
and  supplies,  which  would  enable  him  to  complete  a  small 
vessel,  in  which  he  purposed  descending  the  Mississippi. 
Weary  of  waiting,  La  Salle  at  length  resolved  to  go  back  to 
Fort  Frontenac  and  get  the  things  he  needed.  Leaving  a 
small  garrison  to  hold  Fort  Crevecceur,  he  set  out  on  the  first 
of  March  (1680),  accompanied  by  five  of  his  followers,  on  his 
perilous  journey  of  a  thousand  miles. 

159.  Father  Hennepin 's  journey;  La  Salle  explores  the 
lower  Mississippi  and  takes  possession  of  "  Louisiana " 
(1682)  ;  his  death. —  Shortly  before  La  Salle  left  Fort  Creve 
cceur  he  sent  Father  Hennepin  (§  158)  to  explore  the  lower 
Illinois.  Hennepin  went  down  that  river  to  its  mouth  and 
then  turned  northward  up  the  Mississippi.  After  many  adven 
tures  among  the  Indians  he  passed  the  site  where  the  flourish- 


132  THE  STUDENTS  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

ing  city  of  St.  Paul  now  stands,  and  reached  (1680)  a  cataract, 
which  he  named  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  ;  to-day  those  falls 
furnish  the  magnificent  water-power  of  Minneapolis,  the  largest 
flour-manufacturing  center  in  the  world. 

When  the  French  commander  returned  to  the  Illinois  he 
found  Fort  Crevecceur  deserted.  A  band  of  Iroquois  warriors 
had  destroyed  it.  He  was  forced  to  turn  back  and  seek  shelter 
(1680)  in  Fort  Miami  (§  158). 

Subsequently  La  Salle,  with  a  strong  party,  started  (1681) 
for  the  third  time  to  explore  the  Mississippi.  Late  in  the 
season  they  left  Fort  Miami  and  crossed  Lake  Michigan  to  the 
Chicago  River.  Following  the  frozen  Illinois  they  reached 
open  water  just  below  Lake  Peoria.  There  they  embarked  in 
their  canoes,  and  in  February  (1682)  entered  the  Mississippi. 
Early  in  April  the  French  came  in  sight  of  the  gleaming 
waves  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

There,  amid  volleys  of  musketry  and  shouts  of  "  Long 
live  the  King !  "  La  Salle  planted  a  wooden  column  bearing 
the  arms  of  France  at  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  "  Great 
River  of  the  West."  Then,  in  the  name  of  Louis  XIV.  of 
France,  he  took  formal  possession  of  the  Mississippi  from 
its  source  to  the  sea,  and  of  all  the  country  watered  by  it  and 
by  its  tributaries.  This  immense  territory,  stretching  from 
Lake  Itasca  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  from  the  Alleghanies 
to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  La  Salle  named  Louisiana,  in 
honor  of  the  reigning  French  sovereign.359  France  gained 
all  this  magnificent  empire  more  than  thirty  years  before 
the  English  had  ventured  as  far  west  as  the  Blue  Ridge 

(i  137)- 

But  the  Mississippi  empties  into  a  sea  which  Spain  claimed 
as  her  own,  and  she  threatened  death  to  all  foreigners  who 
should  enter  it.  La  Salle  resolved  to  brave  that  decree,  to 
fortify  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  to  hold  the  great  valley  of 
the  West  against  the  world.  The  hand  of  an  assassin  (1687) 
put  a  stop  to  the  execution  of  his  plan. 


1699-1718.]        ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  133 

160.  Iberville's  settlement ;  Mobile  founded  (1702) ;  the 
"  Mississippi  Company  "  ;  New  Orleans  founded  (1718).- 
A  number  of  years  later,  Iberville,  a  French  Canadian  explorer, 
built  a  fort  at  Biloxi,  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico   (1699)  ;  he  thus 
began  the  first  European  occupation  of  what  is  now  the  State 
of  Mississippi. 

A  company  of  French  Protestants  begged  Louis  XIV.  to 
grant  them  permission  to  emigrate  to  Louisiana.  They 
received  this  answer  :  "  The  King  has  not  driven  Protestants 
from  France  to  make  a  republic  of  them  in  America."360  The 
Biloxi  colonists  did  not  succeed,  and  were  transferred  (1702) 
to  Mobile  ;  there  they  laid  the  foundation  of  a  settlement  which 
eventually  became  the  State  of  Alabama. 

A  number  of  years  later,  reports  reached  Paris  that  a  French 
man  had  found  enormous  deposits  of  gold  in  the  Illinois 
country.  John  Law,  a  clever  Scotch  financier,  who  was  doing 
business  in  the  French  capital,  got  himself  appointed  (1717) 
president  of  a  grand  stock  company  to  work  these  gold  mines, 
and  develop  the  resources  of  Louisiana.  Law  proposed  to 
pay  off  the  French  national  debt  of  $500,000,000,  out  of  the 
profits  of  this  gigantic  undertaking.  All  Paris  was  seized  with 
a  mad  fever  of  speculation.  When  the  bubble  burst,  thousands 
of  Frenchmen  cursed  the  day  when  they  first  heard  the  name  of 
Louisiana.361  But  Law's  scheme  had  one  good  result :  Bienville, 
a  brother  of  Iberville,  had  been  appointed  commander-general 
of  Louisiana,  and  in  1718  he  made  a  clearing  in  the  cane- 
brakes  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  and  there  founded 
the  city  of  New  Orleans. 

Henceforth  New  Orleans  controlled  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
That  immense  stream,  with  its  tributaries,  drains  the  largest 
agricultural  valley  on  the  globe,  having  an  area  greater  than 
that  of  Central  Europe,  and  capable  of  producing  grain  enough 
to  feed  all  the  inhabitants  of  Europe  and  America. 

161.  The   French  in  the  North  and  the  West;   French 
forts.  —  Meanwhile  the  French  had  not  been  idle  at  the  North. 


134  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1595-. 

Kaskaskia,  in  Illinois,  was  settled  (1695).  Duluth  had  built 
a  fort  on  the  northern  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  had  "  visited 
the  spot  where  the  city  since  named  for  him  stands,"  and  had 
explored  much  further  west.  He  advised  building  a  fort  on 
the  straits  connecting  Lake  Erie  with  Lake  Huron.  The 
French  acted  on  that  suggestion  and  founded  (1701)  the  forti 
fied  post  of  Detroit.  A  little  later  (1702)  they  built  a  fort 
at  Vincennes,  the  oldest  town  in  Indiana. 

In  1720  the  French  built  Fort  Chartres,  on  the  Mississippi, 
in  southern  Illinois.  It  was  one  of  the  most  formidable  strong 
holds  on  the  continent,  and  formed  one  more  link  in  that  chain 
of  fortifications  which  Louis  XIV.  was  extending  from  Quebec 
to  New  Orleans.  By  means  of  those  forts  France  intended 
to  make  good  her  claim  to  the  country  west  of  the  Alleghanies 
when  the  great  final  struggle  for  the  mastery  should  come  with 
the  English. 

162.  War  between  the  French  and  the  English ;  Fronte- 
nac's  plans ;  attack  on  Schenectady  ;  on  Haver  hill ;  the 
English  colonists  attack  Canada.  —  The  war  (known  as  "King 
William's  War  ")  had,  in  fact,  already  begun  in  the  Old  World, 
and  Frontenac  (§  66)  simply  opened  the  American  side 
(1689-1697)  of  the  terrible  contest.  It  was  a  struggle  for 
religious  as  well  as  for  political  supremacy,  and  Catholics  and 
Protestants  were  arrayed  against  each  other.  Frontenac 
intended  to  seize  New  York  and  drive  the  inhabitants  into  the 
wilderness.  This  plan  failed,  but  he  sent  a  party  of  French 
and  Indians  (1690),  who  fell  upon  the  little  Dutch  settlement 
of  Schenectady  and  destroyed  it. 

At  the  suggestion  of  Jacob  Leisler,  Governor  of  New  York 
(§  67),  an  attack  on  Canada  was  planned.  Sir  William  Phips, 
of  Maine,  took  the  French  fort  at  Port  Royal,  Acadia  (now 
Nova  Scotia),  and  stripped  the  place  bare,  bringing  away  even 
the  Governor's  silver  spoons  and  his  new  dress  wigs. 

In  a  later  expedition  against  Quebec  Phips  was  repulsed,  and 
the  "  pinch  of  famine  "  forced  a  disastrous  defeat.  His  men 


1702-1745.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  135 

clamored  for  their  pay,  and  Massachusetts,  having  no  coin  to 
give  them,  issued  her  first  paper  money  (£40,000),  in  order 
to  settle  the  demand.362  That  colony  had  now  to  shoulder  the 
burden  of  a  heavy  debt,  with  nothing  to  pay  it  but  paper 
currency,  which  soon  fell  to  half  its  face  value. 

163.  "Queen  Anne's  War  "  ;  Indian  attacks ;  Port  Royal, 
Quebec;  King  George's  War;  Louisburg  taken.  —  In  the 
second,  or  "Queen  Anne's  War"  (1702-1713),  the  French  and 
Indians  swept  the  coast  of  Maine  from  Casco  to  Wells.  The 
next  winter  they  burned  Deerfield,  Massachusetts,  and  carried 
away  most  of  the  inhabitants  into  captivity. 

On  the  other  hand  an  expedition  sailed  from  Boston  (1710) 
and  took  permanent  possession  of  Port  Royal,  which  was 
henceforth  called  Annapolis  in  honor  of  the  reigning  Queen  of 
England. 

The  next  summer  (1711)  a  combined  force  of  English  troops 
and  colonists  was  sent  against  Quebec.  Eight  ships  of  the 
squadron  were  wrecked  in  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  nearly  nine 
hundred  men  were  lost.  A  council  of  war  voted  not  to  pro 
ceed  further.  When  peace  was  made  (1713)  Great  Britain 
kept  Annapolis,  obtained  full  possession  of  Hudson's  Bay, 
Newfoundland,  and  Acadia,  which  now  received  the  name  of 
Nova  Scotia. 

The  third  or  "  King  George's  War  "  (1744-1748)  was  marked 
by  a  splendid  victory.  The  French  fortress  of  Louisburg  on 
Cape  Breton  Island  guarded  the  entrance  to  the  St.  Lawrence. 
Colonel  William  Pepperrell  of  Maine  led  (1745)  a  secret 
expedition  against  this  stronghold,  which,  with  its  walls  of  solid 
masonry  twenty  feet  high,  seemed  to  defy  attack. 

New  England,  New  York,  and  Pennsylvania  contributed 
men,  artillery,  and  provisions  for  the  expedition.  Aided  by  a 
small  English  fleet  the  little  army  of  fishermen,  lumbermen, 
and  farmers  besieged  the  fortress  for  six  weeks.  Meanwhile 
the  people  of  Boston  were  holding  weekly  prayer-meetings  in 
behalf  of  the  desperate  enterprise.  The  commander  of  the 


136  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

fortress  was  unfit  for  his  place,  and  his  garrison  was  mutinous. 
The  fort  .fell,  and  the  news  of  this  victory  filled  New  England 
with   joy.     George    II.  was   so   delighted   that  he   made    the 
American  commander  a  baronet,  —  Sir  William  Pepperrell,  — 
an  honor  never  before  conferred  on  one  of  our  countrymen.363 

When  peace  was  made  (1748)  the  fortress  was  restored  to 
France  ;  but  its  former  fame  was  gone.  The  "  Yankees  "  had 
mastered  those  proud  walls,  which  the  French  King  once 
boasted  no  power  on  earth  could  take. 

164.  The  " French  and  Indian  War";  Canada  and  the 
English  colonies  compared ;  the  Ohio  country.  —  The  fourth 
and  last,  or  "  French  and  Indian  War  "  (1754-1763),  marks  the 
culmination  of  the  struggle  between  France  and  England  for 
the  possession  of  America.  Hitherto  New  England  and  New 
York  had  borne  the  brunt  of  the  contest,  but  now  the  whole 
country  as  far  south  as  Virginia  was  threatened  by  the  advance 
of  the  French  toward  the  valley  of  the  Ohio.  The  English 
colonies  had  a  population  more  than  ten  times  greater  than 
that  of  Canada,  but  the  Canadians  were  ruled  by  a  despotic 
king  who  could  and  would  force  every  man  into  the  army. 

As  early  as  1716  Governor  Spotswood  of  Virginia  (§137) 
had  seen  the  importance  of  securing  the  rich  country  beyond 
the  Blue  Ridge,  and  had  urged  the  English  Government  to 
occupy  the  valley  of  the  Ohio.  But  it  was  more  than  thirty 
years  later  before  any  decided  action  was  taken.  Then  (1748) 
Lawrence  Washington,  an  elder  brother  of  George  Washington, 
united  with  a  number  of  influential  Virginians  in  organizing  the 
Ohio  Company. 

This  Company  obtained  from  the  King  a  grant  of  500,000 
acres  of  land  on  the  east  bank  of  the  upper  Ohio.  The  tract 
lay  mainly  between  the  great  Kanawha  and  Monongahela 
Rivers,  —  a  region  now  embraced  by  West  Virginia  and  south 
west  Pennsylvania.  The  Company  proposed  to  plant  settle 
ments  in  the  "  Ohio  country,"  to  speculate  in  western  lands, 
and  to  carry  on  the  fur  trade  with  the  Indians.364 


1753-1754.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  137 

Some  years  later  (1753)  they  opened  a  road  by  "Will's 
Creek  "  —  a  branch  of  the  Potomac  —  and  made  preparations 
to  send  out  emigrants.  The  French,  through  the  explorations 
of  La  Salle  (§  159),  claimed  the  "Ohio  country  "  as  their  own. 
They  resented  its  occupation  by  the  English  as  an  act  of  tres 
pass,  and  promptly  built  a  fort  at  Presque  Isle  (Erie)  to  defend 
their  rights.  They  soon  began  a  second  (Fort  Le  Bceuf)  south 
of  it,  and  then  a  third  south  of  that,  at  Venango. 

165.  Washington's  expedition  (1753);  Fort  Duquesne ;  the 
skirmish;  Fort  Necessity.  —  Governor  Dinwiddie  of  Virginia 
sent  (1753)  Major  George  Washington,  a  young  man  of  twenty- 
one,  to  order  the  French  to  leave  the  country.  It  was  a  difficult 
and  perilous  undertaking,  involving  a  winter's  journey  of  nearly 
a  thousand  miles  through  the  wilderness.  Washington  reached 
Venango,  but  the  French  officer  at  that  post  told  him  with  an 
oath  that  the  English  should  never  have  the  Ohio ;  and  the 
commander  at  Fort  Le  Bceuf  gave  him  the  same  answer. 

On  his  way  through  the  forests  Washington  stopped  at  the 
point  where  the  waters  of  the  Alleghany  and  the  Monongahela 
unite  to  form  the  Ohio.  "I  spent  some  time,"  said  he,  "in 
viewing  the  rivers,  and  the  land  in  the  fork,  which  I  think 
extremely  well  situated  for  a  fort."  365  He  reported  the  military 
importance  of  the  position  to  Governor  Dinwiddie,  and  the 
Governor  sent  (1754)  a  party  of  men  to  erect  a  fort  at  that 
"  Gateway  of  the  West."  The  French  swooped  down  upon  the 
party,  drove  them  off,  and  erected  a  rude  structure  which  they 
named  Fort  Duquesne. 

A  little  later  a  detachment  of  French  soldiers  from  Fort 
Duquesne  encountered  Washington  at  the  head  of  a  small  party 
of  Virginians.366  The  young  man  at  once  gave  the  command  to 
fire.  It  was  the  first  shot  in  a  war  destined  to  determine  the 
fate  of  France  in  the  New  World.  The  victory  of  the  Virginians 
foretold  the  final  triumph  of  the  English  in  the  great  struggle. 

Colonel  Washington  now  hastily  built  the  stockade  of  Fort 
Necessity.  Here  on  the  fourth  day  of  July,  1754,  a  strong  body 


138  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1754-1755. 

of  French  forced  him  to  surrender.  Just  twenty-one  years  from 
that  date,  lacking  a  single  day,  Washington  took  command  of  the 
Continental  Army  which  was  to  win  the  war  of  the  Revolution. 

1 66.  The  Albany  Congress  (1754)  ;   Franklin's  plan  of 
confederation.  —  The  colonists  now  felt  the  need  of   united 
action.     A   congress  was   called  at   Albany  (1754),  to   which 
New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  the  four  New  England 
colonies  sent  delegates.     Representative  warriors  of  the  "  Six 
Nations  "  met  with  the  congress. 

Franklin,  who  was  editing  the  "  Pennsylvania  Gazette,"  had 
already  made  vigorous  appeals  in  favor  of  union.  He  had  em 
phasized  the  divided  and  helpless  state  of  the  colonies  by  a 
rude  wood-cut  representing  a  snake  cut  in  pieces,  with  the 
motto,  "  Join  or  die."  He  proposed  that  the  colonies  should 
form  a  confederation  under  the  government  of  a  president  to  be 
appointed  and  supported  by  the  Crown,  and  a  council  chosen  by 
the  colonial  assemblies. 

The  congress  unanimously  accepted  Franklin's  plan,  but  the 
colonial  assemblies  and  the  Crown  rejected  it.  The  assemblies 
refused  it  because  they  thought  it  gave  too  much  power  to  the 
King;  the  King,  because  he  considered  that  it  gave  too  much 
power  to  the  people.  Even  then  reflecting  men  in  England 
"  dreaded  American  union  as  the  keystone  of  independence."  367 

167.  Preparations  for  Braddock's  campaign.  —  The  next 
year  (1755)  England  sent  over  General  Braddock  to  Virginia 
to  lead  an  army  of  British  regulars  against  the  French.     Brad- 
dock  was  a  veteran  soldier,  boastful  and  brave,  and  accustomed 
to  do  everything  with  the  cut-and-dried  precision  of  European 
military  methods.     He  despised  backwoodsmen  and  backwoods 
ways  of  fighting. 

The  plan  of  the  campaign  was  to  attack  the  French  simulta 
neously  at  four  important  points — Fort  Duquesne,  Fort 
Niagara,  Crown  Point,  and  Fort  Beausejour  at  the  head  of 
the  Bay  of  Fundy.  If  successful,  these  movements  would 
drive  the  French  back  to  Canada. 


TORT  DU  QUESH1 

(.now  Pittsbuf 


Roads  ;=== 
Braddocfcs  Boad 


BRADDOCKS 

-M-^  

IXOUTE 

1755. 


1755-.]  ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  139 

168.  Braddock's  expedition ;  Washington ;  the  expulsion 
of  the  Acadians.  —  Early  in  June  (1755)  Braddock  set  out 
accompanied  by  Colonel  Washington  and  a  body  of  Virginians, 
all  eager  to  fight  for  "the  best  of  kings."  Braddock  advanced 
from  Fort  Cumberland,  at  the  base  of  the  Alleghanies,  and  began 
to  climb  the  rough  ridges  of  the  mountains.  Three  hundred  axe 
men  led  the  van  to  clear  the  way.  Behind  them  came  the  British 
regulars,  a  glittering  array  of  scarlet  and  steel.  The  distance  to 
Fort  Duquesne  was  about  a  hundred  and  thirty  miles.  The 
progress  of  the  army  was  so  slow  that  after  a  month's  march 
they  were  still  five  miles  from  their  destination.  Up  to  this 
point  all  had  gone  well,  when  suddenly  the  English  advance  was 
greeted  with  a  terrific  Indian  war-whoop  and  was  fired  upon  by 
an  unseen  foe. 

Braddock  fell,  mortally  wounded,  and  the  British  regulars 
"ran  like  sheep  pursued  by  dogs."368  The  Virginians  with 
Washington  at  their  head  were  the  only  men  on  the  English 
side  who  did  any  successful  fighting.  Braddock  had  lost  more 
than  half  of  his  army.  Washington  saved  what  was  left. 
This  disastrous  defeat  of  British  troops  had  one  good  result : 
it  inspired  the  Virginians  with  confidence  in  their  own  methods 
of  fighting,  and  it  led  at  once  to  the  creation  of  a  military 
organization  for  the  defence  of  the  colony. 

The  attack  on  Fort  Niagara  was  given  up,  but  that  on  Crown 
Point  and  on  Fort  Beausejour  were  completely  successful. 
Then  came  the  question  what  action  should  be  taken  respecting 
the  Acadians,  who,  by  conquest,  were  subjects  of  the  King  of 
England  (§  163),  and  were  called  "French  neutrals."  But  at 
Beause'jour  no  less  than  three  hundred  of  these  "  neutrals  "  had 
been  found  fighting  on  the  side  of  France. 

The  British  authorities  suspected  that  the  whole  French  pop 
ulation  of  Nova  Scotia  was  secretly  hostile  to  King  George. 
They  now  urged  the  Acadians  to  take  the  oath  of  allegiance 
to  the  English  sovereign  ;  but  nine-tenths  of  them  refused. 
Then  it  was  determined  to  banish  them  from  the  country.  The 


I4O  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.  [1757-1759. 

unsuspecting  people  were  called  together  in  their  parish 
churches,  and  suddenly  made  prisoners.  They  were  then 
hurried  on  board  of  British  transports,  and  carried  off  to  be 
distributed  throughout  the  colonies  from  Maine  to  Georgia. 
The  whole  number  thus  kidnapped  was  between  six  and  seven 
thousand.  It  was  a  terrible  act,  but  apparently  not  contrary 
to  the  law  of  nations,  and  even  France  did  not  remonstrate.369 

169.  Pitt  and  victory.  — The  "French  and  Indian  War"  had 
now  been  going  on  for  more  than  three  years,  but  the  English 
could  show  no  adequate  results.     Then  (1757)  the  elder  Wil 
liam   Pitt   came  into  power  ;    he  soon  became  the  directing 
power   of    the    British   Government.     A   master's   hand   now 
grasped  the  helm.     He  had  faith  in  America.     He  called  on 
the  colonists  to  furnish  twenty  thousand  men  for  a  vigorous 
campaign.     Pitt  inspired  the  army  with  his  own  enthusiasm. 
He  sent  (1758)  a  strong  force  which  recaptured   Louisburg 
(§  163),  and  the  famous  fort  was  dismantled  and  destroyed. 

Colonel  George  Washington  planned  the  line  of  march  of  an 
expedition  of  seven  thousand  men  against  Fort  Duquesne 
(1758)  ;  the  French  commander,  having  but  a  feeble  garrison, 
blew  up  the  fort  and  fled.  A  new  structure  was  built  on  the 
ruins  of  the  French  stronghold,  and  named  Fort  Pitt  in  honor 
of  the  great  statesman  whose  genius  had  made  the  war  a  suc 
cess.  A  settlement  sprang  up  around  this  military  post  which 
has  since  grown  into  the  great  manufacturing  city  of  Pittsburg. 

Sir  William  Johnson  of  Johnson  Hall,  New  York,  led  his 
Iroquois  "  braves  "  against  Fort  Niagara,  and  took  it.  Ticon- 
deroga  and  Crown  Point  fell,  and  so  throughout  the  East  the 
French  were  driven  back  to  Canada. 

170.  Wolfe  takes  Quebec  (1759).  —  The  next  move  made 
by  the  English  was  on  Canada  itself.     Montcalm,  one  of  the 
bravest  and  noblest  of  French  soldiers,  held  the  world-renowned 
fortress  of  Quebec.     General  Wolfe,  the  young  English  officer 
who  had  stormed  the  batteries  of  Louisburg  (1758),  led  the 
force  against  Quebec.     He  besieged  the  place  for  nearly  three 


1759-1763.]         ENGLISH    AND    FRENCH    SETTLEMENTS.  14! 

months  (1759),  but  without  avail.  Out  of  his  army  of  less 
than  nine  thousand  men,  he  had  lost  nearly  a  thousand  in  des 
perate  assaults  on  the  works.  Wolfe  had  fretted  himself  into 
a  fever,  and  began  to  doubt  whether  he  should  win  the  day. 

Finally  the  English  commander  determined  to  make  an 
attempt  to  scale  the  heights  above  the  town.  On  a  starlight 
night  in  September  (1759)  Wolfe  landed  five  thousand  men  on 
the  north  shore  of  the  river  at  the  little  cove  which  he  himself 
had  discovered,  and  which  is  now  called  by  his  name. 

Feeling  their  way  in  the  darkness,  the  soldiers  seized  hold  of 
projections  of  the  rocks,  branches  of  trees,  and  bushes,  and  so 
noiselessly  climbed  up  the  almost  perpendicular  heights.  When 
they  reached  the  top,  they  re-formed  and  marched  silently  on 
until  they  came  to  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  outside  the  walls  of 
Upper  Quebec.  There  at  dawn  the  French  discovered  them. 
There  the  decisive  battle  was  fought.  Both  generals  fell,  mor 
tally  wounded.  Wolfe  lay  bleeding  on  the  ground,  supported 
by  an  officer.  "  They  run  !  they  run  !  "  exclaimed  the  officer. 
"Who  run?"  asked  Wolfe.  "The  French,"  was  the  reply. 
The  English  commander  gave  a  final  order,  and  then  ex 
claimed,  with  his  last  breath,  "  Now  God  be  praised,  I  die 
in  peace." 

Montcalm  also  lay  dying.  When  told  by  the  surgeon  that 
he  could  not  survive  more  than  ten  or  twelve  hours,  he  said  : 
"  So  much  the  better ;  I  shall  not  live  to  see  the  surrender  of 
Quebec."  37° 

The  fall  of  the  capital  of  Canada  virtually  ended  the  war. 
It  left  the  English  in  possession  of  everything  which  they  had 
fought  to  gain,  though  peace  was  not  formally  declared  until 
1763. 

-  171.  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac  (1763). —  Four  years  later 
(1763)  Pontiac,  chief  of  a  Michigan  tribe,  led  a  revolt  of  the 
savages  living  in  the  vicinity  of  the  upper  lakes.  The  chief 
was  friendly  to  the  French,  and  he  believed  that  with  their  help 
he  could  drive  the  English  from  the  West. 


142 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


[1763-. 


It  was  the  most  formidable  and  widespread  plot  ever  devised 
by  an  Indian  brain.  Pontiac  hoped  to  unite  all  of  the  savage 
tribes  west  of  the  Alleghanies  in  a  general  movement  against 
the  colonies.  The  uprising  met  with  such  success  that  out  of 
twelve  military  posts  the  Indians  took  eight  and  massacred 
their  garrisons.  In  the  whole  West  only  the  forts  at  Detroit, 
Niagara,  and  Pittsburg  held  out  against  the  savages.  The  final 
battle  was  fought  under  the  walls  of  Detroit  (1763).  Two  years 
later  (1765)  Pontiac  was  forced  to  beg  for  peace.371  It  was  the 
last  general  attempt  on  the  part  of  the  western  tribes  to  drive 
out  the  English  settlers  until,  nearly  half  a  century  later, 
Tecumseh  stirred  up  his  famous  revolt  (1811). 

172.  Results  of  the  struggle  between  England  and  France 
for  the  possession  of  America  (1689-1763).  —  By  a  treaty  of 
peace  made  in  1763,  France  ceded  to  England  all  of  her  Ameri 
can  possessions  east 
of  the  Mississippi,  ex 
cept  two  small  islands 
off  the  coast  of  New- 
foundlandwhich  Great 
Britain  permitted  her 
to  keep  "as  a  shelter  to 
her  fishermen."372  By  a 
secret  treaty  made  the 
previous  year  (1762), 
France  had  trans 
ferred  New  Orleans  to 
Spain,  and  with  that 
city  all  of  her  lands 
west  of  the  Mississippi ;  of  her  former  magnificent  domain  on  the 
North  American  continent  she  now  had  not  even  a  foothold  left. 
Meanwhile  (1762)  Spain,  in  return  for  the  restoration  of 
Cuba,  had  ceded  Florida  to  England  (ceded  back  to  Spain  in 
I783)-378  At  the  close  of  1763,  England  held  the  whole  conti 
nent,  east  of  the  Mississippi,  from  the  frozen  shores  of  the  Polar 


North  America  after  the  Treaty  of  1763. 


1763-.]      ENGLISH  AND  FRENCH  SETTLEMENTS.        143 

Sea  to  the  coral  reefs  of  Florida,  while  Spain  had  her  grasp  on 
all  the  country  west  of  the  great  river  to  the  Pacific. 

But  England  paid  a  heavy  price  for  the  vast  territory  she  had 
wrested  from  France.  The  expense  of  the  war  (in  Europe  and 
America)  doubled  the  English  national  debt,  —  raising  it  from 
^"70,000,000  to  £i 40,000,000. 374  The  British  tax-payers  pro 
tested  loudly  against  further  outlay ;  but  further  outlay  seemed 
an  absolute  necessity. 

The  Crown  declared  that  a  standing  army  of  at  least  ten 
thousand  men  must  be  sent  to  America.  This  force  was  to 
hold  Canada  and  the  Ohio  Valley,  —  otherwise  the  French  and 
the  Indians  might  rise  and  get  back  all  that  they  had  lost. 

In  order  to  obtain  money  to  pay  this  army,  England  resolved 
to  impose  a  direct  tax  on  the  colonies.  Burke  said  that  this 
tax  was  the  origin  of  the  quarrel  between  the  colonists  and  the 
mother-country.375 

If,  then,  one  result  of  the  French  war  was  greatly  to  increase 
the  extent  of  the  American  possessions  held  by  England,  on 
the  other  hand,  the  expense  of  that  contest  forced  the  King  to 
adopt  a  policy  which  roused  the  colonists  to  resist  his  demands. 
George  III.  refused  to  make  any  concessions,  and  relentlessly 
pushed  his  claims,  until  finally  the  Americans  rose  and  fought 
the  War  for  Independence. 


GENERAL  VIEW  OF  THE  THIRTEEN  COLONIES  IN  1763. 

173. — Settlement  and  population.  —  In  1763  the  popula 
tion  of  the  thirteen  colonies  was  not  far  from  1,800,000,  —  or 
less  than  half  that  of  New  York  City  to-day.  Of  this  popula 
tion,  somewhat  more  than  300,000  were  slaves.  These  slaves 
were  distributed  throughout  the  colonies,  but  the  number  held 
north  of  Mason  and  Dixon's  line  (§  145)  was  comparatively 
very  small.  The  three  largest  cities  were  Philadelphia,  New 
York,  and  Boston  ;  but  none  of  them  had  a  population  exceed 
ing  30,000. 


144  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

By  virtue  of  their  original  "  sea-to-sea  "  charters,  all  but  two 
of  which  had  been  annulled,  six  of  the  thirteen  colonies,  under 
the  treaty  of  1763  (§  172),  claimed  the  Mississippi  for  their 
western  boundary  line.  New  York  made  a  similar  claim  on  the 
ground  of  purchase  of  lands  north  of  the  Ohio  from  the  Six 
Nations  (§  32). 

The  great  majority  of  the  people  lived  along  the  Atlantic 
coast.  Each  colony  had,  as  a  rule,  its  own  seaports,  and  was, 
therefore,  commercially  independent  of  the  others  ;  west  of  the 
Alleghanies  the  whole  country  was  almost  an  unbroken  wilder 
ness,  although  some  adventurous  pioneers  had  pushed  into 
that  region  and  made  a  few  clearings  in  the  forests. 

In  New  England  a  large  proportion  of  the  people  had 
gathered  in  towns  which  had  grown  up  around  the  parish  meet 
ing-house  and  the  schoolhouse.  Independent  of  all  questions 
of  trade,  the  religious  societies  of  these  colonists  would  have 
kept  them  compactly  together.  In  the  Middle  colonies  the 
towns  likewise  embraced  a  majority  of  the  population  ;  but, 
owing,  perhaps,  to  the  fact  that  the  Indians  of  that  section 
were  generally  friendly,  there  were  more  scattered  settlements 
than  in  New  England,  and  in  some  cases  they  extended  farther 
westward.  At  the  South,  the  tobacco  and  rice  plantations  did 
not  favor  the  growth  of  compact  settlements.  Jefferson  humor 
ously  declared  :  "  The  law  has  said  that  there  shall  be  towns, 
but  nature  has  said  there  '  shall  not.'  "  Generally  speaking, 
the  colonists  lived  apart  from  each  other.  Charleston,  Balti 
more,  and  Savannah  were  the  principal  Southern  cities,  and  of 
these  the  first,  only,  had  a  population  exceeding  5,000. 

A  large  majority  of  the  people,  especially  in  New  England 
and  Virginia,  were  of  pure  English  descent.  In  the  Middle 
colonies,  especially  in  Pennsylvania  and  New  York,  there  were 
a  good  many  Germans  and  Dutch,  besides  some  Swedes  and 
Scotch.  South  Carolina  had  an  influential  Huguenot  (§  135) 
element,  and  probably  most,  if  not,  indeed,  all  of  the  colonies, 
had  more  or  less  of  the  same  class,  with  some  Irish,  and  a  few 


1763-.]         GENERAL    VIEW    OF    THE    COLONIES    IN     1/63.          145 

Jews  ;  as  for  the  Scotch-Irish  (§  52),  they  or  their  descendants 
could  be  found  in  varying  numbers  everywhere.  Probably 
about  one-fifth  of  the  population  of  the  thirteen  colonies  had 
some  other  language  than  English  for  their  mother  tongue. 
Collectively,  the  people  called  themselves  "Americans."  Owing 
to  the  immense  immigration  which  has  since  taken  place,  not 
much  more  than  half  of  our  present  population  can  claim  the 
English  as  their  native  language.376 

174.  Government  of  the  colonies.  —  Three  forms  of  govern 
ment  were  in  force  in  the  colonies  in  1763,  namely,  government 
by  charter  (Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  and  Rhode  Island), 
by  Proprietaries  (Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  and  Maryland),  and 
by  the  Crown  in  the  seven  remaining  provinces.  The  general 
supervision  of  the  colonies  was  in  the  hands  of  a  Board  of 
Trade,  popularly  called  the  "Lords  of  Trade."  This  board, 
appointed  by  the  King  (1696),  had  its  headquarters  in  London. 
It  required  annual  reports  from  the  colonial  Governors  in 
America  concerning  the  general  condition  and  growth  of  their 
respective  provinces. 

No  other  colonists  in  the  world  enjoyed  the  political  liberty 
which  England  granted  to  her  subjects  in  America.  The 
Spanish  and  French  governments  on  this  continent  were 
practically  military  despotisms,  and  the  settlers  in  Mexico, 
Florida,  and  Canada  had  no  voice  whatever  in  making  laws, 
electing  officers,  or  levying  taxes.377  Holland  indeed  was  dis 
posed  to  treat  her  provinces  in  a  more  liberal  spirit,  but  still  she 
gave  them  far  less  than  England  gave  hers. 

Two  of  the  thirteen  colonies  —  Connecticut  and  Rhode 
Island  —  elected  their  Governors  and  their  Legislatures ;  they 
were  republics  in  everything  but  name.  In  the  remaining 
eleven  colonies,  though  the  King  or  the  Proprietaries  appointed 
the  Governors,  yet  the  people  elected  the  members  of  the 
Assembly. 

These  eleven  Governors,  who  were  in  most  cases  Englishmen 
sent  over  by  the  King,  were  clothed  with  the  following  powers  : 


146  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [nea-. 

they  (i)  commanded  the  military  and  naval  forces  of  their 
respective  colonies  ;  (2)  they  chose  the  members  of  the  council 
or  upper  house  of  legislature  ;  (3)  they  made  grants  of  lands 
and  collected  land-rents ;  (4)  they  granted  pardons ;  (5)  they 
assembled  and  dissolved  the  Legislature,  and  (except  in  Penn 
sylvania)  they  could  permanently  veto  any  legislative  bill. 
The  colonial  Legislatures  had  three  most  important  powers  : 

(1)  they  (with  the  Governor's  consent)  enacted  the  laws, — 
which,  however,  were  not  to  be  repugnant  to  those  of  England ; 

(2)  they  levied  all  general  taxes;  (3)  they  fixed  the  amount  of 
the   Governor's   salary,    and    also   the   salaries   of   the    judges 
(until  1761),  and  other  leading  officers.     This  power  over  the 
purse  gave  the  Legislatures  the  virtual  control  of  the  Govern 
ment,  and  as  the  lower  house  was  made  up  entirely  of  repre 
sentatives   elected  by  the   people,   this   made    them   the  real 
rulers. 

In  all  the  colonies  the  right  to  vote  was  limited  to  persons 
owning  a  certain  amount  of  landed  property.  In  all  of  the 
colonies,  except  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware,  Catholics  were 
excluded  from  the  polls,  though  it  is  denied  that  this  law  was 
enforced  in  Rhode  Island  (§  126).  The  restriction  of  suffrage 
to  property-holders  cut  off  a  large  per  cent  of  the  adult  male 
population  from  any  voice  in  the  direct  management  of  public 
affairs.  In  Rhode  Island  this  state  of  things  eventually  led  to 
what  is  known  as  the  Dorr  Rebellion  (1842).  An  order  of 
Queen  Anne's  (1702),  enforcing  the  Test  Act,  deprived  all 
persons  not  Protestants  from  holding  any  public  office  in  the 
colonies.378 

The  common  law  of  England  was  also  the  common  law  of 
the  colonies ;  but  it  was  modified  by  the  special  enactments 
of  the  different  Legislatures. 

In  Massachusetts,  and  generally  throughout  New  England,  each 
town  managed  its  local  affairs  by  a  meeting  held  once  a  year. 
At  such  meetings  the  people  voted  for  town  officers,  for  the 
building  and  repair  of  roads,  the  care  of  the  poor,  and  the  sup- 


1763-.]       GENERAL    VIEW    OF    THE    COLONIES    IN     1763.          147 

port  of  churches  and  schools.  This  system  made  New  England 
a  collection  of  "village  republics,"  in  which  all  gradation  of 
power  was  from  the  people  upward  (§  88). 

In  Virginia,  and  generally  throughout  the  South,  the  manage 
ment  of  local  affairs,  such  as  the  building  and  repair  of  roads  and 
the  levying  of  taxes  for  such  purposes,  was  under  the  control  of 
certain  county  officers  appointed  by  the  Governor ;  so  that  in 
the  South  the  gradation  of  power  was  from  the  Governor  down 
ward  (§  43).  Each  parish  however  had  a  self-elected  committee 
(§  43),  composed  usually  of  the  leading  members  of  the  Epis 
copal  Church  (the  only  Church  there  established  by  law).  These 
committees,  which  were  practically  self-elective,  and  hence  close 
corporations,  provided  for  the  maintenance  of  public  worship, 
and  looked  after  the  poor. 

In  the  Middle  colonies  a  mixed  system  of  town  and  county 
government  prevailed,  the  people  of  the  towns  electing  one  or 
more  of  the  county  officers.379 

175.  Courts  of  justice;  laws  of  inheritance.  —  Except  in 
the  three  proprietary  colonies  (Maryland,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Delaware)  and  in  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island,  the  Crown, 
directly  or  indirectly,  appointed  the  judges  of  the  superior 
courts.  They  held  their  office,  not  during  good  behavior,  as  in 
England,  but  during  the  pleasure  of  the  royal  Governor,  or  of 
his  master  the  King.  For  this  reason  the  judges  naturally  felt 
themselves  bound  to  maintain  the  interests  of  the  Crown  ;  but 
on  the  other  hand  up  to  1761  they  were  constantly  reminded  by 
the  Assemblies  that  their  salaries  depended  on  the  good  will 
of  the  people  who  paid  them.  After  1761  the  salaries  of  the 
judges  were  paid  out  of  the  King's  land-rents,  and  so  the  judges 
were  freed  from  all  responsibility  to  the  people. 

The  vice-admiralty  courts,  which  were  established  to  deal 
with  maritime  cases,  were  especially  obnoxious  to  the  mercantile 
community.  It  was  the  duty  of  these  courts  to  enforce  the 
Navigation  Acts,  the  Laws  of  Trade,  and  to  punish  smuggling. 
The  cases  were  tried  not  by  jury,  but  by  a  bench  of  judges. 


148  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

The  severity  of  their  sentences  made  them  especially  unpopular 
with  the  merchants  and  shipowners. 

If  England  discriminated  by  her  Navigation  Laws  against 
her  American  colonies,  on  the  other  hand  the  colonists  were 
not  slow  to  retaliate.  By  the  laws  of  Maryland  (1704)  an 
Englishman  emigrating  to  that  country  could  not  hold  office 
until  after  residence  for  a  term  of  years  ;  a  similar  law  existed 
in  other  colonies. 

In  Massachusetts  British  merchants  did  not  enjoy  the  same 
privileges  as  colonists.  Throughout  America  colonial  creditors 
had  a  prior  claim  in  the  collection  of  debts  over  English  credi 
tors.380 

The  laws  and  customs  relating  to  the  inheritance  of  real 
estate  had  an  important  influence  on  the  condition  of  society. 
In  Virginia,  Maryland,  and  New  York,  property  passed  to  the 
eldest  son  as  in  England.  This  system  naturally  tended  to  keep 
up  the  family  name  and  position,  and  to  establish  a  permanent 
landed  aristocracy.  Later  (1776),  Jefferson's  attacks  completely 
demolished  this  system  in  Virginia. 

In  New  England  the  property  was  divided  among  all  the 
children,  but  the  eldest  son  usually  received  a  double  share. 

The  movement  toward  equal  division  eventually  triumphed 
in  all  of  the  colonies.  Daniel  Webster  said  that  these  changes 
helped  to  lay  the  material  basis  of  republican  government.881 

176.  Conflicting  interests  of  the  colonies ;  slavery ;  the 
"Poor  Whites. "  —  Though  the  thirteen  colonies  were  practi 
cally  one  in  modes  of  government  and  in  religion,  and  though 
the  English  race  predominated,  yet  conflicting  interests  sepa 
rated  them  on  many  points. 

Unquestionably  one  of  the  most  serious  obstacles  to  union 
arose  from  the  fact  that  the  labor  systems  of  the  North  and  the 
South  were  radically  unlike  in  their  tendencies.  The  South 
was  almost  entirely  devoted  to  agriculture  in  its  simplest  form  ; 
the  North,  while  not  neglecting  agriculture,  was  largely  devoted 
to  commerce.  Both  sections  held  "  indented  apprentices " 


1763-.]       GENERAL    VIEW    OF    THE    COLONIES    IN     1763.  149 

(§  42),  and  both  owned  negroes  ;  but  at  the  South  climate,  soil, 
and  productions  fostered  the  growth  of  slavery,  and  made  it 
more  and  more  profitable,  while  at  the  North  all  these  influ 
ences  were  against  it. 

The  foreign  slave-trade  was  active  ;  it  was  to  a  great  extent 
in  the  hands  of  New  England  men,  and  there  were  merchants 
in  Salem,  Boston,  and  Newport  who  regularly  sent  out  cargoes 
of  trinkets  and  rum  to  Africa  to  exchange  for  ship-loads  of 
Guinea  negroes  to  be  sold  at  auction  in  the  South.882 

James  I.  sent  at  least  a  hundred  convicts  to  Virginia  ;  later, 
many  political  prisoners  taken  in  the  civil  wars  were  shipped  as 
slaves  to  America  —  most  of  them  probably  to  the  British  West 
Indies.  In  1 7 1 8  Parliament  enacted  a  law  permitting  convicts  to 
be  transported  to  this  country ;  between  that  date  and  1776  large 
numbers  were  sent  over,  chiefly  it  would  seem  to  the  Barbadoes. 
There  were  also  voluntary  white  indented  immigrants,  or  "  Re- 
demptioners,"  who  sold  themselves  for  a  term  of  years  to  pay 
the  cost  of  their  passage  over.  As  late  as  1792  Washington 
urged  buying  a  ship-load  of  them  in  Germany  to  work  on 
the  public  grounds  and  public  buildings  of  the  national 
capital.383 

The  industrial  differences  between  the  North  and  the  South 
were  producing  two  different  types  of  civilization,  and  were 
breeding  not  only  antagonism  of  interests,  but  bitter  sectional 
hatred.  Thus  the  seeds  of  the  great  conflict  (1861-1865) 
were  sown,  and  were  slowly  maturing  for  the  inevitable  harvest. 

Washington,  Jefferson,  and  Franklin  were  among  the  first  who 
denounced  slavery  as  a  blight  and  a  curse  (§  45).  The  people 
of  the  South  were  gradually  separated  into  two  classes  :  the  few 
who  owned  slaves,  and  the  many  —  the  "  Poor  Whites  "  —who 
did  not  own  them.  They  could  not  compete  with  negro  labor, 
and  they  were  ashamed  to  try  to  compete  with  it. 

But  the  rich  Southern  slave-holders  had  whatever  high-bred 
virtues  naturally  belong  to  an  aristocracy.  When  the  day  of 
need  came,  this  class  furnished  leaders  in  the  cause  of  inde- 


i  50  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [nes-. 

pendence  who  were  every  whit  as  ardent  as  those  who  sprang 
from  New  England  or  from  the  Middle  colonies.  The  so-called 
"  Poor  Whites  "  showed  too  on  the  battlefields  of  the  Revo 
lution,  as  they  did  nearly  a  hundred  years  later  on  those  of  the 
Civil  War,  that  they  were  not  "poor"  in  courage,  fortitude,  or 
self-denial. 

177.  Colonial  industries  ;  commerce  ;  manufactures ;  cur 
rency.  —  Down  to  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
wages  were  quite  generally  regulated  by  law,  and  two  shillings 
seems  to  have  been  the  usual  pay  for  a  day's  work. 

The  great  staples  of  the  South  were  tobacco,  rice,  indigo, 
and  the  products  of  the  pine  forests  of  North  Carolina.  Penn 
sylvania  exported  iron ;  New  York  carried  on  a  large  trade  in 
furs.  New  England  was  actively  engaged  in  whaling  and  cool- 
fishing,  and  in  distilling  rum  from  West  India  molasses.  A  gilt 
figure  of  a  codfish  still  hangs  in  the  chamber  of  the  House  of 
Representatives  in  the  State  House  in  Boston.  Like  the  sack 
of  wool  in  the  English  House  of  Lords,  it  is  an  honorable 
emblem  of  what  was  once  a  chief  source  of  the  wealth  of 
Massachusetts. 

Ship-building  had  long  been  carried  on  in  New  England  and 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  English  ship-builders  complained  with 
good  reason  that  America  was  driving  their  vessels  from  the 
ocean.  Early  in  the  eighteenth  century  (1713),  Captain  Andrew 
Robinson  of  Gloucester,  Massachusetts,  launched  the  first 
schooner  —  a  type  of  vessel  which  has  since  come  into  use 
throughout  the  world.384 

The  commerce  of  the  colonies  grew  steadily.  New  England 
had  a  fleet  of  between  five  and  six  hundred  sailing  craft  em 
ployed  in  the  West  Indian  and  other  foreign  trade. 

Large  as  our  exports  were,  our  imports  from  Great  Britain 
were  nearly  twice  as  great,  and  Lord  Chatham  said  in  Parlia 
ment,  "  America  is  the  fountain  of  our  wealth,  the  nerve  of 
our  strength."  He  declared  that  Great  Britain  made  a  profit 
of  £2,000,000  a  year  out  of  her  American  trade.385 


1763-.]        GENERAL    VIEW    OF    THE    COLONIES    IN    1763.  15! 

Aside  from  the  production  of  certain  classes  of  coarse  goods, 
there  were  few  manufactures  in  the  colonies.  The  first  woolen 
mill  was  set  up  by  John  Pearson  in  1643  in  Rowley,  Massa 
chusetts.386  England,  acting  on  the  protective  principle, 
checked  the  growth  of  colonial  manufactures  by  all  sorts  of 
vexatious  legislation  in  order  that  she  might  keep  the  monopoly 
of  supply  for  her  own  merchants.  The  House  of  Commons 
resolved  (1719)  that  "the  erecting  manufactories  in  the  colo 
nies  tended  to  lessen  their  dependence  "  ;387  later  (1750-1765), 
the  erection  of  any  new  iron-furnaces  and  iron-mills  in  Penn 
sylvania  or  elsewhere  was  prohibited  as  a  "nuisance."3 

Such  goods  as  the  colonists  were  permitted  to  produce  were 
made  largely  by  hand,  although  horse-power,  wind-power,  and 
water-power  were  used  to  some  extent.  Steam  as  a  manufac 
turing  agent  was  still  unknown  in  the  world,  and  the  first 
steam-engine  in  America  was  not  set  up  until  about  the 
beginning  of  the  present  century.389 

The  need  of  a  sound  currency  was  sorely  felt  in  all  of  the 
colonies.  In  Virginia  tobacco  had  served  for  money  for  a 
time,  but  unfortunately  it  was  subject  to  sudden  and  violent 
fluctuations  in  value  according  as  the  price  abroad  rose  and  fell. 
In  New  England,  and  in  some  of  the  other  colonies,  wampum 
(§  29)  had  long  been  in  use,  and  did  excellent  service  in  trade  with 
the  Indians.  Massachusetts,  indeed,  ventured  to  set  up  a  mint 
and  strike  off  debased  silver  coins,  and  coppers,  but  long  before 
1763  the  mint  had  been  suppressed.  Most  of  the  specie  that 
came  into  the  country  consisted  of  Spanish  dollars  brought  from 
the  West  Indies  in  exchange  for  exports,  together  with  some 
English  gold  and  silver  ;  but  this  specie  soon  found  its  way  into 
the  pockets  of  the  London  merchants. 

This  constant  drain  of  gold  and  silver  out  of  the  colonies 
naturally  induced  them  to  undertake  the  issue  of  paper  money. 
Most  of  this  proved  utterly  worthless.  The  English  Board  of 
Trade  (§  174)  instructed  the  royal  colonial  Governors  to  veto 
the  bills  which  the  Legislatures  enacted  for  the  issue  of  this 


152  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

irredeemable  paper  money,  and  the  quarrels  to  which  these 
vetoes  gave  rise  were  one  cause  leading  to  the  Revolution. 

178.  Roads;  travel;  the  post-office.  —  Owing  to  the  very 
general  lack  of  good  roads  the  chief  part  of  the  transportation 
was,  when  practicable,  by  water.  Large  quantities  of  furs  and 
freights  of  all  kinds  were  carried  in  canoes  on  the  rivers 
and  lakes.  New  York  in  particular  offered  great  facilities  in 
this  respect.  Where  rivers  were  not  available  for  reaching  the 
interior,  pack-horses  were  employed.  They  carried  the  goods 
in  long  bags  slung  across  their  backs. 

The  roads  were  frequently  simply  Indian  trails ;  in  other 
cases  there  was  no  path  at  all,  and  the  way  through  the  track 
less  forests  was  indicated  by  "  blazed  "  trees ;  bridges  were 
almost  unknown.  Pennsylvania  was  one  of  the  few  colonies 
which  had  a  number  of  fairly  good  roads ;  they  radiated  from 
Philadelphia.  Thousands  of  huge  wagons  carried  produce  to 
that  busy  port,  which  had  an  export  trade  of  more  than 
^"700,000  a  year.  Boston  (1763)  ranked  next  in  this  respect. 

There  was  but  little  passenger  travel  —  so  little,  in  fact,  that 
it  was  not  very  uncommon  for  a  man  to  make  his  will  when  he 
ventured  to  go  any  distance  from  home.  The  usual  mode  of 
travel  between  the  principal  cities,  such  as  Boston,  Philadelphia, 
New  York,  and  Charleston,  was  by  sailing  vessel.  The  time 
required  for  making  such  a  journey  was  as  uncertain  as  the 
wind.  Not  infrequently  men  preferred  to  go  on  horseback  to 
avoid  vexatious  delays.  If  a  wife  went  with  her  husband  on 
one  of  these  journeys,  she  usually  rode  behind  him  on  a  pillion. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  colonial  period,  a  line  of  rude  stage- 
wagons  was  put  on  the  route  (1756)  between  Philadelphia  and 
New  York.  They  made  trips  once  a  week.  Their  average 
speed  was  usually  rather  less  than  three  miles  an  hour ;  but  as 
the  roads  were  rough,  and  the  wagons  had  no  springs,  the  pas 
sengers  probably  seldom  begged  to  go  faster.  Later  (1766), 
some  enterprising  individual  put  a  new  "  stage "  on  the 
route.  He  advertised  it  as  the  "Flying-Machine";  under 


To  the   PUBLIC. 

THE  FLYING  MACHINE,   kept  by 
John  Mercereau,  at   the  "New-  Blazing-Star-  Ferry, 
near  New-  York,  feis  off  from  Powles-Hook  every    Mon 
day,  Wednefday,  and  Friday  Mornings,  for  Philadelphia,. 
and  performs  the  Journey  in  a  Day   and  a  Half,  for  the 
Summer  Seafon,  till  the  iftof  November;  from  that  Time 
to  go  twice   a  Week    till    the  firft   of  May,  when  they 
again  perform  it  three  Times  a  Week.     When  the  Stages 
go  only  twice  a  Week,  they  fet  off  Mondays  andThurf- 
days.     The  Waggons  in  Philadelphia,   fet   out  from   the 
Si&n  of  the  George,    in  Second-  ftreet,  the  fame  Morning. 
The  Paffengers  are  defired  to  crofs  the  Ferry  the  Evening 
before,  as  the  Stages  muft  fet  off  early  the  next  Morning. 
The  Price  for  each  Paffenger  is  JiMtnly  Shillings^  Proc.*  and 
Goods  as  ufual.     Paffengers  going  Part  of  the  Way  to  pay 
in  Proportion. 

As  the  Proprietor  has  made  tuch  Improvements  upon 
the  Machines,  one  of  which  is  in  Imitation  of  a  Coach, 
he  hopes  to  merit  the  Favour  of  the  Publick. 

JOHN  MERCEREAU. 


j/evfYorfc 


FLYING    MACHINE. 


*  "  Proc."  :  Proclamation-money  or  lawful  money  according  to  the  proclamation 
of  Queen  Anne  in  1704. 


1763-.]       GENERAL    VIEW    OF    THE    COLONIES    IN    1763.          153 

favorable  circumstances  it  flew  at  a  speed  of  perhaps  five 
miles  an  hour.391 

The  first  post-office  in  the  colonies  was  not  established  until 
1 7 1  o,  or  more  than  a  century  after  the  first  settlement  of  Virginia. 
The  mails  were  scanty.  They  were  generally  carried  on  horse 
back.  The  rates  of  postage  for  a  single  letter  ranged,  in  modern 
currency,  from  eight  to  twenty-five  cents,  according  to  distance. 
When  Benjamin  Franklin  was  appointed  Postmaster-General 
(1753)  he  startled  the  good  people  of  Philadelphia  by  putting 
on  a  regular  weekly  mail  between  that  city  and  Boston  ;  there 
was  no  postal  service  between  Boston  and  inland  towns  before 
the  Revolution. 

179.  Religion;  freedom  of  worship;  the  press.  —  In  the 
South  the  Episcopal  Church  —  the  established  Church  of  all 
the  royal  colonies  —  was  the  most  influential  ;  but  numerically 
the  Presbyterians  were  strong,  and  together  with  the  Congrega- 
tionalists  were  constantly  growing  stronger.  In  Pennsylvania 
the  Quakers  and  the  German  Lutherans  predominated.  In  the 
remaining  Middle  colonies  Episcopacy  was  maintained  by  law, 
but  other  denominations  were  tolerated.  Maryland  had  by  far 
the  greatest  number  of  Catholics.  Yet  even  there  they  did  not 
constitute  more  than  a  small  per  cent  of  the  population. 

In  Massachusetts  Episcopacy  was  encouraged  by  the  royal 
Governor,  who  attended  the  "  King's  Chapel "  in  Boston.  The 
dread  lest  the  Crown  should  appoint  an  Episcopal  bishop  may 
be  considered  as  one  of  the  causes  which  operated  in  Massa 
chusetts  to  bring  on  the  Revolution.392  In  Rhode  Island  the 
Baptists  had  become  a  controlling  power.  A  few  Methodists 
had  settled  in  New  York,  but  no  preachers  of  that  denomina 
tion  arrived  until  several  years  later  (1769).  The  following 
year  (1770)  a  Universalist  minister  began  to  form  two  or 
three  societies  of  that  faith.  Influences  were  at  work  in  a 
number  of  the  Congregational  Churches  of  Massachusetts 
which  eventually  developed  into  Unitarianism,  first  formally 
organized  in  Boston  after  the  close  of  the  Revolution  (1785). 


154  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

In  Massachusetts  the  compulsory  support  of  public   Congre 
gational  worship  was  not  abolished    until    many  years   later 

(I833)-893 

The  only  colony  which  openly  tolerated  entire  freedom  of 
worship  by  legislative  enactment  was  Rhode  Island.  In  Vir 
ginia,  where  all  property-holders  were  taxed  to  support  the 
established  Episcopal  Church,  no  other  faith  was  legally  recog 
nized.394 

In  western  Virginia  there  were  many  dissenters  —  mostly 
Presbyterians.  They  were  permitted  to  organize  and  maintain 
churches  of  their  own  on  condition  that  they  made  certain  con 
cessions  to  the  established  (Episcopal)  Church.895  Jefferson 
secured  (1776)  partial  toleration,  and  eventually  (1785)  his 
influence  obtained  the  passage  of  the  famous  act,  granting 
entire  religious  freedom. 

In  all  of  the  colonies,  except  Rhode  Island,  laws  existed 
which  forbade  Catholics  from  holding  public  worship ;  but  in 
Pennsylvania  the  law  was  not  generally  enforced,  and  as  early 
as  1734  a  Catholic  church  —  the  first  outside  of  the  original 
church  of  Maryland  —  was  erected  in  Philadelphia.396 

That  art  which  has  been  truly  said  to  be  "  preservative  of  all 
arts"  was  first  introduced  into  the  colonies  by  the  establishment 
of  a  printing-press  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in  1639.  The 
next  press,  outside  of  Massachusetts,  was  permanently  set  up 
at  Philadelphia  (1686),  and  the  next  at  New  York  (1693).  No 
printing  could  be  done  except  by  special  license,  although 
most  of  the  restrictions  were  removed  by  1755. 

The  first  permanent  newspaper  established  in  the  colonies 
was  the  "  Boston  News  Letter,"  which  made  its  appearance  in 
1704.  It  was  printed  weekly,  and  consisted  of  half  a  sheet  of 
coarse,  dingy  paper,  about  the  size  of  a  child's  pocket  handker 
chief.  The  first  attempt  made  by  any  newspaper  to  discuss 
public  affairs  was  when  James  Franklin  (1723)  criticised  the 
action  of  the  Massachusetts  authorities  in  his  "New  England 
Courant."  It  was  in  certain  respects  the  forerunner  of  the 


1763-.]       GENERAL    VIEW    OF    THE    COLONIES    IN    1/63  155 

poorest  class  of  modern  sensational  dailies,  differing  from  them 
mainly  because  its  limited  circulation  greatly  restricted  its  de 
moralizing  and  destructive  power.  Its  publication  was  stopped 
by  the  authorities. 

Peter  Zenger,  the  publisher  of  the  "  New  York  Weekly  Jour 
nal,"  first  succeeded  (1734)  in  establishing  the  right  (§  69)  of 
a  newspaper  to  censure  acts  of  the  Government.  He  thus 
laid  the  foundation  for  the  absolute  liberty  of  the  press  which 
was  finally  recognized  after  the  Revolution. 

180.  Literature  and  education.  —  Up  to  1763  very  few 
American  books  of  note  had  been  published.  Wealthy  men 
imported  the  standard  English  authors,  but  in  New  England 
sermons  by  the  Puritan  ministers  formed  a  large  part  of  the 
solid  reading  in  that  section. 

The  most  remarkable  production  in  verse  was  the  Reverend 
Michael  Wigglesworth's  "Day  of  Doom."  It  was  a  realistic 
description  of  the  "Great  and  Last  Judgment,"  and  especially 
of  the  unutterable  torments  of  lost  souls.  For  a  hundred  years 
after  its  publication  in  Boston  (1662),  no  other  book  com 
manded  a  sale  equal  to  it.  Peddlers  hawked  it  from  house  to 
house,  and  little  children  learned  it  by  heart  along  with  their 
catechism.  As  late  as  the  early  part  of  the  present  century 
there  were  men  and  women  living  who  had  read  and  reread  the 
lurid  pages  of  this  poem,  by  the  flickering  light  of  a  New 
England  fireside,  until  every  line  seemed  to  have  been  burnt 
into  their  memories,  and  they  could  repeat  the  whole  of  the  two 
hundred  and  twenty-four  verses  word  by  word.397 

In  prose  we  have  Cotton  Mather's  "  Magnalia "  (1702),  a 
huge  folio  narrating  the  church  history  of  New  England ;  and 
later,  Dummer's  "Defence  of  the  New  England  Charters" 
(1728),  a  vigorously  written  pamphlet  which  was  followed  by  a 
multitude  of  others  discussing  and  defending  the  rights  of  the 
colonists.  The  most  noteworthy  Southern  contributions  to 
American  literature  were  Beverly's  "  History  of  Virginia " 
(1705),- followed  by  Stith's  history  of  the  same  colony  (1747). 


156  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

The  two  master  writers  of  the  period  were  Benjamin  Franklin 
and  Jonathan  Edwards.  Edwards  was  a  Puritan  minister  of 
the  strictest  sort ;  Franklin  was  a  man  of  the  world,  an  inde 
pendent  thinker,  who  hired  no  one  to  guess  for  him  about  any 
thing.  In  1732,  while  editing  the  "  Pennsylvania  Gazette,  "  —  a 
paper  which  he  printed  with  his  own  hands,  —  he  began  the 
publication  of  an  almanac,  popularly  known  as  "  Poor  Richard's 
Almanac." 

He  scattered  through  his  almanac  maxims  which  preached 
the  gospel  of  thrift,  self-help,  and  manly  independence.  These 
pithy  sayings  of  "Poor  Richard"  had  a  wide  influence.  They 
were  reprinted  on  sheets  (1754)  under  the  title  of  "The  Way 
to  Wealth,"  and  framed  and  hung  up  in  houses  and  shops. 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  they  did  much  towards  shaping 
American  life  when,  as  an  eminent  English  statesman  said,  it 
was  "  in  the  gristle  and  not  yet  hardened  into  the  bone  of 
manhood." 

Later,  Franklin  wrote  numerous  political  pamphlets  and 
scientific  papers  ;  several  of  the  former  had  a  decided  bearing 
on  questions  relating  to  the  welfare  of  the  colonies,  the  need 
of  union  and  of  self-defence. 

Jonathan  Edwards  was  a  country  minister  settled  in  North 
ampton,  and  later  in  Stockbridge,  Massachusetts.  He  was  a 
man  of  deep  religious  convictions,  of  vigorous  intellect,  and  of 
noble  purpose. 

His  preaching  expressed  the  same  feeling  as  that  which 
found  utterance  in  the  "Day  of  Doom."  It  was  largely  an 
appeal  to  fear,  and  it  gave  rise  to  that  remarkable  revival 
(1740)  called  the  "Great  Awakening."  That  movement  shook 
New  England  like  an  earthquake,  and  made  itself  felt  as  far 
south  as  Virginia.  It  called  into  existence  a  great  number  of 
independent  exhorters  and  preachers  ;  they  broke  up  many  of 
the  old  parishes  in  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  into  oppo 
site  factions  known  as  the  "  Old  Lights "  and  the  "  New 
Lights."  This  led  to  the  formation  of  societies  holding  views 


1763-.]       GENERAL    VIEW    OF    THE    COLONIES    IN     1763.  I  57 

of  their  own.  These  new  societies,  in  a  number  of  cases,  with 
drew  from  the  more  rigid  Puritan  organization,  and  so,  in  the 
end,  helped  to  bring  about  the  separation  of  Church  and 
State.398 

Later  (1754),  Edwards  published  his  great  work  on  the 
"  Freedom  of  the  Will "  ;  his  object  was  to  show  that  there  is 
no  true  and  permanent  liberty  save  that  which  springs  from  right 
doing,  and  that  the  power  to  do  right  comes  only  from  above. 
His  book  was  destined  to  have  a  profound  influence  on  that 
small  number  of  thinkers  whose  thoughts  influence  the  world. 

By  1763  the  common-school  system  of  New  England  had 
been  in  existence  for  more  than  a  century  (§  93),  but  even  in 
Massachusetts  such  schools  were  not  as  a  rule  fully  maintained 
by  public  taxation.  The  law  which  finally  and  fully  established 
them  on  that  basis  was  not  passed  until  (1827)  nearly  fifty 
years  after  the  country  had  gained  its  independence  as  a  nation. 

This  system  did  not  (1763)  extend  south  of  Connecticut; 
but  numerous  schools,  however,  existed  in  New  Jersey  and  in 
New  York,  and  Pennsylvania  was  noted  for  its  "  log  colleges." 

In  Virginia  and  throughout  the  South  there  was  no  system 
of  public  instruction.  Governor  Berkeley,  speaking  of  the 
"Old  Dominion"  (1671),  said:  "I  thank  God  there  are  no 
free  schools,  nor  printing,  and  I  hope  we  shall  not  have  [them] 
these  hundred  years  ;  for  learning  has  brought  disobedience 
and  heresy  and  sects  into  the  world,  and  printing  has  divulged 
them,  and  libels  against  the  best  government.  God  keep  us 
from  both."399 

Yet  Governor  Berkeley  was  not  an  enemy  to  higher  educa 
tion,  for  he  subscribed  for  the  founding  of  "a  college  of  students 
of  the  liberal  arts  and  sciences."  What  he  feared  was  a  demo 
cratic  system  of  free  instruction,  such  as  he  believed  would 
tend  to  undermine  the  authority  of  Church  and  King. 

The  wealthy  planters  not  infrequently  employed  classical 
tutors  for  their  eldest  sons,  —  the  heirs  of  their  estates,  —  or 
sent  them  to  the  mother-country  to  be  educated.  Augustine 


158  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [nea-. 

Washington  sent  his  eldest  son  Lawrence  to  England  for  that 
purpose,  but  placed  his  younger  son  George  in  a  little  school 
kept  by  the  sexton  of  the  parish,  where  the  lad  was  duly  taught 
to  read,  write,  and  cipher.  A  large  number  of  the  "  Poor 
Whites  "  never  had  an  opportunity  to  acquire  even  these  rudi 
ments  of  learning.  They  got  their  education  from  things, 
not  from  books. 

By  1763  six  colleges  had  been  established  in  the  colonies. 
They  were  Harvard  (1636),  William  and  Mary  (1693),  Yale 
(1701),  Princeton  (1746),  the  University  of  Pennsylvania 
(1753),  and  Columbia  (1754);  a  seventh — Brown  University 
—  soon  afterward  came  into  existence  (1764). 

181.  Science  and  art;  discoveries  and  inventions — In 
art  we  had  two  noted  painters,  Copley  and  West.  The  latter 
had  been  painting  portraits  in  Philadelphia  at  five  guineas  a 
head,  but  went  to  Italy  before  the  close  of  1763.  Copley  was 
painting  in  Boston,  and  John  Hancock  and  his  friend  Samuel 
Adams  were  soon  to  sit  for  their  portraits,  both  of  which  now 
hang  in  the  Boston  Art  Museum. 

Copley  was  painting  a  picture  in  London  when  (1782)  the 
news  was  received  of  the  acknowledgment  of  American  inde 
pendence  by  Great  Britain.  "  With  a  bold  hand  and  a  master's 
touch  "  the  artist  introduced  a  ship  in  the  background,  flying 
the  " stars  and  stripes";  it  was  probably  the  first  American 
flag  that  was  hoisted  in  old  England. 

In  the  field  of  scientific  discovery  America  had  made  her 
mark.  Franklin  was  engaged  in  his  famous  experiments  with 
electricity,  and  the  leading  scientists  of  France  wrote  to  him  : 
"  We  are  all  waiting  with  the  greatest  eagerness  to  hear  from 
you."400  They  did  not  wait  in  vain,  for  Franklin,  by  the  use  of 
nothing  more -remarkable  than  a  boy's  kite,  succeeded  (1751) 
in  establishing  the  fact  that  the  electricity  produced  by  friction 
and  the  lightning  of  the  thunder-clouds  are  one  and  the  same 
thing.  That  was  the  beginning  of  the  wonderful  development 
which,  after  the  lapse  of  nearly  a  century,  has  since  taken 


1763-.]       GENERAL    VIEW    OF    THE    COLONIES    IN     1/63.  159 

place,  and  is  now  rapidly  advancing.  The  lightning-rod  was 
the  first  step  in  that  practical  knowledge  of  electricity  which 
has  since  given  us  the  telegraph  and  telephone,  and  which  now 
provides  the  silent  power  which  lights  houses  and  streets,  cooks 
food,  photographs  invisible  objects,  drives  machinery,  propels 
and  heats  cars,  signals  the  approach  of  trains,  rings  fire-alarms, 
and  threatens  in  time  to  drive  steam  entirely  into  the  background. 

Another  name  destined  to  take  high  rank  in  the  history  of 
science  was  that  of  Benjamin  Thompson  (Count  Rumford),  then 
a  boy  at  school  in  his  native  town  of  Woburn,  Massachusetts. 
In  his  researches  many  years  later  he  discovered  that  heat  is  a 
mode  of  motion,  and  he  laid  the  foundation  of  the  modern 
doctrine  of  the  "  correlation  of  forces." 401 

182.  Mode  of  life.  —  Throughout  the  colonies  the  great 
mass  of  the  people  lived  in  the  utmost  simplicity.  The  farm 
houses  were  generally  built  of  logs,  or  of  rough,  unpainted 
clapboards.  The  cooking  was  done  before  huge  open  wood 
fires,  or  in  large  brick  ovens.  The  food  was  generally  coarse, 
but  abundant.  There  were  comparatively  few  vegetables,  but 
plenty  of  apples  and  cider. 

Salt  pork  was  the  meat  most  commonly  eaten,  but  venison 
and  other  game  were  by  no  means  rare.  Corn  in  the  form  of 
hominy,  mush,  or  hoe  cake,  and  rye  bread  were  more  generally 
seen  on  the  table  than  bread  made  of  wheat. 

Tallow  candles,  whale-oil  lamps,  and  open  wood  fires 
gave  light  in  the  evening.  Friction  matches  did  not  come 
into  use  until  long  after  the  Revolution,  and  the  only  way  of 
kindling  a  fire  was  to  strike  a  spark  by  a  flint  and  steel,  catch 
it  on  some  tinder,  and  blow  it  to  a  blaze. 

Men  and  women  dressed  chiefly  in  homespun,  which  the 
wives  and  daughters  of  the  farmers  manufactured  in  the  long 
winter  evenings  with  their  spinning-wheels  and  hand-looms. 

In  New  England  Sunday  was  kept  very  strictly ;  every  one 
was  expected  to  attend  church,  and  all  travel  or  labor  —  except 
in  cases  of  absolute  necessity — was  forbidden. 


160  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

In  all  of  the  colonies  law-breakers  were  summarily  and 
sharply  dealt  with.  Ordinary  offenders  were  put  in  the  stocks, 
exposed  on  the  pillory,  or  publicly  whipped,  much  to  the  edifi 
cation  of  the  bystanders.  Serious  crimes  were  punished  by 
imprisonment  or  by  the  gallows,  and  hangings  took  place  where 
all  could  witness  them. 

In  and  near  the  cities  there  were  occasional  fine  mansions. 
Some  of  these,  such  as  the  "  Longfellow  House,"  in  Cambridge, 
Massachusetts,  the  "Van  Rensselaer  Manor  House"  at  Green- 
bush,  New  York,  and  the  "  Byrd  House  "  at  Westover,  near 
Richmond,  Virginia,  are  still  standing,  and  are  excellent 
examples  of  the  higher  class  of  colonial  architecture. 

The  owners  of  these  houses  frequently  lived  in  a  good  deal 
of  style.  They  imported  French  wines  and  silver  plate  for 
their  tables,  and  dressed  in  stately  costumes  of  velvet  and 
brocade,  set  off  with  ruffles,  and  wearing  flowing  wigs  or 
powdered  hair. 

Social  lines  were  more  sharply  drawn  than  at  present. 
Broadly  speaking,  to-day,  every  inhabitant  of  the  United  States 
who  is  not  a  lady  is  a  gentleman,  but  in  colonial  days  these 
names  were  given,  as  a  rule,  only  to  persons  holding  some 
acknowledged  and  well-defined  social  position. 

183.  Indications  of  the  coming  Revolution.  —  Not  long 
before  the  Revolution,  a  marked  change  took  place  in  the 
reading  habits  of  many  of  the  people.  Burke,  in  speaking  of 
America  in  1775,  said :  "  In  no  country  in  the  world  is  the  law 
so  general  a  study."  Not  only  did  the  colonists  import  a  large 
number  of  law-books,  but  they  had  begun  to  publish  them.  It 
is  said  that  nearly  as  many  copies  of  Blackstone's  Commen 
taries  were  sold  in  America  as  in  England.402  Public  affairs 
were  discussed  to  such  an  extent  that  a  noted  Frenchman  said 
of  the  Americans :  "  They  are  all  politicians,  down  to  the 
housemaids."  403 

This  interest  in  public  matters,  joined  to  the  study  of  law, 
was  preparing  the  leaders  of  the  colonists  to  take  a  decided 


1763-.]       GENERAL    VIEW    OF    THE    COLONIES    IN     1/63.  l6l 

stand  in  defence  of  their  rights.  English  statesmen  expressed 
their  admiration  for  the  ability  with  which  the  Americans  drew 
up  their  petitions  for  justice  and  their  protests  against  oppression. 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  English  Board  of  Trade 
had  accused  the  Massachusetts  colonists  of  having  "  a  thirst 
for  independence,"  yet  the  general  feeling  of  all  the  colonies 
appears  to  have  been  loyal  until  a  late  date.  In  a  sermon  on 
the  death  of  George  II.  (1760),  the  Reverend  Jonathan  Mayhew 
of  Boston  said  that  the  people  had  regarded  the  late  King  as  a 
"  father  "  rather  than  a  "  sovereign,"  and  that  they  hoped  to  sit 
"  under  the  shadow  of  his  successor  with  great  delight." 404  The 
coronation  of  George  III.  was  celebrated  with  all  the  pomp  the 
colonists  could  muster.  They  felt  that  the  glory  of  the  mother- 
country  was  still  their  glory,  and  they  rejoiced  "publicly  on 
every  victory  of  the  English  arms."  405 

Franklin  testified  before  the  House  of  Commons  that  up  to 
the  passage  of  the  Stamp  Act  (1765)  the  colonists  "were  led 
by  a  thread."  They  had,  he  said,  "  not  only  a  respect, 
but  an  affection  for  Great  Britain."  It  was  natural  that  it 
should  be  so,  for  a  large  proportion  of  the  people  were  of  direct 
English  descent.  The  laws,  the  language,  the  literature,  the 
religion  of  America  were  to  a  great  extent  those  of  England. 

But  if  the  bond  which  united  us  to  the  mother-country  was 
strong,  so  too  was  the  spirit  of  resistance  to  injustice.  In  the 
cordage  of  the  British  navy  a  scarlet  fibre  is  twisted  into  every 
strand  of  rope  to  mark  it ;  so  throughout  the  colonies,  inter 
woven  with  the  universal  feeling  of  loyalty,  there  was  this 
distinct  and  unmistakable  determination  to  insist  on  the  same 
constitutional  rights  which  were  granted  to  Englishmen  at 
home.  When  George  III.  positively  refused  to  acknowledge 
those  rights,  when  no  petition  however  humble,  and  no  protest 
however  vehement  could  move  him,  then  the  American  people 
deliberately  took  the  final  step.  In  this  action  all  the  colonies 
were  united,  for  a  majority  in  all  "wanted  the  same  Revo 
lution."406 


1 62  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [ISOT-ITTG. 

184.  Importance  of  the  colonial  period.  —  The  Revolution 
brought  the  colonial  period  to  a  close.  To  rightly  estimate 
it  we  should  remember  that  in  the  growth  of  a  nation,  as  in  the 
growth  of  a  tree,  the  roots  count  as  much  as  the  top.  Many 
events  of  the  first  importance  originated  in  that  period  (1607- 
1776).  i.  Then  the  English-speaking  race  got  firm  possession 
of  the  Atlantic  coast,  and  extended  their  territory  as  far  west  as 
the  Mississippi.  2.  Then,  too,  many  customs,  laws,  and  insti 
tutions  were  established  which  must  continue  to  have  great 
influence  on  the  welfare  of  the  whole  country.  3.  The  leading 
industries  of  America  to-day  were  planted  by  the  early  settlers 
and  their  descendants.407  4.  They,  too,  first  recognized  the 
great  principle  of  complete  religious  toleration  ;  they  laid  the 
foundation  of  our  oldest  colleges,  and  of  the  public-school 
system  of  the  United  States ;  and  they  established  the  liberty 
of  the  press.  5.  In  that  period,  too,  the  conception  of  national 
independence  was  born,  and  a  committee  was  chosen  to  frame 
the  first  Constitution  of  the  Republic.  6.  Finally  it  was  in  that 
period  that  slavery  spread  itself  through  the  Southern  half  of 
the  Republic,  and  sowed  the  seeds  of  that  gigantic  war  which 
in  the  end  not  only  gave  the  country  a  "  new  birth  of  freedom," 
but  led  to  the  reconstruction  of  the  Union  on  a  basis  far  more 
solid  and  sure  than  it  rested  on  before. 


IV. 

THE   REVOLUTION,  THE    CONSTITUTION. 

(1763-1789.) 


For  Authorities  far  this  Chapter,  see  Appendix,  page-sain.    The  small  figuret  in 
the  text  refer  to  A  uthorities  cited  on  page  xix  of  the  Appendix, 


185.  The  accession  and  policy  of  George  III.  —  The  acces 
sion  of  George  III.  (1760)  produced  a  great  change  in  political 
affairs  both  in  England  and  in  the  colonies.    The  new  sovereign 
was   well-meaning,   patriotic,   and   conscientious,  but   narrow- 
minded,  obstinate,  and  subject  to  attacks  of  mental  derange 
ment.     When  he  came  to  the  throne  he  found  the  government 
in  the  hands  of  a  few  great  Whig  families.     George  was  deter 
mined  to  be  king  in  fact  as  well  as  in  name.     He  resolved  to 
break  down  the  power  of  the  old  Whig  Party,  to  raise  up  a 
body  of  men  in  Parliament,  who  as  the  "  King's  friends  "  would 
vote  as  he  should  direct,  and  to  make  his  own  arbitrary  will 
supreme  not  only  at  home  but  throughout  British  America.408 

That  determination  was  vigorously  resisted  on  both  sides  of 
the  Atlantic.  The  struggle  which  ended  triumphantly  for  the 
American  patriots  was  in  truth  part  of  the  same  revolution 
which  was  fought  in  England  by  other  patriots  in  the  halls  of 
Parliament.409  In  spirit  Pitt  and  Burke  were  the  allies  of  Adams 
and  Washington. 

186.  The  chief  cause  of  the  American  Revolution ;  protest 
of  the  colonies  against  direct  taxation.  — We  have  seen  (§§70, 
102,  127,  177,  179,  183)  that  many  causes  contributed  to  bring 
on  the  American  Revolution ;  but  the  immediate  cause  was  the 
King's  determination  to  impose  a  tax  on  the  colonists  without 


164  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

their  consent.410  The  declared  object  of  that  tax  was  to  aid 
in  maintaining  a  force  of  ten  thousand  British  troops  in 
America  to  prevent  an  insurrection  of  the  conquered  Canadian 
French,  and  to  protect  the  colonists  against  the  western 
Indians.411 

Lord  Grenville,  the  King's  Prime  Minister,  held  that  the 
colonies  were  simply  places  of  trade  established  for  the  benefit 
of  Great  Britain.  Adam  Smith,  in  the  first  edition  of  his 
celebrated  work  on  political  economy  (1776),  denounced  this 
narrow  view  as  "  fit  only  for  a  nation  of  shopkeepers." 412  The 
colonists  themselves,  however,  admitted  the  right  of  Great 
Britain  to  impose  duties  on  their  imports  and  to  restrict  their 
commerce  and  their  manufactures  ;  but  at  the  same  time  they 
positively  denied  the  right  of  the  home  government  to  demand 
contributions  of  money  from  them.413 

As  early  as  1624  the  Virginia  Assembly  declared  :  "The 
governor  shall  not  lay  any  taxes  .  .  .  upon  the  colony  .  .  . 
otherwise  than  by  the  authority  of  the  General  Assembly." 414 
This,  too,  was  the  attitude  of  Massachusetts  (1646)  415  and  of 
Plymouth  Colony  (i67i).416 

It  is  true  that  the  charter  of  Pennsylvania  (1681)  affirmed 
that  Parliament  might  levy  taxes  on  the  people  of  that  colony 
(§  139);  but  Parliament  never  had  attempted  it,  and  the  feeling 
was  that  no  such  exercise  of  power  would  ever  be  made. 

In  the  reign  of  Queen  Anne  the  New  York  Assembly  (1710) 
took  the  same  decided  stand  that  Virginia  had  taken  in  the 
previous  century.  They  voted  that  "the  levying  of  any  moneys 
upon  Her  Majesty's  subjects  of  this  colony,  .  .  .  without  consent 
in  General  Assembly,  is  a  grievance  and  a  violation  of  the 
people's  property."  417  This  utterance  of  New  York  represented 
the  general  spirit  of  the  American  people  when  George  III. 
came  to  the  throne  (1760). 

187.  Loyalty  of  the  colonies;  " Writs  of  Assistance"; 
the  "  Parsons'  Case."  —  Yet  the  loyalty  of  the  colonies  was 
unquestionable  (§  183).  Even  Samuel  Adams,  that  fiery  apostle 


1761-1765.]       THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION.  165 

of  independence,  declared  as  late  as  1768  that  nothing  but 
unkind  usage  could  sever  the  ties  which  bound  America  to 
England.418 

The  first  decided  symptom  of  a  change  of  feeling  occurred  in 
1761.  That  year  the  King  empowered  the  custom-house  officers 
of  Boston  and  of  other  American  ports  to  make  use  of  "  Writs 
of  Assistance  "  —  or  general  warrants  —  in  searching  for  smug 
gled  goods.419  A  few  years  later  those  writs  were  decided  to  be 
unconstitutional  in  England.  As  if  in  anticipation  of  that  deci 
sion,  James  Otis  (1761)  protested  against  their  use  in  the  colo 
nies.  In  the  course  of  his  flaming  speech  Otis  vehemently 
denounced  "  the  tyranny  of  taxation  without  representation."420 

The  next  year  (1762)  Patrick  Henry  in  his  celebrated  speech 
in  the  "  Parsons'  Case  "  421  boldly  denied  the  right  of  the  King 
to  set  aside  a  law  passed  by  the  Virginia  Assembly  for  the  gen 
eral  good.  These  ringing  utterances  of  Otis  in  the  North  and  of 
Henry  in  the  South  showed  that  both  sections  of  the  country 
were  equally  determined  to  stand  up  for  their  rights. 

1 88.  The  Stamp  Act  proposed ;  effect  on  the  colonies ;  the 
act  passes  (1765).  —  Meanwhile  Lord  Grenville,  the  King's 
prime  minister,  was  maturing  a  scheme  for  compelling  the  col 
onies  to  help  bear  the  burden  of  maintaining  a  standing  army 
of  British  soldiers  in  America.  His  plan  was  to  impose  a 
stamp  tax  similar  to  one  which  had  been  imposed  in  England. 
He  assumed  that  Parliament,  as  the  national  council,  really 
represented  all  sections  of  the  British  Empire,  and  therefore 
that  it  could  rightfully  levy  such  a  tax  on  the  colonies.422 
Under  this  proposed  act  stamps  varying  in  value  from  a  half 
penny  to  ten  pounds  were  to  be  affixed  or  impressed  on  all 
deeds,  wills,  policies  of  insurance,  clearance  papers  for  ships,  on 
many  other  legal  and  business  papers,  and  on  periodical  publica 
tions  and  advertisements.423  Such  a  law  would  execute  itself. 
It  would  make  it  impossible  for  the  colonists  to  export  produce, 
transfer  property,  collect  debts  through  the  courts,  or  even 
purchase  a  newspaper  or  an  almanac  without  paying  this  tax. 


1 66  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [i?65. 

In  a  conversation  with  Franklin  and  other  colonial  agents 
then  in  London,  Grenville  said  that  he  could  think  of  no  better 
way  of  raising  the  money  needed  by  the  British  Government. 
"  If,"  said  he,  "  you  can  tell  of  a  better,  I  will  adopt  it."  Frank 
lin  suggested  that  it  might  be  well  to  ask  the  colonies  to  raise 
the  sum  needed,  but  admitted  that  he  thought  it  very  doubtful 
whether  the  colonial  assemblies  would  agree  what  proportion 
each  should  contribute.424 

Grenville  gave  the  colonies  a  year  to  consider  the  matter ; 
then  he  called  on  Parliament  to  act.  Burke  raised  his  voice 
against  the  measure.  He  said  that  it  began  to  look  as  though 
the  British  Government  regarded  the  colonists  as  pack-horses 
made  to  bear  the  burdens  first  of  unlimited  commercial  monop 
oly,  and  next  of  unlimited  taxation.425  Pitt  declared  later  that 
it  was  a  scheme  to  take  the  colonists'  "money  out  of  their 
pockets  without  their  consent."  426 

The  news  of  the  proposed  law  roused  the  Americans  to  fierce 
indignation.  Otis  denounced  it  at  a  Boston  town-meeting  ;  and 
the  Assembly  of  New  York  protested  that  if  taxes  should  be 
wrung  from  them  against  their  will,  "  life  itself  would  become 
intolerable."427  But  despite  all  efforts  the  measure  passed 
in  i76s.428 

189.  Patrick  Henry's  resolutions;  the  Stamp-Act  Con 
gress.  —  Virginia  was  the  first  to  resent  the  action  of  Parlia 
ment.  Patrick  Henry  introduced  (1765)  a  series  of  remarkable 
resolutions  in  the  Assembly,  in  which  he  declared  that  no  power 
outside  the  people  of  the  colony  had  any  right  to  impose  taxes 
on  them.  The  Assembly  adopted  and  recorded-  the  greater 
part  of  these  resolutions.429 

Before  the  news  of  Virginia's  defiant  action  reached  the 
North,  Massachusetts  proposed  a  Stamp-Act  Congress.  In 
October  (1765)  delegates  from  nine  colonies  met  in  New 
York.430  The  congress  drew  up  a  "  Declaration  of  Rights." 
That  declaration  showed  how  fast  public  opinion  was  moving. 
It  did  not  demand  (as  Otis  had)  representation  in  Parliament ; 


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1765-1767.]      THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION.  l6/ 

on  the  contrary,  it  affirmed  "  That  the  people  of  these  colonies 
are  not,  and  from  their  local  circumstances  cannot  be,  repre 
sented  in  the  House  of  Commons  in  Great  Britain,  .  .  .  and 
that  no  taxes  ever  have  been,  or  ever  can  be,  constitutionally 
imposed  on  them  except  by  their  respective  legislatures."431 

190.  The   " boycott ";   the  "Sons  of  Liberty ";   Pitt; 
repeal  of  the  act.  —  Meanwhile  the  leading  merchants  of  the 
country  proceeded    to  " boycott"  Great   Britain   by   pledging 
themselves  to  stop  importing  English  goods  until  the  obnoxious 
act  should  be  repealed.     The  "  Sons  of  Liberty  "  in  New  York 
and  elsewhere   took  decided  action.     They  seized   stocks  of 
stamps  and  burned  them,  destroyed  stamp  offices,  and  forced 
stamp  officers  to  resign. 

When  the  news  of  the  reception  of  the  Stamp  Act  reached 
England,  Pitt  rose  from  his  sick  bed  to  defend  the  colonists  in 
Parliament.  "  I  rejoice,"  said  he,  "  that  America  has  resisted."432 

The  prime  minister  thought  it  would  be  inexpedient  to 
attempt  to  force  the  people  to  purchase  the  hated  stamps,  and 
the  British  merchants  and  manufacturers,  fearing  that  they 
would  lose  the  American  market  for  their  goods,  besought  Par 
liament  to  repeal  the  act.  This  was  done  (1766)  amid  great 
rejoicings  in  London.  But  the  "  King's  friends  "  (§  185)  accom 
panied  the  repeal  by  the  passage  of  a  "  Declaratory  Act,"  which 
expressly  affirmed  the  right  of  Parliament  "  to  bind  the  colonies 
in  all  cases  whatsoever."  433  In  America  the  exultation  of  the 
people  over  their  apparent  victory  prevented  their  heeding 
the  ominous  words  of  this  declaration. 

191.  The  Townshend  Law  and  its  effects.  —  The  next  year 
(1767)   Charles  Townshend   induced   Parliament  to  impose  a 
duty  on  American  imports  of  paints,  paper,  glass,  and  tea.434 

The  colonists  generally,  except  Otis,  had  conceded  the  right 
of  the  English  Government  to  impose  such  duties,  but  now  John 
Dickinson  of  Pennsylvania  rose  to  remonstrate.  He  attacked 
the  Townshend  Law  in  a  masterful  series  of  twelve  papers 
entitled,  "Letters  from  a  Farmer  in  Pennsylvania."436  At  the 


1 68  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [ncT-mo. 

same  time  the  Massachusetts  Assembly,  pushed  on  by  Samuel 
Adams  and  by  Otis,  urged  the  other  colonies  to  employ  all  lawful 
means  to  resist  the  collection  of  the  proposed  duties.436 

Under  the  lead  of  George  Washington  the  planters  of  Vir 
ginia  resolved  to  refuse  to  import  goods  from  Great  Britain 
until  the  Townshend  Act  should  be  repealed.  The  merchants 
of  New  York,  Boston,  and  other  cities  took  similar  action.  The 
result  was  that  all  of  the  Townshend  Law  was  repealed  (1770), 
except  the  clause  levying  a  trifling  duty  on  tea.437 

192.  The  "  Boston  Massacre ";  Governor  Try  on;  the 
destruction  of  the  Gaspee.  —  Meanwhile  several  regiments 
of  British  troops  had  arrived  in  Boston.  In  spite  of  the  pro 
tests  of  the  citizens  this  standing  army  was  quartered  in  the 
town  itself.  The  people  believed  that  the  presence  of  such  a 
force  was  an  open  violation  of  their  constitutional  rights  as 
English  subjects.  The  excited  state  of  feeling  then  existing 
made  collisions  between  the  troops  and  the  citizens  inevitable. 
A  mob  assailed  (1770)  a  squad  of  soldiers  in  the  streets,  pelted 
them  with  chunks  of  ice  and  other  missiles,  and  dared  the 
"  lobster  backs  "  to  fire.  Finally,  either  in  retaliation  or  in  self- 
defence,  the  "  red  coats  "  did  fire,  killing  and  wounding  several 
persons.438  This  affair  led  to  the  removal  of  the  troops  from 
the  town  to  an  island  in  the  harbor. 

The  next  year  (1771)  the  exactions  of  Governor  Tryon  of 
North  Carolina  provoked  an  insurrection.  The  battle  of  Ala- 
mance  followed  (§  137),  and  the  governor  hanged  a  number  of 
prisoners  of  war  that  he  had  captured.  These  men  had  taken 
up  arms  to  resist  unjust  taxation,  and  their  memories  were 
cherished  as  those  of  martyrs  to  liberty. 

The  following  year  .(1772)  the  British  revenue  cutter 
"  Gaspee,"  while  chasing  a  Providence  vessel,  ran  ashore  on 
the  coast  of  Rhode  Island.  The  commander  of  the  "Gaspee," 
in  his  search  for  smugglers,  had  shown  a  zeal  which  "  outran 
both  discretion  and  law."  The  Rhode  Islanders  now  revenged 
themselves  for  his  acts  of  violence  by  burning  the  cutter.  The 


1772-1773.]       THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION.  169 

British  government  ordered  the  chief-justice  of  the  colony  to 
send  the  offenders  to  England  for  trial,  but  he  refused  to  obey. 

193.  Committees  of  Correspondence  formed.  —  In  order  to 
render  the  governors  and  judges  of  the  royal  colonies  independ 
ent  of  the  popular  will  and  dependent  on  the  Crown,  the  King 
now  resolved  to  pay  those  officers  (at  least  in  Massachusetts) 
out  of  the  English  treasury. 

Samuel  Adams  took  alarm  at  this  act,  which  he  believed 
tended  to  convert  the  government  of  the  province  into  a  "  des 
potism."  At  a  town-meeting  held  in  Faneuil  Hall  (1772)  he 
moved  the  appointment  of  a  "  Committee  of  Correspondence  " 
to  state  "  the  rights  of  the  colonists  "  "  to  the  several  towns  and 
to  the  world."439  The  motion  passed  ;  the  statement  was  sent 
forth,  and  soon  every  town  in  Massachusetts  had  appointed  a 
similar  committee.  In  future  it  would  make  little  real  differ 
ence  whether  the  Governor  permitted  the  colonial  assembly  to 
meet  or  not,  since  the  Committees  of  Correspondence  would 
always  be  vigilant  in  the  interests  of  liberty. 

But  the  influence  of  these  organizations  was  not  confined  to 
Massachusetts,  for  the  next  spring  (1773)  Dabney  Carr,  Pat 
rick  Henry,  and  other  leading  men  in  Virginia  established  the 
"  Intercolonial  Committee  of  Correspondence."  That  organi 
zation  "  laid  the  foundation  of  the  Union." 

194.  Attempt  to  enforce  the  tea  tax;  the  Boston  "Tea 
Party. " — Meanwhile  the  British  East  India  Company,  unable 
to  find  a  market  for  its  teas,  begged  Parliament  to  permit  them 
to  make  exports  free  of  duty  to  America.     The  King,  however, 
refused ;  he  said  :  "  there  must  always  be  one  tax  to  keep  up 
the  right,  and  as  such  I  approve  of  the  tea  duty."  44° 

The  actual  duty  on  the  tea  was  trifling — only  threepence  a 
pound.  But  the  Americans  regarded  the  measure  as  a  cunning 
device  for  establishing  a  precedent  whereby  money  could  be 
extorted  from  them  for  the  support  of  a  standing  army  in  the 
colonies.  They  therefore  resolved  not  to  purchase  a  pound  of 
the  taxed  tea.  The  citizens  of  Philadelphia,  New  York,  Boston, 


170  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1773-1774. 

and  Charleston  took  measures  to  prevent  the  landing  or  sale 
of  the  "pernicious  herb." 

The  first  tea  ships  arrived  at  Boston  in  the  autumn  of  1773. 
The  people  assembled  in  town-meeting,  and  urged  Governor 
Hutchinson  to  order  the  immediate  return  of  the  ships  with 
their  cargoes.  The  Governor,  as  an  officer  of  the  Crown, 
refused  to  take  such  action. 

A  mass-meeting  was  held  in  the  Old  South  Meeting-House  to 
consider  what  final  decision  should  be  taken.  In  the  evening  a 
message  was  received  from  the  Governor  declining  to  permit  any 
of  the  tea  ships  to  go  back  until  they  were  unloaded.  Samuel 
Adams  then  rose  and  said  :  "  This  meeting  can  do  nothing  more 
to  save  the  country."  His  words  served  as  a  signal  for  imme 
diate  action.  A  war-whoop  was  heard,  and  a  party  of  citizens 
disguised  as  Indians,  and  armed  with  hatchets,  rushed  down  to 
the  wharf,  boarded  the  ships,  and  breaking  open  the  chests  of 
tea  emptied  their  contents  into  the  harbor.  The  next  morning  a 
shining  bank  of  tea-leaves  cast  up  by  the  tide  on  the  south  shore 
showed  how  thoroughly  the  "  Mohawks  "  had  done  their  work. 

195.  The  "four  intolerable  acts."  —  The  news  of  the 
destruction  of  the  tea  created  a  profound  sensation  in  England. 
The  King  and  Parliament  both  resolved  on  inflicting  summary 
punishment  on  the  rebellious  city.  Four  penal  acts  were  now 
passed  (1774)  in  rapid  succession.  First,  the  "Boston  Port 
Act "  removed  the  seat  of  government  to  Salem,  and  closed 
the  chief  port  of  Massachusetts  to  all  commerce  until  the  citi 
zens  should  pay  for  the  tea  and  declare  themselves  entirely 
submissive  to  the  King.441 

Secondly,  the  "  Regulating  Act "  altered  the  charter  of  Mas 
sachusetts  so  as  to  deprive  the  people  of  a  large  measure  of 
their  political  rights.  Furthermore,  it  prohibited  the  citizens 
from  holding  town-meetings  for  the  discussion  of  public  affairs.442 

Thirdly,  the  "Administration  of  Justice  Act"  provided  that  all 
persons  who  should  be  accused  of  committing  murder  (as  in 
the  case  of  the  "  Boston  Massacre  ")  in  maintenance  of  the 


1774.]  THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION.  171 

cause  of  King  and  Parliament,  should  be  tried  in  England  or 
Nova  Scotia  —  where,  of  course,  every  influence  would  operate 
in  favor  of  their  acquittal.443 

Fourthly,  the  "  Quebec  Act  "  extended  the  boundaries  of  the 
Canadian  province  of  Quebec  so  as  to  embrace  the  territory 
northwest  of  the  Ohio  (excepting  only  such  portion  as  the  col 
onies  could  prove  they  held  under  royal  grants),  and  virtually 
established  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  in  that  vast  province. 
The  debates  in  Parliament  show  that  the  object  of  this  act  was 
to  secure  the  allegiance  of  the  French  Catholics  in  Canada  in 
the  approaching  war,  and  to  exclude  the  offending  English 
colonists  from  making  settlements  in  the  West.444 

The  King  now  temporarily  removed  Governor  Hutchinson 
(May,  1774),  and  appointed  General  Gage,  commander-in-chief 
of  the  British  forces  on  the  American  continent,  Governor  of 
Massachusetts. 

196.  Unity  of  the  colonies;  the  First  Continental  Con 
gress  (1774).  —  When  the  news  of  the  passage  of  the  Port  Act 
reached  Boston,  Massachusetts  sent  an  appeal  for  sympathy 
and  help  to  all  of  her  sister  colonies.  Paul  Revere,  mounted 
on  a  swift  horse,  started  to  carry  this  appeal  to  New  York,  but 
before  he  arrived  there  a  committee  of  the  "  Sons  of  Liberty," 
composed  mainly  of  the  mechanics  and  workingmen  of  that 
city,  had  recommended  the  calling  of  a  general  or  continental 
congress.445  South  Carolina  expressed  the  feeling  of  the 
patriots  of  all  the  colonies  when  she  said  :  "  The  whole  country 
must  be  animated  with  one  great  soul,  and  all  Americans  must 
resolve  to  stand  by  one  another,  even  unto  death." 446 

The  first  American  or  Continental  Congress  met  in  the  Carpen 
ters'  Hall  at  Philadelphia  in  the  autumn  of  I774-447  It  was  com 
posed  of  fifty-five  delegates,  representing  all  the  colonies  except 
Georgia,448  where  the  Tory  Governor  contrived  to  block  the  way.449 

The  congress,  while  cheerfully  acknowledging  His  Majesty 
George  the  Third  to  be  their  "rightful  sovereign,"  adopted 
(October  14,  1774)  a  "Declaration  of  Colonial  Rights."450 


THE    STUDENT'S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.          [1774-1775. 

This  declaration  admitted  the  authority  of  Parliament  to  enact 
measures  for  the  regulation  of  trade  for  the  mutual  advantage 
of  the  mother-country  and  of  the  colonies,  but  it  affirmed 
(i)  that  the  colonial  legislatures  alone  had  the  right  to  make  all 
laws  and  levy  all  taxes  ; 451  (2)  that  the  colonists  were  entitled  to 
the  common  law  of  England,  and  especially  to  the  inestimable 
privilege  of  trial  by  jury,  and  that  they  had  the  right  to  hold 
public  meetings  for  the  consideration  of  grievances  and  to  peti 
tion  the  King ;  (3)  they  protested  against  the  keeping  of  a 
standing  army  in  the  colonies  without  their  consent ;  (4)  finally, 
they  condemned  eleven  acts  of  Parliament,  including  the  tax 
on  tea  and  the  "  four  intolerable  acts,"  and  declared  that 
Americans  would  never  submit  to  them. 

The  congress,  in  its  "olive-branch  petition,"  humbly  be 
sought  the  King  "  as  the  loving  father  "  of  his  "  whole  people  " 
to  relieve  their  wrongs.452  But  before  sending  that  petition 
Congress  signed  the  articles  of  an  "  American  Association." 
Those  articles  pledged  the  colonies  they  represented  not  to 
import  British  goods,  and  not  to  export  any  merchandise  or 
products  of  the  colonies  to  Great  Britain  unless  their  wrongs 
should  be  redressed.453 

In  the  action  of  the  American  people  thus  far  we  may  trace 
three  progressive  steps:  (i)  Otis's  claim  (1761)  :  No  direct 
taxation  without  representation  in  Parliament  (§  187) ;  (2) 
Declaration  of  the  Stamp- Act  Congress  (1765)  :  No  direct 
taxation  except  by  the  colonial  assemblies  (§  189)  ;  (3)  Declar 
ation  of  the  First  Continental  Congress  (1774)  :  No  legislation 
whatever  (save  in  regard  to  trade  and  commerce  for  mutual 
advantage)  except  by  the  colonial  assemblies  (§  196). 

197.  Parliament  retaliates ;  action  of  Massachusetts ; 
General  Gage's  expedition.  —  When  Parliament  met  (1775), 
Lord  Chatham  urged  that  body  to  repeal  the  "  four  intolerable 
acts."  He  said  :  "  You  will  repeal  them,  I  stake  my  reputa 
tion  on  it,  that  you  will  in  the  end  repeal  them."454  He  was 
right ;  but  the  repeal  came  too  late.  Meanwhile  in  retaliation 


1774-1775.]       THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION. 

for  the  adoption  by  Congress  of  the  articles  of  the  "  American 
Association,"  Parliament  passed  a  bill  by  which  all  the  colonies 
that  had  agreed  to  the  articles  were  summarily  cut  off  from 
foreign  trade  and  prohibited  from  taking  any  part  in  the  fish 
eries  of  Newfoundland.  Thus  at  one  blow  the  chief  industry  of 
New  England  and  the  most  important  commerce  not  only  of  New 
England  but  of  the  other  offending  colonies  were  paralyzed.455 

While  the  First  Continental  Congress  was  sitting,  Governor 
Gage  suspended  the  Assembly  of  Massachusetts.  That  body 
at  once  resolved  itself  into  a  provincial  congress,  adjourned  to 
Concord  (1774),  and  there  organized,  choosing  John  Hancock 
for  president.  This  provincial  congress  appointed  a  committee 
of  safety  to  provide  for  the  defence  of  the  colony.456  It  further 
more  authorized  the  enrollment  of  12,000  " minute  men,"  who 
were  to  hold  themselves  ready  to  meet  any  emergency.  The 
other  colonies  organized  similar  provincial  congresses  or  con 
ventions,  and  prepared  to  maintain  their  rights  by  force  of  arms 
if  necessary.457 

Patrick  Henry  urged  the  Virginia  convention  to  prepare  for 
the  inevitable  conflict :  "  We  must  fight !  "  said  he  ;  "  I  repeat  it, 
sir,  we  must  fight !  "  Virginia  heeded  the  advice,  and  at  once 
began  to  arm.  General  Gage  attempted  to  seize  some  cannon 
at  Salem,  but  failed.  Hearing  that  the  Massachusetts  Committee 
of  Safety  had  collected  cannon  and  military  stores  at  Concord, 
about  twenty  miles  from  Boston,  he  sent  out  a  secret  expedition 
of  eight  hundred  troops  to  destroy  them.  The  commander 
was  ordered  to  stop  at  Lexington  on  his  way  to  Concord  and 
seize  those  "  arch-rebels,"  Samuel  Adams  and  John  Hancock, 
who  were  suspected  of  being  in  the  village  —  as  in  fact  they 
were. 

198.  British  expedition  to  Lexington  and  Concord ;  begin 
ning  of  the  siege  of  Boston.  —  Paul  Revere,  mounting  a  fleet 
horse,  rode  to  Lexington  in  advance  of  the  British,  rousing  the 
country  as  he  passed  with  his  "  midnight  cry,"  "  The  regulars 
are  coming !  "  Adams  and  Hancock,  warned  in  time,  escaped 


1/4  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1775. 

across  the  fields.  Meanwhile  Captain  John  Parker  of  Lexington 
gathered  a  company  of  sixty  or  seventy  men  on  the  village 
green,  ready  to  meet  the  British.  "  Don't  fire  first,"  said  he, 
"  but  if  they  want  a  war  let  it  begin  here."458 

Just  before  daybreak  (April  19,  1775)  the  regulars  appeared. 
"  Disperse,  ye  rebels,"  shouted  Pitcairn,  the  British  commander  ; 
the  Americans  did  not  move  ;  they  were  "  too  few  to  resist,  too 
brave  to  fly."  "  Fire  !  "  cried  Pitcairn.  Seven  patriots  fell. 
Then  Parker  ordered  his  men  to  leave  the  field  ;  as  they  did 
so  they  fired  a  few  scattering  shots  at  the  enemy. 

Proceeding  to  Concord  the  regulars  destroyed  such  military 
stores  as  they  could  find.459  At  Concord  Bridge  the  patriots 
met  the  British  ;  a  fight  ensued,  and  several  fell  on  each  side. 
It  was  the  opening  battle  of  the  Revolution. 

Then  the  British  began  the  return  march  to  Boston  ;  the 
enraged  farmers  pursued  them,  firing  from  behind  every  bush, 
fence,  and  tree.  An  English  officer  says  that  the  British  fled 
before  the  Americans  like  sheep.460  At  Lexington  the  flying 
regulars  were  reinforced  by  a  thousand  fresh  troops  sent  out 
by  Gage.  By  the  time  they  reached  Charlestown  they  had 
lost  nearly  three  hundred  of  their  number. 

All  the  following  night  "  minute  men "  were  pouring  into 
Cambridge.  Every  New  England  colony  speedily  began  to 
raise  and  send  men  under  such  leaders  as  Putnam,  Stark, 
Arnold,  and  Greene  ;  in  all,  an  army  of  about  sixteen  thousand 
was  gathered.461  They  surrounded  Boston  on  the  land  side, 
and  General  Gage,  with  his  force  of  less  than  four  thousand 
troops,  found  himself  effectually  "bottled  up." 

199.  Capture  of  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point ;  meeting  of 
the  Second  Continental  Congress  (1775).  —  In  order  to  get  a 
supply  of  arms  and  powder  an  expedition  was  sent  to  capture 
Fort  Ticonderoga,  which  controlled  the  water-way  between  New 
York  and  Canada.  This  expedition,  led  by  Ethan  Allen,  was 
made  up  of  "  Green  Mountain  Boys  "  with  some  volunteers  from 
Connecticut  and  western  Massachusetts. 


•^Tadonsac 


**  THE  EEYOLUTIOJy 

THE  NEW  ENGLAND  STATES 


177:,.]  THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION. 

At  sunrise  (May  10,  1775)  Allen  surprised  the  sentinel  at 
one  of  the  gates  of  the  fort,  and  rushed  in  just  as  the  com 
mander  was  getting  out  of  bed.  He  ordered  the  astonished 
officer  to  surrender  "  in  the  name  of  the  Great  Jehovah  and  the 
Continental  Congress."  The  exultant  patriots  captured  a 
large  number  of  cannon  and  small  arms  and  a  quantity  of 
ammunition.  The  next  day  Seth  Warner  of  Bennington,  who 
had  accompanied  Allen,  took  the  British  works  at  Crown 
Point. 

A  few  hours  after  we  had  obtained  possession  of  Ticon- 
deroga,  the  Continental  Congress  —  John  Hancock,  president — 
met  (May  10,  1775)  *n  *he  old  State  House  at  Philadelphia. 
This  second  congress  remained,  in  name  at  least,  in  perpetual 
session  until  it  was  succeeded  by  the  Congress  of  the  Confed 
eration  nearly  six  years  later  (March,  1781). 

200.  Gage's  proclamation ;  Washington  made  commander- 
in-chief.  —  Gage  was  now  (May  25,  1775)  reinforced  by  troops 
brought  to  Boston  by  Generals  Burgoyne,  Clinton,  and  Howe. 
With  ten  thousand  regulars  under  his  command  he  felt  himself 
able  to  take  a  more  decided  stand.     He  issued  a  proclamation 
(June   12,  1775)  threatening  to  hang  as  rebels  and  traitors  all 
who    continued    to    resist    His    Majesty's   Government.       He 
closed  by  offering  pardon  to  those  who  should  forthwith  "  lay 
down   their   arms  .  .  .  excepting  only  .  .  .  Samuel  Adams  and 
John  Hancock/'462 

A  few  days  later  (June  15,  1775)  Congress  chose  George 
Washington  to  be  commander-in-chief  of  "  all  the  Continental 
forces  raised,  or  to  be  raised,  for  the  defence  of  American  lib 
erty."463  History  attests  the  wisdom  of  that  choice:  "No 
nobler  figure  ever  stood  in  the  forefront  of  a  nation's  life." 

201.  The  opposing  armies  in  the  Revolution. — According 
to  the  official  report  of  General  Knox  the  whole  number  of  men 
in  the  Continental  Army  during   the  eight  years  of   the  war 
(I775~I7^3)  was  about   252,000,  and   the    whole  number  of 
militia  about  192, ooo.464    This  would  make  the  total  enlistments 


176  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1775-. 

for  the  war  nearly  444,000,  drawn  from  a  white  population 
which  in  1775  did  not  exceed  2,500,000. 

The  average  yearly  strength  of  the  Continental  Army  was 
31,500  men,  but  oftentimes  this  strength  was  on  paper  only, 
and  the  actual  number  present  for  duty  was  frequently  not  more 
than  about  15,000,  while  shortly  after  Washington's  retreat 
across  the  Delaware  his  force  shrank  to  less  than  3,ooo.465 
The  militia  force  was  subject  to  great  and  sudden  fluctuations, 
which  make  trustworthy  estimates  well-nigh  impossible. 

The  enlistments  in  the  Continental  Army  were  for  terms 
often  not  exceeding  a  few  months,  and  seldom,  if  ever,  for 
more  than  three  years.  Congress,  owing  to  its  own  misman 
agement,  found  it  impossible  to  get  recruits  for  the  entire  war. 
The  difficulty  of  feeding,  clothing,  arming,  and  paying  the  men 
greatly  aggravated  this  evil.  Furthermore,  sickness  thinned 
the  ranks,  and  in  the  "  dark  days  of  the  Revolution  "  hardships 
and  privations  drove  so  many  to  leave  the  army  that  Wash 
ington  wrote  (June,  1777):  "Our  numbers  diminish  more  by 
desertion  than  they  increase  by  enlistments."  466  But  if  in  the 
long  contest  many  fainted  and  fell  by  the  wayside,  others 
fought  nobly  to  the  end,  and  in  hunger,  cold,  poverty,  and  the 
pangs  of  death  proved  themselves  unflinchingly  true  to  their 
country,  their  leader,  and  their  flag. 

A  large  number  of  European  officers  offered  their  services  to 
Congress.  Out  of  twenty-nine  major-generals  in  the  revolu 
tionary  army  more  than  one-third  were  foreigners.467  A  good 
many  of  these  men  did  excellent  service,  but  there  were  some 
"black  sheep"  among  them,  like  Conway  and  Charles  Lee. 

The  most  noted  engineer  among  the  first  foreign  volunteers 
was  Kosciusko,  a  Polish  military  officer  (1776).  He  planned 
the  greater  part  of  the  fortifications  at  West  Point.  Duportail, 
who  came  later  (1777),  constructed  the  siege  works  at  York- 
town.  Count  Pulaski,  a  countryman  of  Kosciusko's,  fought 
bravely  under  Washington,  and  gave  his  life  for  the  Republic 
at  the  siege  of  Savannah  (1779). 


1776-.]  THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION. 

The  two  best-known  foreign  officers  in  the  American  Army 
were  Lafayette  and  Steuben.  Lafayette,  accompanied  by  De 
Kalb,  came  (1777)  when  he  was  but  nineteen.  He  not  only 
served  without  pay,  but  spent  considerable  sums  of  his  own 
money  in  clothing  and  providing  for  the  men  who  fought  under 
him.  Baron  Steuben  was  noted  as  a  military  organizer  and 
disciplinarian.  He  drilled  the  half-fed,  half-clothed  patriots  of 
the  Continental  Army  with  German  thoroughness  until  they 
fought  with  the  coolness  and  efficiency  of  European  veterans. 

The  total  number  of  the  British  Army  cannot  be  very  accu 
rately  determined,  but  it  probably  seldom  exceeded  35,000  men. 
Less  than  half  of  them  were  English  subjects.  The  war  in  the 
outset  was  unpopular  in  England,  and  George  III.  was  reduced 
"  to  the  military  necessity  "  of  hiring  troops  from  the  Prince 
of  Hesse-Cassel  and  other  petty  German  States.  These 
"Hessians,'7  as  they  were  called,  had  no  choice;  they  were 
forced  to  go  to  America  to  shoot  and  to  be  shot  at  because  their 
masters  at  home  got  so  much  a  head  for  them. 

202.  The  American  navy  and  privateers.  —  Before  the 
close  of  1776  Congress  had  launched  a  navy  of  thirteen  small, 
but  effective,  vessels,  which  were  under  the  command  of  "Ad 
miral  "  Esek  Hopkins  of  Rhode  Island.  This  little  navy  did 
excellent  service,  and  captured  a  large  number  of  English  mer 
chantmen,  thereby  obtaining  much-needed  military  supplies  for 
the  army.  But  in  two  years  eight  of  our  men-of-war  had  been 
taken  by  the  enemy,  and  by  1781  all  of  the  remaining  vessels 
had  been  captured  or  destroyed.  Meanwhile  Congress  had 
authorized  privateering,  and  the  Atlantic  soon  swarmed  with  small 
vessels  fitted  out  in  New  England  and  the  Middle  States.  The 
number  of  Americans  engaged  in  this  warfare  on  the  sea  prob 
ably  outnumbered  the  entire  Continental  Army.  In  the  course 
of  a  single  year  (1776)  they  took  nearly  three  hundred  and 
fifty  English  vessels,  worth,  with  their  cargoes,  at  least  $5,000,000, 
and  a  complete  record  of  prizes  captured  would  show  a  total 
amounting  in  value  to  many  millions  more. 


178  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1775-. 

203.  The  Loyalists,  or  Tories.  —  Before  the  outbreak  of 
the  Revolution,  all  or  very  nearly  all  of  the  colonists  were 
loyal  to  the  King.  The  agitation  of  the  Stamp  Act  caused  a 
certain  amount  of  division,  but  even  those  who  were  most  deter 
mined  in  their  resistance  to  that  act  did  not  think  for  a  moment 
of  renouncing  their  allegiance  to  the  Crown. 

Later,  after  many  of  the  colonists  had  decided  to  take  up 
arms  in  defence  of  their  rights,  they  still  proclaimed  themselves 
subjects  of  the  King ;  but  after  independence  was  declared,  a 
sharp  and  decided  separation  necessarily  took  place  between 
the  patriots,  or  Whigs,  who  supported  that  declaration,  and  the 
Loyalists,  or  Tories,  who  opposed  it. 

It  is  impossible  to  say  with  accuracy  what  proportion  of  the 
people  ranged  themselves  openly  or  secretly  on  the  Tory  side. 
The  Loyalists  themselves  claimed  that  they  were  in  the  majority, 
and  that  the  war  was  carried  through  by  a  small  but  energetic 
minority  who  had  got  the  control.  John  Adams  believed  that 
at  least  one-third  of  the  population  of  the  colonies  were 
Tories.468 

A  considerable  percentage  of  them  were  men  of  property 
and  high  social  standing.  Governor  Hutchinson  of  Massachu 
setts  was  a  good  representative  of  this  class.  These  men  were 
thoroughly  patriotic,  but  they  clung  to  union  with  the  mother- 
country,  while  the  patriotism  of  the  Whigs  centered  in  the 
American  Republic.  One  class  was  as  sincere  and  as  earnest 
as  the  other. 

The  largest  number  of  Tories  was  to  be  found  perhaps  in 
the  colonies  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  the  Carolinas,  and 
Georgia.  Virginia  and  New  England  were  the  strongholds  of 
the  Whigs. 

In  the  Carolinas  the  parties  were  so  evenly  divided  that  it 
gave  the  Revolution  there  many  of  the  most  cruel  character 
istics  of  a  civil  war,  in  which  each  party  bent  all  its  energies  to 
the  destruction  of  the  other.  In  Georgia  the  Tories  were  so 
strong  that  they  were  planning  to  detach  that  colony  from  the 


1775-.]  THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION. 

general  movement  of  the  Revolution,  and  might  perhaps  have 
succeeded  if  Cornwallis  had  not  been  defeated  at  Yorktown.469 

At  the  North  the  Loyalists  were  often  very  roughly  handled 
by  excited  "  Sons  of  Liberty,"  who  thought  that  tar  and  feathers 
fitted  them  better  than  anything  else.  The  State  authorities 
(1776)  banished  the  more  obstinate  Tories  and  confiscated 
their  property  —  in  some  cases  threatening  them  with  impris 
onment  or  death  if  they  returned.  Several  thousand  of  the 
extreme  Tories  enlisted  on  the  British  side.  With  their  Indian 
allies  they  ravaged  parts  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania. 

Eventually  great  numbers  of  Loyalists,  probably  more  than  a 
hundred  thousand  in  all,  were  forced  to  leave  the  United  States. 
Those  going  from  the  North  generally  took  refuge  in  Nova 
Scotia  and  Canada,  while  those  who  left  the  Southern  States 
settled  in  the  Bahamas  and  West  Indies.  In  many  cases  they 
left  valuable  estates  ;  and  men  of  wealth  and  high  social  stand 
ing  fled  with  their  families  with  nothing  to  depend  upon  but 
British  army  rations  and  the  hope  of  receiving  aid  from  the 
King  or  Parliament.  After  the  declaration  of  peace  Parliament 
voted  them  an  indemnity  of  a  number  of  millions  of  pounds, 
and  endeavored,  but  without  success,  to  induce  the  United 
States  to  restore  their  confiscated  estates. 

204.  Finances  of  the  Revolution.  —  The  total  amount  of 
hard  money  in  the  colonies  at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution 
has  been  roughly  estimated  at  $6,ooo,ooo.470  The  average 
annual  expenses  of  the  war  were  about  $20,000,000,  hence  the 
specie  on  hand,  could  the  whole  of  it  have  been  used,  would 
not  have  met  the  demands  for  more  than  a  few  months. 

The  country  looked  to  Congress  for  help  ;  but  Congress  had 
neither  money  nor  credit  —  for  what  foreign  government  or 
foreign  capitalist  would  loan  anything  to  thirteen  rebellious 
States  ?  Congress  might  indeed  have  levied  a  tax  on  the  colo 
nies,  but  did  not  dare  take  that  step  for  fear  of  insurrection. 
In  this  dilemma  it  determined  to  call  the  printing-press  to  its 
aid,  and  strike  off  a  few  millions  of  paper  money. 


i8o  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1775-. 

It  began  (1775)  with  a  modest  issue  of  $2,000,000  ;  this  was 
quickly  used  up,  and  the  cry  came  for  more.  More  followed, 
until  finally  the  bills  known  as  Continental  currency  were  issued 
by  the  wagon-load.  Long  before  the  close  of  the  war  the  total 
amount  so  issued  had  reached  over  $240,000,000.  There  it 
stopped,  for  the  single  reason  that  Congress  found  it  was 
useless  to  print  any  more  worthless  promises  to  pay. 

By  the  beginning  of  1777  many  people  refused  to  take  the 
Continental  currency  on  a  par  with  silver.  Congress  resolved 
that  they  should  take  it,  and  declared  all  who  declined  to  do 
so  "  enemies  "  of  the  United  States.471  The  result  was  that 
merchants  who  refused  to  sell  their  goods  for  paper  money 
sometimes  had  part  of  their  stock  seized  or  their  shops  shut 
up.472  A  still  more  heroic  method  of  treatment  was  adopted 
when  Congress  empowered  Washington  to  arrest  and  imprison 
those  business  men,  who  were  regarded  as  foes  to  our  public 
credit.473 

Congress  next  tried  the  experiment  of  endeavoring  to  fix  the 
prices  at  which  all  provisions  must  be  sold,  and  also  to  decide 
what  wages  in  Continental  money  should  be  paid  for  a  day's 
work.  This  proved  a  failure,  and  so  did  the  scheme  of  calling 
on  the  States  for  "  requisitions,"  or  money  to  carry  on  the  war. 
Finally,  in  order  to  get  food  for  the  army,  Washington  was 
authorized  to  seize  supplies  of  beef,  pork,  flour,  and  other 
necessaries,  and  to  give  the  owners  a  receipt  of  seizure,  which 
would  be  a  claim  for  payment.474  This  plan  created  so  much 
friction  that  it  had  to  be  given  up  like  the  others. 

Fortunately,  Burgoyne's  surrender  gave  us  a  certain  standing 
in  Europe,  and  we  obtained  loans  and  gifts,  chiefly  from  France, 
amounting  in  the  aggregate  to  about  $12, 000,000. 475  Then  again 
our  little  navy  and  our  numerous  privateers  captured  some  large 
supplies  of  military  clothing  and  arms  from  English  transports. 
The  French  army  and  navy  stationed  at  Newport  paid  for  all  the 
supplies  they  purchased  here  in  hard  money ;  this  made  it  pos 
sible  for  Robert  Morris  to  borrow  specie  in  aid  of  our  army.476 


1775-.]  THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION.  l8l 

By  the  spring  of  1780  a  government  paper  dollar  would  pass 
for  only  two  or  three  cents.  Creditors  fled  when  they  saw 
debtors  coming  prepared  to  pay  up  old  scores  with  bundles  of 
Continental  bills,477  and  even  Washington,  who  made  it  a  duty 
to  cheerfully  take  the  paper  money  for  debts  contracted  during 
the  period  of  depression,  wrote  that  he  would  not  take  the  stuff 
in  settlement  of  contracts  made  before  the  war.478 

A  little  later  the  bills  ceased  to  circulate  at  all.  Hence 
forward,  no  one  would  touch  them,  and  when  a  man  wished  to 
express  his  utter  contempt  for  a  thing  he  said  emphatically : 
"It's  not  worth  a  Continental !  " 

205.  The  battle  of  Bunker  Hill  (1775).  — While  Congress 
was  engaged  in  preparing  for  war,  General  Gage  resolved  to  seize 
the  heights  of  Bunker  Hill,  in  Charlestown,  overlooking  Boston. 

But  before  Gage  got  ready  to  move,  Colonel  William  Prescott, 
with  a  force  of  about  twelve  hundred  men  —  later  increased  to 
fifteen  hundred  —  was  on  his  way  to  the  hill.  The  Americans 
worked  all  night,  and  when  the  sun  rose  on  the  seventeenth  of 
June  (1775),  Gage  was  astonished  to  see  Colonel  Prescott  leis 
urely  walking  on  the  bank  of  earth  which  his  men  had  thrown 
up  on  the  crest  of  the  hill. 

"  Will  he  fight  ? "  asked  Gage,  of  a  man  who  knew  Prescott 
well.  "  He  will  fight,"  was  the  answer,  "  as  long  as  a  drop  of 
blood  remains  in  his  veins."  "Then,"  said  the  British  com 
mander,  "  the  works  must  be  carried." 

In  the  afternoon  Howe,  with  about  three  thousand  veteran 
troops,  led  the  attack.  The  day  was  intensely  hot,  and  the 
British  had  to  charge  up  a  steep  slope  covered  with  tall  grass, 
and  divided  into  fields  by  stone  walls  and  fences. 

Powder  was  scarce  with  the  Americans,  and  their  officers 
ordered  them  not  to  waste  it.  "  Don't  one  of  you  fire,"  said 
Putnam,  "  until  you  see  the  white  of  their  eyes." 479  The  men 
obeyed  orders,  and  when  they  did  fire  it  was  with  terrible  effect. 
The  British  fell  back,  rallied,  made  a  second  attack,  and  were 
again  repulsed. 


1 82  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1775-. 

After  a  long  delay  Howe  made  a  third  assault  up  the  fatal 
hill.  This  time  he  succeeded.  Firing  their  last  round  of 
ammunition,  but  still  fighting  desperately  with  the  butt-ends 
of  their  muskets,  Prescott's  little  army  slowly  retreated. 

They  were  driven  from  their  works,  not  because  they  had 
been  defeated,  but  because  they  no  longer  had  powder  and 
ball  to  keep  up  the  battle.  It  was  a  costly  success  for  the 
British,  since  in  an  hour  and  a  half  they  had  lost  more  than  a 
thousand  men  ;  our  loss  was  likewise  very  heavy,  and  among 
those  who  fell  was  the  lamented  Warren. 

The  King,  disappointed  with  Gage's  management  of  the 
war,  recalled  him  and  made  General  Howe  commander-in-chief 
of  the  British  forces  in  America.  Howe  was  a  brave  officer, 
but  he  was  half-hearted  in  the  contest.  He  hoped  to  negotiate 
a  peace,  and  reunite  the  mother-country  and  the  colonies  more 
firmly  than  ever.480 

206.  Washington  takes  command  of  the  Continental  Army ; 
action  of  Congress ;  expedition  against  Canada.  — Washington 
reached  Cambridge  early  in  July  (1775),  and  at  once  took  com 
mand  of  the  Continental  Army.  On  New  Year's  Day,  1776, 
he  raised  the  flag  of  the  united  colonies,  —  it  consisted  of  the 
British  flag  with  thirteen  stripes  added,  one  for  each  colony.481 

Meanwhile  Congress  had  put  forth  a  declaration  of  the 
causes  of  the  war  (July  6,  1775),  but  expressly  added:  "We 
have  not  raised  armies  with  ambitious  designs  of  separating 
from  Great  Britain  and  establishing  independent  states."482 

While  in  camp  at  Cambridge  Washington  learned  that  Carle- 
ton,  the  commander  of  the  British  force  in  Canada,  was  planning 
a  descent  into  New  York,  where  he  hoped  to  get  the  help  of  the 
Tories  or  Loyalists  (§  203),  and  of  the  "  Six  Nations"  (§  136). 
To  offset  that  movement  General  Schuyler,  aided  by  General 
Montgomery,  was  ordered  to  make  an  attack  on  Montreal.  The 
expedition  started  in  the  autumn  (1775)  from  Fort  Ticonderoga, 
but  Schuyler  fell  sick,  and  the  command  devolved  on  Mont 
gomery.  He  descended  Lake  Champlain,  took  Fort  Chambly, 


REFERENCES, 


B85TSN 

WITH  rrs .  E.NVIR ON  $ 

'  -IN-        / 


NOTE.  —  The  memorable  battle  of  the  i7th  of  June,  1775,  began  in  Charlestown  on  the 
height  marked  "  Breed's  Hill  "  ;   but  at  the  time  of  the  battle  the  entire  ridge  beginning  at 
Charlestown  Neck  and  extending  to  the  seaward  end  of  the  peninsula  appears  to  havi  been 
e  of  "  Bunker's  Hill."     See  W'.nior's  "America,"  VI.  133, 


known  under  the  general  nam 

and  Frothingham's  "  Life  of  Warren, "-p.  507 


1775-.]  THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION.  183 

St.  John,  and  Montreal.  He  captured  a  large  quantity  of 
ammunition,  part  of  which  he  sent  to  Cambridge,  much  to  the 
delight  of  Putnam,  whose  constant  cry  had  been :  "  Ye  gods, 
give  us  powder  !  " 

Meanwhile  Benedict  Arnold  had  been  sent  (1775)  with  a 
small  force  from  Massachusetts  to  cross  the  pathless  wilderness 
of  Maine  to  join  Montgomery,  and  make  a  combined  attack  on 
Quebec.  Before  Arnold  reached  Canada  he  had  lost  more 
than  a  third  of  his  men  from  sickness,  exhaustion,  and  deser 
tion.  At  length,  after  eight  weeks  of  hardship  and  suffering, 
the  brave  commander  with  his  sadly  diminished  little  army 
came  in  sight  of  Quebec.  There  was  snow  on  the  ground,  and 
the  weather  was  bitterly  cold.  His  men  were  half-naked, 
starving,  and  barefooted,  for  their  clothes  had  been  torn  off 
by  the  thorn-bushes,  and  in  the  agonies  of  hunger  they  had 
devoured  even  their  moccasins.483 

On  the  last  day  of  1775  Montgomery  and  Arnold  attempted 
with  their  feeble  forces  to  storm  "  the  strongest  city  in  America." 
Montgomery  was  killed  at  the  head  of  his  troops,  and  Arnold 
was  severely  wounded  ;  but  unfortunately  for  himself  and  for 
his  country,  his  wound  did  not  prove  fatal  ;  had  it  done  so  his 
memory  would  have  been  revered  as  that  of  a  valiant  soldier 
and  true  patriot.  The  assault  on  Quebec  proved  a  failure. 
In  the  following  summer  our  men  were  driven  out  of  Canada, 
and  forced  to  retreat  to  Crown  Point. 

207.  Washington  drives  the  British  out  of  Boston  (1776) ; 
attack  on  the  Carolinas.  —  Meanwhile  General  Knox  had 
dragged,  by  the  aid  of  ox-teams  and  sleds,  more  than  forty 
cannon  all  the  way  from  Ticonderoga  to  Cambridge.  Now  that 
Washington  had  both  powder  and  heavy  guns,  he  was  determined 
to  force  Howe  to  give  up  Boston  or  fight. 

Early  in  March  (1776)  the  American  commander,  by  a 
sudden  night  movement,  seized  Dorchester  Heights  (now  South 
Boston),  overlooking  Boston  on  the  south.  Rufus  Putnam 
erected  the  works  and  got  the  cannon  in  position.  Washington 


184  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1775-. 

now  held  both  the  British  army  and  the  British  fleet  at  his 
mercy.  As  Howe  did  not  care  "  to  pay  a  Bunker  Hill  price  " 
for  Dorchester  Heights,  he  decided  to  give  up  the  town.  On 
March  i;th  (1776)  the  British  sailed  for  Halifax,  taking  with 
them  more  than  a  thousand  Tories.484 

Washington  entered  Boston  on  the  following  day.  The 
enemy  had  left  it  never  to  return.  Believing  that  the  British 
meant  to  strike  their  next  blow  at  New  York,  Washington  now 
prepared  to  transfer  the  Continental  Army  to  that  point. 

Meanwhile,  Howe,  before  evacuating  Boston,  sent  General 
Clinton  by  sea  to  make  an  attack  on  North  Carolina. 
There  Sir  Peter  Parker,  with  a  fleet  from  Great  Britain, 
bringing  a  land  force  under  Lord  Cornwallis,  was  to  join  him. 
Clinton  expected  that  the  Tories  of  North  Carolina  (§  203) 
would  aid  him  in  conquering  the  colony.  But  the  North  Caro 
lina  patriots  rose,  and,  attacking  the  Loyalists  at  Moore's  Creek 
(February  27,  1776),  completely  routed  them.  This  defeat  of 
his  Tory  allies  changed  Clinton's  plans,  and  Parker's  fleet  having 
arrived  he  sailed  south  to  attack  Charleston.  Charleston  harbor 
was  defended  by  a  fort  of  palmetto  logs  on  Sullivan's  Island. 
Colonel  Moultrie,  with  the  help  of  such  heroes  as  Sergeant 
Jasper,485  held  the  fort,  and  defended  it  with  such  desperate 
courage  that  the  British  were  forced  to  retire  with  heavy  loss. 

The  patriots  of  Georgia  —  a  colony  where  the  Tories  were 
numerous — were  one  in  spirit  with  the  patriots  of  the  Carolinas. 
They  said  :  "  Britain  may  destroy  our  towns,  but  we  can  retire 
to  the  back  country  and  tire  her  out."  * 

208.  The  war  for  colonial  rights  becomes  a  war  for  national 
independence;  "  Common  Sense. " — Up  to  the  beginning  of 
1776  the  Americans  had  been  fighting  in  defence  of  their 
rights  as  loyal  subjects  of  George  III.  Their  object  was  not  to 
overthrow  the  legitimate  authority  of  the  King,  but  simply,  as 
Congress  declared,  to  resist  "  the  claim  and  exercise  of  uncon 
stitutional  powers  to  which  neither  the  Crown  nor  Parliament 
were  ever  entitled."487 


• 4^sn^ 


FRANKLIN'S    LETTER   TO    STRAHAN. 


1776.]  THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION.  185 

If  they  were  "  rebels,"  then  the  leading  members  of  Parlia 
ment —  such  men  as  Burke,  Pitt,  and  Fox,  who  were  battling 
for  political  reform  in  England  —  were  also  rebels.488  The 
main  difference  was  that  the  Americans  fought  with  guns  be 
cause  they  had  no  parliamentary  votes,  while  the  Whigs  in  Par 
liament  fought  with  votes  because  they  had  no  need  of  guns. 

But  after  the  opening  of  1776  there  were  unmistakable  signs 
that  men's  minds  were  rapidly  moving  toward  independence. 
The  positive  refusal  of  the  King  to  grant  any  measure  of 
redress  gave  great  impetus  to  this  movement. 

Early  in  January  (1776)  Thomas  Paine  published  his  remark 
able  pamphlet  entitled  "  Common  Sense."  "  Nothing,"  said 
he,  "  can  settle  our  affairs  so  expeditiously  as  an  open  and 
determined  declaration  for  independence." 489  These  vigorous 
words  gave  expression  to  the  thoughts  of  thousands.  Edition 
after  edition  of  the  pamphlet  was  called  for.  It  converted 
multitudes  to  the  belief  that  the  safety  and  welfare  of  America 
demanded  a  full  and  final  separation  from  the  mother- 
country.490 

A  few  months  later  the  news  came  that  the  King  had  resolved 
to  hire  a  large  body  of  German  troops  to  help  put  down  the 
American  rebellion  (§  201).  Then  Congress  resolved  that 
"every  kind  of  authority  under  the  said  Crown  should  be 
totally  suppressed."  491 

209.  The  Declaration  of  Independence.  —  The  climax  was 
reached  on  June  7th  (1776),  when  Richard  Henry  Lee  of  Vir 
ginia  offered  the  following  resolution  in  Congress  :  "  Resolved, 
that  these  United  Colonies  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and 
independent  States."  John  Adams  of  Massachusetts  seconded 
the  resolution.  This  momentous  measure  was  debated  for  two 
days.  John  Adams,  Lee,  and  other  prominent  men  urged  its 
immediate  adoption  ;  John  Dickinson,  Robert  R.  Lincoln, 
Edward  Rutledge,  and  other  members  from  six  of  the  middle 
and  southern  colonies  objected.  They  were  staunch  patriots, 
but  they  thought  that  the  resolution  was  untimely  and  unwise. 


1 86  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [me. 

Jefferson  says  that  the  debate  showed  "  that  the  colonies  of 
New  York,  New  Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Maryland,  and 
South  Carolina  were  not  yet  matured  for  falling  from  the  parent 
stem,"  and  that  "  it  was  thought  most  prudent  to  wait  a  while 
for  them."  492 

Meanwhile,  Thomas  Jefferson  and  four  others  were  appointed 
a  committee  to  draft  a  Declaration  of  Independence.  A  second 
committee,  consisting  of  one  from  each  colony,  was  chosen  to 
report  Articles  of  Confederation  for  the  government  of  the  new 
republic. 

On  July  4,  1776,  the  Declaration  of  Independence  was 
adopted  by  Congress.  It  not  only  marked  the  birth  of  the 
United  States  as  a  nation;  but  it  made  the  natural  rights  of 
man  its  corner-stone.493 

The  Americans  had  not  sought  separation  from  the  mother- 
country.  The  King  and  his  "friends"  (§  185)  forced  them  to 
take  the  decisive  step. 

Washington  ordered  the  Declaration  to  be  read  to  every 
brigade  of  the  Continental  Army  in  and  around  New  York  City. 
That  night  the  gilded  lead  statue  of  George  III.  which  stood 
on  Bowling  Green  was  pulled  down  to  be  run  into  bullets. 
Henceforth  the  Americans  were  determined  to  prosecute  the 
war  until  Great  Britain  should  acknowledge  them  a  separate 
and  independent  people. 

210.  The  British  forces  at  New  York;  offers  of  pardon; 
battle  of  Long  Island. —  Meanwhile  General  Howe  had  arrived 
with  his  army  from  Halifax  (§  207),  and  finding  Washington  in 
possession  of  New  York  City  and  Brooklyn,  he  encamped  on 
Staten  Island.  General  Howe's  brother,  Admiral  Howe, 
arrived  soon  afterward  with  a  fleet  bringing  heavy  reinforce 
ments.  In  accordance  with  instructions  from  the  British  Gov 
ernment,  the  Howes  issued  a  circular  offering  to  receive  the 
submission  of  all  "rebels"  who  should  throw  themselves  on 
the  King's  mercy.  The  offer  accomplished  nothing.  As 
Washington  said,  the  Americans  felt  that  they  were  simply 


c/n. 


F  fa^  «^«.CrC</ 


'd*#~r 


<*0 


'*W^    A^c-^^^ 


SIGNATURES   TO   THE    DECLARATION    OF    INDEPENDENCE, 


1776.]  THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION.  187 

defending  their  rights,  and  "  having  committed  no  fault,  they 
needed  no  pardon."494 

It  was  now  evident  that  the  war  must  go  on.  Washington's 
entire  force  consisted  of  less  than  18,000  men,  of  whom  only 
about  11,000  reported  for  duty.  These  raw  recruits  were 
poorly  armed  ;  some,  in  fact,  had  no  arms  at  all,  and  had 
never  handled  any  weapon  more  dangerous  than  a  pitchfork. 
On  the  other  hand,  Howe  had  a  body  of  veterans  splendidly 
equipped,  and  nearly  thirty-two  thousand  strong. 

The  English  commander's  plan  of  campaign  was  based  on 
the  maxim  :  "  Divide  to  conquer."  His  object  was  to  get  pos 
session  of  the  Hudson.  This  would  give  the  British  control  of 
the  water-way  to  Canada,  and  would  effectually  cut  off  New 
England  from  the  Middle  and  Southern  States. 

Washington,  fully  alive  to  this  danger,  was  determined  to 
hold  New  York,  and  maintain  the  military  unity  of  the  colonies. 
To  prevent  the  enemy  from  ascending  the  Hudson  he  had 
erected  Fort  Washington  on  the  upper  part  of  the  island  of 
New  York,  with  Fort  Lee  on  the  opposite  shore.  General 
Greene  was  ordered  to  hold  the  important  position  of  Brooklyn 
Heights,  commanding  New  York  on  the  south.  Unfortunately, 
Greene  fell  sick,  and  Washington  was  obliged  to  give  his  posi 
tion  to  General  Putnam,  who  had  never  examined  the  defences 
on  Long  Island.  Putnam's  entire  force  was  only  eight  thousand 
men.  Howe  saw  that  if  he  could  get  possession  of  Brooklyn 
Heights  he  could  drive  Washington  out  of  New  York,  just  as 
Washington,  after  he  got  possession  of  Dorchester  Heights, 
had  driven  him  (§  207)  out  of  Boston. 

The  English  commander  sent  twenty  thousand  regulars  to 
dislodge  Putnam.  The  latter,  while  holding  his  entrenchments, 
could  only  spare  four  thousand  to  oppose  the  enemy's  advance. 
The  odds  were  five  to  one  in  favor  of  the  British,  hence,  they 
easily  won  the  battle  of  Long  Island  (August  27,  1776). 

During  the  progress  of  the  battle  Washington  crossed  over 
from  New  York  to  Brooklyn  Heights  with  reinforcements.  He 


1 88  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [me. 

decided  that  retreat  was  the  only  prudent  course.  Taking 
advantage  of  a  heavy  fog  which  rested  on  Long  Island  but  did 
not  touch  the  opposite  shore,  he  succeeded  in  getting  the  entire 
army  safely  across  to  New  York.  When  the  sun  appeared, 
Howe  stretched  out  his  hand  to  take  the  "  nest  of  rebels,"  but 
found  to  his  disgust  that  the  nest  was  empty. 

211.  Washington  driven  out  of  New  York;  loss  of  Forts 
Washington  and  Lee.  —  A  few  weeks  later  (September,  1776) 
Howe  landed   a  strong  body  of   troops  in   New  York.     He 
stopped  to  taste  some  of  Mrs.  Robert  Murray's  old  Madeira, 
and  so  just  missed  the  chance  of  capturing  Putnam's  division.495 
While  the  gallant  British  commander  was  enjoying  the  society 
of   that    patriotic   lady   and    her   charming  daughter,    Putnam 
hastily  retreated   to    Harlem   and   joined   Washington.      Mrs. 
Murray  had  "saved  the  American  army." 

Howe  gradually  pushed  the  Americans  as  far  north  as 
Northcastle.  Washington  then  crossed  over  to  New  Jersey, 
leaving  General  Charles  Lee  with  seventy-five  hundred  men  to 
defend  Northcastle,  and  sending  Heath  with  three  thousand 
men  to  hold  the  Highlands  at  West  Point. 

Howe  obtained  plans  of  Fort  Washington  (then  under  com 
mand  of  General  Greene)  from  a  traitor  within  its  walls.496  The 
British  general  surprised  and  took  the  works  (November  16, 
1776).  Washington  witnessed  the  battle  from  the  west  bank 
of  the  Hudson  and  wept  like  a  child,  it  is  said,  when  he  saw 
his  men  bayoneted  by  the  Hessians  while  begging  for  quarter.497 
Now  that  Fort  Washington  was  taken,  Fort  Lee,  which  Greene 
held,  was  as  useless  as  one  half  a  pair  of  shears  without  the 
other  half.  Before  he  could  evacuate  it  he  was  surprised,  and 
barely  managed  to  escape. 

212.  The  retreat  across  New  Jersey  (November  21  to 
December  8,   1776) ;  Washington  crosses  the  Delaware.  - 
Washington  at  once  (November  21,  1776)  began  his  famous 
retreat  across  New  Jersey.     If  worst  came  to  worst,  he  might 
hope  by  crossing  the  Delaware  to  save  his  army  and  also  to 


-»•  NEW  YORK  &VIEINITY-N  !778.-<- 


1776.]  THE    REVOLUTION,  THE    CONSTITUTION.  189 

save  Philadelphia.  He  had  ordered  Lee  (§  201)  to  join  him 
without  delay,  but  that  false-hearted  officer  deliberately  dis 
obeyed.  He  was  plotting  to  get  the  chief  command  for 
himself. 

Lord  Cornwallis  (§  207)  pursued  Washington's  little  army  so 
closely  that  the  British  would  sometimes  be  entering  a  town  at 
one  end  just  as  the  Americans  were  leaving  it  at  the  other  ; 
but  by  rapid  marching  and  by  destroying  bridges  Washington 
managed  to  keep  out  of  the  enemy's  clutches. 

On  December  8  (1776)  Washington  reached  Trenton.  He 
seized  every  boat  and  scow  on  the  river  from  Philadelphia  for 
seventy  miles  upward,  and  then  crossed  the  Delaware.  Corn 
wallis  came  up  to  the  bank  of  the  river  just  in  time  to  see  the 
last  boat-load  of  patriots  push  off  from  shore. 

A  few  days  later  Lee  was  captured  in  New  Jersey.  He  had 
moved  there  with  his  army,  but  with  no  intention,  as  he  later 
admitted,  of  joining  Washington.  Lee's  force  managed  to 
escape  the  British  and  unite  with  Washington  ;  but  many  of 
the  new-comers  were  "  fit  only  for  the  hospital." 

213.  Victory  at  Trenton;  Robert  Morris;  victory  at 
Princeton.  —  While  Cornwallis  —  who  had  moved  to  Prince 
ton —  was  waiting  for  an  opportunity  to  cross  the  river  and 
attack  Philadelphia,  he  left  Colonel  Rahl  with  a  force  of  Hes 
sians  to  hold  Trenton.  On  Christmas  night  (1776)  Washington, 
with  less  than  twenty-five  hundred  men,  secretly  recrossed  the 
Delaware  —  then  full  of  floating  ice  —  and  fell  on  the  enemy 
early  in  the  morning  at  Trenton.  Rahl  had  not  slept  off  the 
effects  of  his  numerous  bowls  of  Christmas  punch,  and  Wash 
ington  completely  surprised  him,  capturing  between  nine 
hundred  and  a  thousand  prisoners,  besides  large  quantities 
of  arms  and  ammunition. 

It  was  a  little  battle,  but  it  was  a  great  victory,  because  it 
had  great  results.  It  kindled  new  hope  in  the  hearts  of  dispir 
ited  and  despairing  patriots,  and  it  completely  upset  Howe's 
plans.4M 


190  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1777. 

The  only  drawback  to  the  joy  of  the  American  commander 
was  the  pressing  need  of  money — of  hard  cash  (§204),  not 
depreciated  or  worthless  Continental  bills  —  to  secure  new 
enlistments.  In  this  emergency  Washington  wrote  to  his  friend 
Robert  Morris  of  Philadelphia,  asking  him  to  send  as  much 
silver  as  he  could  raise.  Morris  set  out  before  it  was  light  on 
New  Year's  morning  (1777),  and  went  from  house  to  house, 
rousing  his  friends  from  their  beds,  and  begging  them  to 
lend  him  all  the  coin  they  could  spare.  In  this  way  he  got 
$50,000,  which  he  forthwith  sent  to  Washington.499 

Meanwhile  Cornwallis,  leaving  part  of  his  force  at  Princeton, 
hurried  south  in  the  hope  of  catching  the  Americans  at  Trenton. 
Washington's  case  seemed  hopeless  ;  behind  him  was  the  broad 
Delaware  full  of  broken  ice,  before  him  Cornwallis  had  gathered 
his  troops  for  battle. 

The  British  did  not  reach  Trenton  until  nearly  sundown 
(January  2,  1777),  and  the  night  threatened  to  be  foggy. 
Cornwallis  decided  to  postpone  the  attack  until  the  next  day. 
He  went  to  bed  in  high  spirits.  "  At  last,"  said  he,  "  we  have 
run  down  the  old  fox,  and  we  will  bag  him  in  the  morning."  M0 

But  "  the  old  fox  "  did  not  wait  to  be  bagged.  Leaving  his 
camp-fires  burning  brightly,  Washington  crept  stealthily  out  of 
his  entrenchments,  slipped  around  Cornwallis's  sleeping  army, 
and  marched  rapidly  on  Princeton.  There  (January  3,  1777) 
he  surprised  and  completely  routed  the  British  line.  Washing 
ton  then  advanced  to  the  heights  at  Morristown  and  went  into 
winter  quarters.  Frederick  the  Great  considered  the  move 
ments  of  Washington  during  these  ten  days  —  December  25, 
1776,  to  January  4,  1777  — the  most  brilliant  of  any  recorded  in 
the  annals  of  military  history. 

214.  Plans  of  Lord  Germain ;  Washington  baffles  Howe ; 
Howe  sails  for  Philadelphia.  —  The  American  commander 
spent  the  winter  at  Morristown  reorganizing  his  army. 

Lord  Germain,  of  the  English  Cabinet,  had  the  general 
control  of  the  British  forces  in  America.  He  now  resolved  to 


THE  REVOLUTION 

THE  MIDDLE  STATES 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


1777.]  THE    REVOLUTION,  THE    CONSTITUTION.  IQI 

make  a  determined  effort  to  get  possession  of  the  Hudson. 
The  plan  adopted  was  (i)  for  Burgoyne  to  move  down  from 
Canada  early  in  the  coming  summer  (1777),  take  Ticonderoga, 
and  advance  directly  on  Albany.  (2)  Meanwhile  another 
British  force,  starting  from  Canada,  was  to  land  at  Oswego, 
New  York.  They  were  to  secure  the  aid  of  the  "  Six  Nations  " 
and  that  of  the  Tories  ;  then  they  were  to  capture  Fort  Stan- 
wix  (near  Rome)  on  the  upper  Mohawk  and,  moving  down  the 
Mohawk  valley,  join  Burgoyne  at  Albany.  (3)  Finally,  Howe 
was  to  send  a  division  of  his  army  up  the  Hudson,  capture 
the  American  forts  in  the  Highlands,  and  advance  and  join 
forces  with  Burgoyne.  This  scheme,  if  successful,  would  give 
the  English  entire  control  of  the  State  of  New  York. 

By  a  mischance  Lord  Germain's  despatch  from  London, 
ordering  Howe  to  cooperate  with  Burgoyne,  did  not  reach  the 
British  commander  until  it  was  too  late  for  him  to  be  of  service. 

Meanwhile  Howe  had  wasted  nearly  three  weeks  (June  12-30, 
1777)  in  endeavoring  to  march  across  New  Jersey  to  strike 
Philadelphia,  the  "  rebel  capital."  Nothing  hindered  the  British 
general's  movements  but  Washington's  little  army.  Washing 
ton  took  such  strong  positions  that  the  enemy  did  not  dare  to 
attack  him,  and  if  they  left  him  in  their  rear  he  could  cut  off 
their  supplies.  Constantly  harassed  by  our  troops,  Howe  finally 
fell  back  in  disgust  to  Staten  Island.501 

Late  in  July  (1777),  having  left  Clinton  to  hold  New  York, 
Howe  started  with  a  large  fleet  to  reach  Philadelphia  by  sea. 
He  found  the  Delaware  obstructed  ;  for  this  reason  he  landed 
his  troops  (August  23,  1777)  at  the  head  of  Chesapeake  Bay, 
sixty  miles  from  Philadelphia. 

215.  The  British  enter  Philadelphia ;  Valley  Forge;  Bur- 
goyne's  advance  to  Fort  Edward.  —  Washington  met  the 
advancing  British  force  at  Chad's  Ford  on  Brandywine  Creek 
(September  n,  1777).  The  Americans  were  small  in  numbers, 
and  were  defeated  with  heavy  loss.502  Howe  entered  Philadel 
phia  in  triumph  about  a  fortnight  later. 


IQ2  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.  [1777 

Meanwhile  Washington  attacked  (October  4,  1777)  the  Brit 
ish  force  encamped  at  Germantown  (now  a  suburb  of  Philadel 
phia).  A  dense  fog  prevailed,  and  two  of  our  brigades  fired  at 
each  other  in  the  belief  that  they  were  attacking  the  enemy  ; 
the  confusion  that  ensued  caused  our  defeat.603  Early  in  Decem 
ber  Washington  retreated  to  the  hills  of  Valley  Forge,  about 
twenty  miles  from  Philadelphia,  where  he  took  up  his  winter 
quarters  (1777-1778). 

But  if  the  British  had  succeeded  in  getting  possession  of  the 
capital  of  the  American  republic,  they  had  met  with  terrible 
disaster  in  the  North.  According  to  orders  (§  214),  Burgoyne, 
with  a  force  of  nearly  eight  thousand  men,  including  some  four 
hundred  Indians,  had  moved  upon  Ticonderoga ;  and  had  cap 
tured  it  (July  5,  1777).  He  then  advanced  against  General 
Schuyler  (§  206),  who  stood  between  him  and  the  Hudson. 
Schuyler  felled  trees  across  the  only  road  through  the  forest, 
destroyed  fifty  bridges  and  causeways,  and,  by  damming  up  a 
creek,  converted  a  part  of  the  British  line  of  march  into  a  deep 
swamp.  When  at  last,  after  a  march  of  twenty-four  days,  the 
British  general  reached  Fort  Edward,  Schuyler  abandoned  it, 
and  pushing  on  across  the  Hudson  took  up  his  position  at 
Bemis  Heights,  about  twenty  miles  above  Albany. 

216.  Burgoyne  gets  his  left  wing  clipped  at  Bennington.  - 
Burgoyne  now  sent  (August  16,  1777)  a  thousand  or  more  Hes 
sians  and  Indians  to  make  a  raid  on  the  supplies  which  the 
Americans  were  reported  to  hold  at  Bennington,  Vermont.  But 
Colonel  John  Stark  of  New  Hampshire  and  Seth  Warner  of 
Vermont  stood  ready  with  a  body  of  farmers  in  their  shirt 
sleeves  to  give  the  invaders  a  warm  reception.604  Less  than  a 
hundred  out  of  the  thousand  Hessians  ever  got  back  to  Bur 
goyne,  and  the  Indians  fled  for  their  lives,  shouting  "the  woods 
are  full  of  Yankees,"  —  thus  the  British  general  got  his  left 
wing  effectually  clipped.  Washington  called  the  victory  at 
Bennington  "a  great  stroke."  It  prevented  Burgoyne  from 
getting  the  supplies  he  sorely  needed,  and  cut  off  all  com- 


Peekskill 


No.  II. 


Yorkt' 


MAP  No.  I.  Burgoyne's  campaign  :  MAP  No.  II.  Washington's  advance  from  New 
York  to  Yorktown;  MAP  No.  III.  Yorktown  :  A.  A.  A.  American  forces  ;  F.  F.  F.  French 
army  ;  IV.  Washington's  headquarters  ;  R.  Rochambeau's  headquarters  ;  Laf.  Lafayette. 


1777.]  THE    REVOLUTION,   THE    CONSTITUTION.  1 93 

munication  between   him   and   the    garrison   he    had   left   at 
Ticonderoga. 

217.  Burgoyne  gets  his  right  wing  clipped  at  Oriskany 
and  Fort  Stanwix.  —  Burgoyne's  right  wing,  under  St.  Leger, 
who  was  advancing  from  Oswego  (§  214)  against  Fort  Stanwix 
(near  Rome),  fared  no  better.      General   Herkimer  met   the 
enemy  at  Oriskany  (August  6,  1777),  a  few  miles  from  the  fort. 
A  terrible  hand-to-hand  fight  ensued.     Herkimer  received  a 
mortal  wound  which  brought  him  to  the  ground.     He  ordered 
his  men  to  place  him  with  his  back  to  a  tree  ;  then,  lighting  his 
pipe,  the  hero  of  Oriskany  continued  to  direct  the  battle  until 
reinforcements  came  up  from  Fort   Stanwix,  and  the  enemy 
fled  from  the  field. 

St.  Leger,  however,  was  besieging  Fort  Stanwix,  which  he 
was  determined  to  take  at  any  cost.  Congress  had  recently 
(June  14,  1777)  adopted  the  "stars  and  stripes"  as  the  banner 
of  the  American  republic,  and  a  rudely  made  national  flag 
floated  defiantly  over  the  fort.  It  was  the  first  time  our  colors 
had  been  displayed  in  battle  on  land  (§  224),  and  the  British 
general  swore  that  he  would  carry  the  flag  away  with  him. 

Meanwhile,  Benedict  Arnold,  with  twelve  hundred  men,  was 
marching  to  relieve  the  garrison  of  Fort  Stanwix.  Arnold 
managed  to  send  forward  reports  which  represented  him  as  at 
the  head  of  several  thousand  well  armed  troops.  The  Indians 
of  St.  Leger's  force,  thinking  that  Schuyler's  whole  army  was 
about  to  swoop  down,  fled  in  a  panic.  St.  Leger  then  (August 
22,  1777)  retreated  to  Oswego  and  sailed  for  Canada. 

218.  The  first  battle  of  Bemis  Heights  (or  Saratoga) ;  the 
second  battle;  results.  —  General  Gates,  a  scheming  politician, 
had  been  sent  by  Congress  to  supersede  Schuyler  and  fight 
Burgoyne's  center.    Gates  entrenched  himself  at  Bemis  Heights 
(September   12,  1777)  on  ground  selected  by  Benedict  Arnold 
and  fortified  by  Kosciusko  (§  201). 

Burgoyne  was  anxious  to  reach  Albany,  but  not  daring  to 
leave  the  American  forces  in  his  rear,  he  advanced  and 


194  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [i777-i?7& 

attacked  them  (September  19,  1777).  Both  armies  fought 
desperately  ;  neither  could  claim  a  victory ;  but  as  the  British 
lost  two  men  to  our  one  their  advance  was  checked. 

The  second  battle  (October  7,  1777)  was  even  more  desper 
ately  contested  than  the  first.  Morgan  with  his  famous  sharp 
shooters  opened  the  fight  on  our  side.  Gates  did  not  show 
himself  on  the  field,  as  in  fact  he  had  not  done  in  the  previous 
battle.  Arnold  had  quarreled  with  Gates  and  had  thrown  up 
his  command  ;  but  he  now  put  himself  at  the  head  of  his 
former  division  and  rushed  on  to  victory,  amid  the  cheers  of 
the  men  for  their  old  leader. 

Burgoyne  fell  back  to  Saratoga,  six  miles  distant,  and  there 
(October  17,  1777)  surrendered.  We  took  nearly  six  thousand 
prisoners  and  a  large  quantity  of  arms. 

Burgoyne's  surrender  was  the  "  turning-point  "  of  the  Revolu 
tion.505  It  had  three  momentous  results  :  (i)  it  completely 
broke  up  the  plans  of  the  British  Government  (§  214)  respect 
ing  the  war  ;  (2)  it  secured  for  us  the  open  aid  of  England's 
old  and  powerful  enemy,  France  ; 606  (3)  it  inspired  the  whole 
Continental  Army  with  new  hope. 

219.  Treaties  with  France ;  Valley  Forge.  —  The  news  of 
Burgoyne's  surrender  filled  England  with  consternation  and 
France  with  delight.  In  the  spring  (May  2,  1778)  a  messenger 
arrived  from  the  French  capital  bringing  two  treaties,  —  one  of 
commerce  and  good-will,  the  other  of  defensive  alliance,  secur 
ing  to  us  the  help  of  a  French  fleet.  Franklin,  who  acted  as 
our  chief  agent  in  Paris,  had  achieved  a  diplomatic  triumph. 
He  fought  for  us  in  France  as  sturdily  and  steadily  as  Wash 
ington  fought  for  us  at  home. 

America  resounded  with  rejoicings  over  the  glad  tidings  ; 
Lafayette  grasped  Washington's  hand  and  shed  tears  of  joy. 
Washington  ordered  a  salute  of  thirteen  guns  to  celebrate  the 
event,  and  the  hillsides  of  Valley  Forge  echoed  with  the  enthu 
siastic  hurrahs  of  the  Continental  Army  as  they  cheered  the 
King  of  France. 


1777-1778.]        THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION.  195 

Meanwhile  our  men  at  Valley  Forge  were  in  wretched 
plight.  They  had  just  passed  through  a  winter  of  unparal 
leled  hardship  and  suffering.  Out  of  eight  thousand  troops 
nearly  three  thousand  were  "barefoot  and  otherwise  naked." 
Steuben  said:  "No  European  army  could  be  kept  together  a 
week  in  such  a  state."  Washington  wrote  to  Congress  that 
unless  relief  came  the  army  must  either  "  starve,  dissolve,  or 
disperse  in  order  to  obtain  subsistence."  m 

The  truth  is  that  our  men  were  sacrificed  to  the  mismanage 
ment  or  the  timidity  of  Congress.  There  was  no  lack  of 
provisions  or  of  coarse  clothing  in  the  country,  and  at  the  very 
time  the  Continental  Army  was  freezing  and  starving  on  the 
bleak  hillsides  of  Valley  Forge  the  enemy's  forces  in  Philadel 
phia,  as  elsewhere,  could  buy  from  the  farmers  all  the  food 
and  fuel  they  wanted.508 

220.  The  Conway  plot;  Steuben's  services ;  English  peace 
commissioners ;  battle  of  Monmouth.  —  While  the  American 
commander  was  pleading  for  help  for  his  men,  Conway  (§  201), 
"Inspector-General  of  the  Army,"  was  plotting  with  Gates 
to  secure  Washington's  overthrow.  Fortunately  the  corre 
spondence  between  Conway  and  Gates  leaked  out,  and  the  con 
spiracy"  ended  in  ignominious  failure.509 

Baron  Steuben  (§  201)  was  then  appointed  to  Con  way's 
place.  Steuben  had  learned  the  art  of  war  under  Frederick 
the  Great.  He  drilled  the  men  day  after  day,  swearing  in 
German  and  in  broken  English  at  their  awkward  manoeuvres, 
until  he  trained  these  plain  farmers  and  farmers'  sons  to  move 
with  the  precision  of  military  machines. 

Sir  Henry  Clinton  now  (May  18,  1778)  succeeded  Howe  in 
command  of  the  British  forces.  England,  alarmed  at  the 
French  treaty,  sent  over  peace  commissioners.  They  were 
empowered  to  offer  the  people  of  the  United  States  exemption 
"forever  from  taxation  by  Great  Britain,"  full  power  "to 
govern  themselves,"  in  fact,  everything  short  of  separation  and 
actual  independence.610  Congress  rejected  the  offer,  and  the 


196  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [me. 

commissioners  replied  by  a  proclamation  threatening  a  war  of 
devastation  and  terror.611 

Clinton  knew  that  the  French  fleet  was  on  its  way  to 
America ;  fearing  that  it  might  blockade  Philadelphia,  he  pro 
ceeded  to  evacuate  that  city  and  move  to  New  York. 

Not  having  ships  enough  to  transport  his  army  of  seventeen 
thousand  men,  he  resolved  to  march  across  New  Jersey.  Wash 
ington,  with  a  force  about  equal  to  that  of  the  British,  followed 
the  retreating  enemy.  He  overtook  them  at  Monmouth  (June 
28,  1778).  The  treacherous  Lee  (§212),  who  had  been 
exchanged  and  had  returned  to  us,  wanted  to  secure  the 
retreat  of  the  English  "on  velvet."512  He  tried  to  persuade  a 
council  of  war  not  to  attack  the  enemy.  His  attempt  failed ; 
Washington  ordered  him  to  begin  the  fight.  Instead  of  obey 
ing  orders  he  fell  back.  At  this  critical  moment  the  com- 
mander-in-chief  rode  up:  "What  is  the  meaning  of  all  this, 
sir  ? "  demanded  Washington  in  a  terrible  voice.  Lee  stam 
mered  out  an  excuse.  Washington  ordered  him  to  the  rear, 
rallied  the  retreating  men,  and  drove  the  British  from  the 
field.513 

This  was  the  last  important  battle  fought  at  the  North.  Had 
Lee  done  his  duty,  it  might  perhaps  have  been  the  last  battle 
of  the  Revolution. 

A  court-martial  convicted  Lee  of  "an  unnecessary,  disor 
derly,  and  shameful  retreat ;  "  and  suspended  him  "  from  any 
command  in  the  armies  of  the  United  States  "  for  one  year.614 
Later,  Congress  dismissed  him  from  the  army,  and  he  died  in 
disgrace. 

221.  Prospects  of  the  Revolution  (1778) ;  Tory  and  Indian 
raids  ;  Washington  retaliates.  —  The  prospects  of  the  success 
of  the  Revolution  now  looked  decidedly  brighter.  In  future 
the  British  must  not  only  fight  us,  but  our  French  allies  besides. 

Clinton  established  his  headquarters  in  New  York  City,  and 
Washington  extended  his  lines  from  the  heights  of  Morristown, 
New  Jersey,  to  the  Highlands  of  the  Hudson. 


1778-1779.]       THE    REVOLUTION,  THE    CONSTITUTION. 

During  the  summer  and  autumn  of  1778  bands  of  Tories  and 
Indians  of  the  "  Six  Nations  "  devastated  Wyoming  Valley, 
Pennsylvania  (July  3,  1778),  and  Cherry  Valley,  New  York 
(November  10,  1778).  The  cruelties  perpetrated  in  these 
raids  were  so  horrible  that  even  Brant,  the  Mohawk  leader, 
was  shocked  ;  he  said :  "  I  have  those  with  me  who  are  more 
savage  than  the  savages  themselves."  515 

Washington  (1779)  sent  General  Sullivan  to  retaliate.  He 
totally  destroyed  the  Indian  settlements  of  the  Onondagas, 
Cayugas,  and  Senecas  in  western  New  York.516 

222.  The  expedition  of  George  Rogers  Clark  (1778-1779) ; 
Kaskaskia.  —  Meanwhile  George   Rogers   Clark  of   Virginia 
had  undertaken  no  less  a  task  than  the  conquest  of  the  country 
northwest  of  the  Ohio.    That  vast  wilderness  was  then  held  by 
the  British  forts  at  Detroit,  Vincennes,  Kaskaskia,  and  Cahokia. 
All  but  Detroit  were  at  that  time  garrisoned  by  French  and 
half-breeds  in  the  pay  of  the  English. 

That  whole  region  was  then  claimed  by  Virginia  as  part  of 
its  original  charter-domain  (§  40).  Aided  by  Patrick  Henry, 
tfien  Governor  of  that  State,  Clark  collected  a  small  body  of 
frontiersmen  as  resolute  as  himself.  These  hardy  pioneers 
recognized  no  authority  higher  than  that  of  Virginia.  They 
proposed  to  fight  on  their  own  responsibility  and  for  their  own 
ends,  quite  independent  of  either  Washington  or  Congress. 

Embarking  at  Pittsburg  (June  26,  1778),  they  dropped  down 
the  Ohio  a  distance  of  nearly  a  thousand  miles  through  the 
unbroken  forest,  and  landed  at  a  point  in  what  is  now  southern 
Illinois.  Clark  and  his  men  then  marched  across  the  country 
to  Fort  Kaskaskia  (July  5,  1778).  A  dance  was  in  progress  at 
the  fort  when  Clark  entered  it  unperceived.  When  he  was  dis 
covered  there  was  a  shout  of  alarm.  "  Keep  on  with  your  merri 
ment,"  said  Clark,  "  but  remember  that  you  now  dance  under 
Virginia,  not  Great  Britain."517 

223.  Cahokia;    Vincennes;    Clark  takes  the  fort;   con 
quest  of  the  Northwest.  —  Clark  won  the  good  will  of  Father 


198  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1779. 

Gibault,  the  French  Catholic  priest  at  Kaskaskia,  and  through 
his  influence  the  French  garrison  at  Cahokia  and  at  Vin- 
cennes  took  the  Oath  of  Allegiance  and  hoisted  the  American 
flag. 

Meanwhile  Hamilton  had  retaken  Vincennes.  Clark  with  a 
little  band  of  tenscore  men  at  once  set  out  from  Kaskaskia  to 
get  it  back  again.  It  was  a  winter  march  (February  7-25, 
1779)  of  about  two  hundred  miles.  The  latter  part  of  the  way 
lay  through  the  "  drowned  lands  "  of  the  Wabash.  The  men, 
nearly  dead  from  hunger,  had  to  wade  for  miles  through  water 
breast  deep,  filled  with  floating  ice. 

After  a  sharp  fight  Clark  took  the  fort,  and  (February  25, 
1779)  soon  hoisted  the  "stars  and  stripes"  in  triumph.  When 
the  flag  of  the  Republic  rose  above  the  fort  this  time  it  rose  to 
stay,  for  it  marked  the  end  of  British  authority  in  that  section 
forever.  The  Virginia  hero  and  his  followers  had  conquered 
the  whole  Northwest  below  the  British  fort  at  Detroit. 

224.  Captain  Paul  Jones ;  the  British  on  the  Hudson ; 
Anthony  Wayne.  —  A  few  months  later  came  glorious  news 
from  Captain  Paul  Jones,  the  first  man  to  hoist  the  "  stars  and 
stripes "  on  an  American  war-ship.  With  his  little  fleet  of 
three  vessels — one  a  half-rotten  old  hulk  —  he  had  captured 
(September  23,  1779)  two  British  men-of-war,  the  "  Serapis  " 
and  the  "  Countess  of  Scarborough,"  off  the  east  coast  of 
England.  Thousands  of  excited  people  watched  the  progress 
of  the  battle  from  the  promontory  of  Flamborough  Head.  At 
length  they  saw  the  English  ships  strike  the  red  ensign  of  St. 
George  to  a  man  whom  they  loudly  denounced  as  a  "  rebel " 
and  a  "  pirate." 

But  the  British  before  radically  changing  their  war  plans 
were  determined  to  make  one  more  effort  to  obtain  control  of 
the  Hudson.  They  succeeded  in  getting  possession  (June, 
1779)  of  the  half-finished  American  works  at  Stony  Point  and 
Verplanck's  Point.  Anthony  Wayne  led  a  midnight  expedition 
(July  15,  1779)  against  the  first-named  fort,  and  took  it  at  the 


1778-1780.]       THE    REVOLUTION,  THE    CONSTITUTION. 

point  of  the  bayonet.     It  was  a  very  brilliant  victory.     But  we 
were  not  strong  enough  to  hold  the  works  permanently. 

225.  British  successes  in  the  far  South ;  Charleston  taken 
(1780).  —  The  British  now  determined  to  transfer  active  mili 
tary  operations  to  the  far  South.     They  hoped  in  that  quarter 
to  receive  the  assistance  of  the  Loyalists  (§  203). 

An  expedition  sent  by  sea  had  already  captured  Savannah 
(December  29,  1778),  and  Augusta  was  next  taken.  Washing 
ton  sent  General  Lincoln  to  the  South,  but  he  failed  to  drive 
the  enemy  out  of  Augusta.  In  a  similar  attempt  on  Savannah 
he  was  badly  defeated  (October  9,  1779),  an(^  tne  gallant 
Pulaski  (§  201)  was  killed. 

Early  the  next  spring  (1780)  Clinton  sailed  to  attack  Charles 
ton  —  Lincoln's  headquarters.  After  a  siege  of  six  weeks  the 
town  surrendered  (May  12,  1780).  Clinton  took  more  than  five 
thousand  prisoners  and  property  valued  at  nearly  $i,5oo,ooo.518 
The  British  commander-in- chief  returned  to  New  York  in 
June  (1780).  He  left  Cornwallis  with  a  force  of  seven  or 
eight  thousand  troops  to  hold  Charleston  and  subdue  the 
State. 

Cornwallis  issued  a  proclamation  warning  all  inhabitants  of 
South  Carolina  that  if  they  did  not  return  to  their  allegiance  to 
the  King  they  would  be  treated  as  "rebels";  in  other  words, 
he  threatened  to  hang  them.519  The  brutal  Colonel  Tarleton 
had  massacred  a  party  of  these  "rebels  "  on  the  bank  of  the 
Waxhaw,  and  a  bitter  partisan  struggle  —  a  civil  war,  in  fact  — 
now  began  between  patriots  and  Tories. 

226.  Gates  appointed  commander  at  the  South ;  the  battle 
of   Camden.  —  The  most  important  point  in   the  interior  of 
South  Carolina  was  Camden.     It  was  a  great  center  for  roads, 
and  was  considered  "  the  key  between  the  North  and  South." 
Washington  had  sent  De  Kalb  (§  201)  with  a  small  body  of 
men  to  aid  the  patriots  of  South  Carolina  in  recovering  Camden 
and  other  points  in  the  interior.     Washington  hoped  to  secure 
the  appointment  of  Greene   to  the  general  command  of  the 


2OO  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [nso. 

Southern  department,  but  Congress  disregarded  his  wishes  and 
appointed  (June  13,  1780)  Gates  (§  218). 

Gates  joined  De  Kalb  at  Hillsborough,  North  Carolina.  He 
had  about  three  thousand  men  fit  for  duty,  and  he  insisted  that 
this  "grand  army,"  as  he  called  it,  should  at  once  march  on  to 
Camden,  where  Cornwallis,  unknown  to  the  American  general, 
had  arrived. 

Gates's  men  arrived  tired  out,  sick,  and  hungry  ;  but  he  at 
once  opened  the  battle  of  Camden  (August  16,  1780).  De 
Kalb's  soldiers  fought  desperately,  but  most  of  the  militia  "  fled 
without  firing  a  shot."  This  was  not  strange,  for  raw  recruits 
will  seldom  stand  against  the  attack  of  regular  troops.  "Two- 
thirds  of  the  army,"  says  Gates,  "  ran  like  a  torrent."  Gates 
himself  got  away  as  fast  as  his  horse  could  carry  him,  and  did 
not  fully  stop  until  he  arrived  at  Charlotte,  sixty  miles  away.520 
From  Charlotte,  Gates,  still  running  away  from  his  army,  sped 
on  to  Hillsborough,  North  Carolina.  This  singular  retreat 
ended  his  military  career. 

227.  The  treason  of  Benedict  Arnold.  —  This  disaster  at 
the  South  was  followed  in  the  North  by  the  most  startling  and 
the  saddest  event  of  the  war,  —  the  treason  of  Benedict  Arnold. 

Notwithstanding  Arnold's  impetuous  bravery  and  his  splendid 
success  as  a  soldier  (§  218),  Congress  seemed  to  grudge  him 
the  honor  he  had  fairly  earned.  When  at  last  Congress  tardily 
raised  Arnold  (November  29,  1777)  to  the  rank  of  senior 
major-general,  Washington  called  it  "an  act  of  necessary 
justice."  m 

Two  years  later,  while  in  command  in  Philadelphia,  Arnold 
was  charged  with  fraudulent  dealing  and  with  other  "  illegal 
and  offensive  acts."  At  his  own  urgent  request  he  was  tried 
by  court-martial  (December  19,  1779).  No  criminal  intention 
was  proven,  but  thev  court  sentenced  him  to  receive  a  repri 
mand  from  the  commander-in-chief.  When  he  administered  it 
Washington  chose  words  which  seemed  rather  to  compliment 
than  rebuke  the  offender.622  Yet  at  that  very  time  Arnold 


REVOLUTION 

THE  SOUTHERN  STATES. 


1780.]  THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION.  2OI 

was  secretly  carrying  on  a  treasonable  correspondence  with 
Clinton.523 

The  next  summer  (1780)  Arnold  sought  and  obtained  the  com 
mand  at  West  Point  —  the  most  important  American  post  on 
the  Hudson.  His  object  in  getting  the  position  was  to  turn  it 
over  to  the  enemy.  The  price  for  which  he  sold  himself  and 
betrayed  his  country  was  the  promise  of  an  appointment  as 
colonel  in  the  British  army  (with  the  brevet  of  brigadier-general) 
and  something  over  $30,000  in  cash.524 

Fortunately  for  the  American  cause  the  plot  to  surrender 
West  Point  was  discovered  through  the  arrest  of  Andre,  the 
British  officer  by  whom  Arnold  was  sending  plans  of  the  fort 
to  Clinton.  On  his  way  back  from  West  Point  Andre  was 
stopped  by  some  of  our  men  and  held  as  a  spy.  Arnold 
learned  of  his  capture  and  instantly  fled  to  the  British 
lines. 

Andre  was  tried  by  court-martial  and  hanged,  while  the  man 
who  had  used  him  as  his  tool  issued  a  proclamation  urging  all 
American  soldiers  to  follow  his  traitorous  example.  Later,  he 
led  marauding  expeditions  into  Virginia  and  burned  Richmond  ; 
his  last  blow  was  directed  against  the  towns  of  New  London 
and  Groton  on  the  coast  of  his  native  State  of  Connecticut. 
Arnold  died  in  London  nearly  twenty  years  after  the  United 
States  had  achieved  its  independence.  The  motto  on  his 
family  crest  was  the  single  word  "Glory";  long  before  he  died 
he  erased  that  motto  with  his  own  hand,  and  in  its  place  wrote 
the  word  "  Despair."  525 

228.  Dark  days;  light  at  the  South;  victory  at  King's 
Mountain  (1780).  —  Arnold's  treason  marks  what  was  perhaps 
the  darkest  period  of  the  Revolution.  The  enemy,  victorious 
at  the  South,  were  ravaging  Virginia  at  will,  and  the  Republic 
was  practically  bankrupt.  Continental  money  had  sunk  so  low 
in  value  that  a  soldier's  pay  amounted  in  fact  to  only  thirty- 
three  cents  a  month,  and  a  colonel's  pay  would  not  buy  oats 
for  his  horse.526 


2O2  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [nso. 

The  winter  which  followed  (1780-1781)  was  one  of  terrible 
severity,  and  the  men  suffered  even  worse  hardships  at  Morris- 
town  than  they  had  at  Valley  Forge  (§  219).  Poorly  clothed, 
half-fed,  and  miserably  paid,  a  part  of  them  rose  in  revolt. 
Clinton  tried  to  tempt  them  to  desert,  but  they  rejected  his 
offers  with  scorn,  saying:  "We  will  not  turn  Arnolds."527 

But  in  this  period  of  gloom  a  gleam  of  light  flashed  out  in 
the  South.  In  the  autumn  (1780)  Cornwallis  sent  Major  Fer 
guson,  a  brave  and  efficient  officer,  to  cut  off  a  body  of  patriots 
then  retreating  from  Georgia  to  the  high-lands  of  North  Caro 
lina.  Suddenly  Ferguson  found  that  he  was  in  danger  of  being 
cut  off  himself  by  a  body  of  mountaineers  and  backwoodsmen.628 

The  British  commander  fell  back  to  King's  Mountain,  a  high 
ridge  on  the  boundary  line  between  the  Carolinas.  There  he 
took  his  stand,  declaring  that  not  all  the  "  rebels  "  outside  of 
the  bottomless  pit  could  drive  him  to  retreat. 

The  little  American  force,  calling  itself  the  "  army  of  the 
West,"  attacked  the  British  on  all  sides  (October  7,  1780). 
Ferguson  had  fewer  men,  but  had  the  advantage  of  position. 
He  and  his  soldiers  fought  like  tigers,  driving  the  Americans 
back  again  and  again;  but  our  final  assault  was  successful, 
Ferguson  was  killed,  and  the  enemy  surrendered. 

The  victory  proved  to  be  the  turning-point  of  the  war  in  the 
South.  Cornwallis  fell  back  to  Winnesborough,  South  Caro 
lina,  to  wait  for  Clinton  to  send  reinforcements.  Many  of  the 
Carolinians,  encouraged  by  the  patriot  victory,  joined  Marion's 
ranks,  and  did  excellent  service  in  the  cause  of  liberty. 

229.  Greene  takes  command  in  the  Carolinas ;  disposition 
of  his  forces;  battle  of  Cowpens. — Washington  now  sent 
General  Greene  to  the  South.  He  arrived  (December  7,  1780) 
at  Charlotte,  North  Carolina,  to  take  command  of  his  "  shadow 
of  an  army"  —  for  his  whole  force  fit  for  duty  amounted  to 
only  eight  hundred  men.629 

Greene  divided  this  "  shadow  "  into  two  nearly  equal  parts. 
One  of  them  he  led  to  a  strong  position  at  the  base  of  Cheraw 


1781.]  THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION.  2O3 

Hill.  There  they  could  cooperate  with  Marion,  and  threaten 
Cornwallis's  communication  with  the  coast. 

The  other  division  Greene  sent  westward  under  Daniel  Mor 
gan  —  "  then  the  best  commander  of  light  troops  in  the  world." 
Morgan  was  to  threaten  the  British  garrisons  at  the  important 
posts  of  Ninety-Six  and  Augusta. 

Cornwallis  had  (after  he  received  reinforcements)  nearly  five 
thousand  well-equipped  troops ;  but  he  found  himself  between 
two  fires  —  Greene  and  Marion  on  one  side,  and  Morgan  on 
the  other.  The  British  commander  now  sent  Colonel  Tarle- 
ton,  "his  right  arm,"  with  over  a  thousand  troops  to  crush 
Morgan  or  compel  him  to  retreat.  The  two  forces  met  (January 
17,  1781)  at  the  cattle  pastures  called  the  Cowpens,  a  little 
south  of  King's  Mountain. 

Tarleton  was  completely  routed,  and  lost  more  than  two-thirds 
of  his  men.  This  defeat  struck  Cornwallis  as  hard  a  blow  as 
Burgoyne  had  received  at  Bennington  (§  216).  The  battle  of 
King's  Mountain  had  clipped  one  wing  of  the  British  army  ; 
now  Morgan  had  clipped  the  other. 

230.  Greene's  retreat ;  Steele's  Tavern ;  the  race  for  the 
Dan. —  Morgan  knowing  that  Cornwallis,  with  the  whole  British 
force,  would  soon  be  in  pursuit  of  him,  now  retreated  northward. 
Greene  sent  his  men  forward  to  join  Morgan's  in  North  Caro 
lina.  Cornwallis,  by  a  rapid  movement,  crossed  the  Catawba, 
scattering  the  American  militia  that  had  gathered  there  to 
oppose  his  passage. 

With  a  heavy  heart,  Greene  rode  on  to  Steele's  Tavern  at 
Salisbury.  "  What,  alone,  General  ? "  asked  his  friend,  Dr. 
Read,  as  the  American  commander  dismounted.  "  Yes," 
answered  Greene,  "  tired,  hungry,  alone,  and  penniless."  Mrs. 
Steele,  the  landlord's  wife,  heard  the  reply.  She  set  a  smoking 
hot  breakfast  before  the  weary  soldier,  then  cautiously  shutting 
the  door  behind  her,  she  held  out  a  little  bag  of  silver  to  him 
in  each  hand  :  "Take  these,"  said  she,  "for  you  need  them, 
and  I  can  do  without  them." 


2O4  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.  [1781. 

A  portrait  of  George  III.  was  hanging  over  the  fireplace  — 
placed  there  when  Americans  loved  to  call  him  their  King. 
Greene  turned  the  face  to  the  wall,  and  wrote  on  the  back  of 
the  portrait :   "  Hide  thy  face,  George,  and  blush."  53° 

A  few  days  later  the  men  that  Greene  had  sent  forward 
united  with  Morgan's  at  Guilford  Court  House  (now  Greens 
boro),  North  Carolina.  Knowing  that  Cornwallis  was  in  hard 
pursuit  of  him,  Greene  himself  hurried  forward  with  his  force 
to  cross  the  Dan.  The  American  commander  won  the  race, 
and  succeeded  (February  14,  1781)  in  crossing  the  stream  then 
swollen  to  a  torrent  by  heavy  rains.  The  British  came  up  just 
as  the  last  boat  had  reached  the  opposite  bank.  Cornwallis  found 
an  unfordable  river  in  front  of  him,  and  not  a  boat  to  be  had. 

231.  Battle  of  Guilford  Court  House  (1781) ;  Cornwallis's 
retreat  to  Wilmington ;  Hobkirk's  Hill ;  Ninety-Six ;  Eutaw 
Springs.  —  Greene,  having  obtained  reinforcements,  now  had 
nearly  twice  as  many  men  as  Cornwallis  ;  but  they  were  largely 
raw  recruits,  wretchedly  armed,  and  short  of  provisions,  while 
the  force  under  Cornwallis  was  made  up  of  veterans.  The 
American  commander  recrossed  the  Dan,  and  (March  15,  1781) 
fought  the  battle  of  Guilford  Court  House  (Greensboro). 
Cornwallis  won  the  day,  but  lost  so  many  men  that  he  was 
forced  to  retreat  to  Wilmington,  where  a  British  fleet  had 
established  a  depot  of  supplies. 

A  little  later  Greene  astonished  Cornwallis  by  suddenly 
moving  back  to  South  Carolina  to  fall  on  the  British  force  left 
there  in  charge  of  Lord  Rawdon.  This  was  too  much,  and 
Cornwallis  wrote  (April  23,  1781):  "My  situation  is  very  dis 
tressing."631  Finally,  not  knowing  what  else  to  do,  he  decided 
to  advance  into  Virginia  and  unite  with  the  British  forces  there. 

Meanwhile  Greene  met  and  fought  Rawdon  (April  25,  1781) 
at  Hobkirk's  Hill,  just  outside  of  Camden.  Rawdon  gained 
the  day,  but  as  Major  Henry  Lee  and  Marion  had  cut  his  com 
munication  with  Charleston,  the  British  commander  had  to 
abandon  Camden  and  retreat.  Greene  summarized  his  experi- 


1781.]  THE    REVOLUTION,   THE    CONSTITUTION.  2O$ 

ences  in  a  letter  to  Washington,  saying :  "  We  fight,  get  beat, 
and  fight  again."  632  He  next  began  the  siege  of  the  British 
post  at  Ninety-Six,  but  failed  to  take  the  fort,  and  shortly  after 
fell  back  to  the  hills  of  Santee  to  refresh  his  men. 

The  southern  campaigns  of  the  Revolution,  below  Virginia, 
ended  with  the  battle  of  Eutaw  Springs  (September  8,  1781). 
Greene  said  of  this  battle  :  "  It  was  by  far  the  most  obstinate 
fight  I  ever  saw."638  Both  sides  claimed  the  victory.  Practi 
cally  Eutaw  resulted  in  success  for  the  Americans,  for  the 
British,  unable  to  hold  the  field,  fled  to  Charleston  and  shut 
themselves  up  there. 

Greene  had  never  gained  a  victory  in  the  South,  yet,  follow 
ing  Washington's  example,  he  had  exhausted  and  baffled  the 
enemy.  More  than  this,  with  the  help  of  Marion,  Sumter, 
and  other  partisan  leaders,  he  had  practically  recovered  pos 
session  of  the  Carolinas. 

232.  Cornwallis  enters  Virginia;  ravages  the  country; 
Lafayette's  movements  ;  Yorktown.  —  Meanwhile  Cornwallis 
in  pursuance  of  his  plan  (§  231)  had  reached  Petersburg,  Vir 
ginia  (May  20,  1781),  and  had  increased  his  force  to  about 
seven  thousand  men.  The  British  commander  was  confronted 
by  Lafayette,  who  was  waiting  for  Wayne  to  arrive  with 
reinforcements. 

Cornwallis  (May  20  to  June  26,  1781)  sent  out  a  force  of  a 
thousand  cavalry,  mounted  on  Virginia  race-horses,  to  ravage 
the  country.  They  seized  or  destroyed  about  $15,000,000 
worth  of  property.534 

The  British  commander  laughed  at  Lafayette,  and  boastingly 
wrote :  "  The  boy  cannot  escape  me."  It  so  happened,  how 
ever,  that  "  the  boy  "  intercepted  Cornwallis's  letter,  and  not 
only  managed  to  escape  him,  but  seriously  harassed  all  his 
movements.  At  length,  acting  in  obedience  to  what  he  con 
sidered  imperative  orders  from  Clinton,  Cornwallis,  with  his 
seven  thousand  troops,  retired  (July  30,  1781)  to  the  peninsula 
of  Yorktown.5*5 


206  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [nsi. 

233.  Washington  prepares  to  attack  Cornwallis ;  what  the 
French  did.  —  Washington  had  been  planning  an  attack  on 
New  York.  He  now  pressed  De  Grasse,  who  commanded  a 
powerful  French  fleet  in  the  West  Indies,  to  come  to  his  help. 
De  Grasse  decided  that  he  would  sail  not  for  New  York,  but 
for  Chesapeake  Bay.  This  fact  changed  Washington's  plans 
(August  17,  1781),  and  with  the  cooperation  of  the  French 
commander  he  resolved  to  strike  Cornwallis  instead  of  Clinton. 

Count  Rochambeau's  army  of  four  thousand  French  regulars 
had  been  stationed  at  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  since  1780.  The 
Count  now  moved  to  the  vicinity  of  New  York  to  act  with  the 
Continental  Army  in  its  attack  on  Yorktown.  Less  than  six 
months  had  passed  since  the  American  commander  expressed 
grave  doubts  whether  he  could  manage  to  keep  the  army 
together  for  the  summer.  He  then  wrote  :  "  We  are  at  the  end 
of  our  tether  .  .  .  now  or  never  deliverance  must  come."  K6 
At  last  deliverance  had  come. 

Washington  contrived,  as  he  said,  to  completely  "misguide 
and  bewilder"  Clinton,  who  was  made  to  believe  that  the 
Americans  were  getting  ready  to  attack  New  York.  At  length, 
when  everything  was  prepared,  Washington  suddenly  broke 
camp  (August  19,  1781).  Leaving  Heath  with  four  thousand 
men  to  hold  West  Point,  he  set  out  with  his  combined  French 
and  American  army  of  six  thousand  troops  to  march  across  the 
country.637 

But  when  the  great  movement  was  actually  in  progress,  and 
part  of  the  force  had  reached  Philadelphia,  a  formidable 
obstacle  arose.  The  men  demanded  their  pay.  Washington 
begged  Robert  Morris  (§213)  to  raise  some  "hard  money" 
for  him.  Morris  borrowed  $20,000  of  Count  Rochambeau  ; 
the  sight  of  the  bright  silver  coin  put  the  Continental  Army  in 
good  humor,  and  smoothed  the  way  onward.638  Fortunately, 
too,  just  at  this  juncture  Colonel  Laurens  arrived  at  Boston 
with  2,500,000  francs  given  by  the  French  King  to  the  Ameri 
can  cause. 


At  the  Close  of  the   Revolution 
Showing  Western  Land  Claims  of  States 
1783. 
Bee  aUo  Table  of  Boundaries 

SCALE  OF  MILES 


1781.]  THE    REVOLUTION,   THE    CONSTITUTION.  2O/ 

By  this  time  Clinton  had  discovered  Washington's  real  object, 
but  it  was  too  late  for  him  to  help  Cornwallis.  When  the 
combined  French  and  American  armies  arrived  at  the  head  of 
Chesapeake  Bay,  French  transports  (September  17,  1781)  con 
veyed  them  to  Yorktown.  Here  Washington  was  joined  by 
Lafayette's  men,  by  a  body  of  Virginia  militia,  and  by  three 
thousand  French  soldiers  furnished  by  De  Grasse.  His  total 
force  numbered  nine  thousand  Americans  and  seven  thousand 
French. 

234.  The  siege  and  fall  of  Yorktown  (1781).  —  On  the 
water  side  the  powerful  French  fleet  effectually  cut  off  Corn 
wallis  from  all  hope  of  help  or  of  escape  in  that  direction. 

On  the  land  side  the  British  general  saw  himself  hemmed  in 
by  a  force  of  sixteen  thousand  —  or  more  than  double  his  own 
army.  The  besieging  force  began  at  once  (September  30,  1781) 
to  throw  up  works.  Hour  by  hour  they  crept  nearer  to  the 
doomed  town.  On  the  tenth  day  (October  9,  1781)  Washing 
ton  himself  applied  the  match  to  the  first  American  battery. 
From  that  time  onward,  for  more  than  a  week,  a  circle  of  sixty 
cannon  and  mortars  rained  an  incessant  storm  of  shot,  shell, 
and  red-hot  balls  against  the  defences  of  Cornwallis.  The 
British  general  could  make  but  a  feeble  reply,  his  stock  of 
artillery  ammunition  was  fast  running  short,  and  his  half- 
completed  fortifications  were  crumbling  to  pieces.  Of  his 
garrison  only  a  little  over  three  thousand  men  were  fit  for 
duty  ;  the  rest  were  lying  sick  or  wounded  in  hospital,  or  were 
worn  out  by  fatigue. 

On  October  17  (1781)  Cornwallis  sent  out  a  white  flag,  and 
asked  for  terms.  It  was  just  four  years  to  a  day  since  Burgoyne 
had  surrendered  at  Saratoga  (§  218).  Two  days  later,  October 
19  (1781),  the  British  garrison,  with  colors  cased,  marched  out 
between  the  lines  of  the  American  and  French  forces,  which 
formed  an  avenue  more  than  a  mile  in  length.  The  captive  army 
moved  with  slow  and  solemn  steps,  their  drums  beating  the  quaint 
but  highly  appropriate  tune  of  the  "  World  's  Upside  Down.'  ** 


2O8  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [nsi-nea. 

235.  Effect  of  the  news  of  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis  in 
England;  treaty  of  peace  (1783).  —  When  the  news  of  the 
surrender  reached  London,  Lord  North,  the  English  prime 
minister,  threw  up  his  arms  as  though  a  cannon-ball  had  struck 
him,  and  cried  out  wildly :  "  O  God,  it  is  all  over  1  "  ^  He 
was  right,  for  although  desultory  fighting  continued  for  a  time, 
yet  the  fall  of  Yorktown  really  ended  the  war. 

Both  sides  had  long  been  weary  of  the  struggle.  The 
spring  after  Cornwallis  surrendered,  the  House  of  Commons 
resolved  to  "  consider  as  enemies  to  His  Majesty  and  the 
country  "  all  who  should  urge  the  further  prosecution  of  the 
war  against  the  Americans. 

Before  the  close  of  that  year  a  provisional  treaty  of  peace 
was  made  (1782).  On  the  iQth  of  April,  1783,  just  eight  years 
to  a  day  after  the  battle  of  Lexington,  Washington  issued  an 
order  to  the  Continental  Army,  declaring  the  war  of  the  Revo 
lution  at  an  end.  In  making  the  final  treaty  of  peace  we 
demanded  (i)  the  full  recognition  of  the  independence  of 
the  thirteen  States ;  (2)  the  recognition  of  the  Mississippi 
River  as  our  western  boundary  ;  (3)  the  recognition  of  our 
right  to  fish  on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland.  The  English, 
on  the  other  hand,  wished  (i)  to  limit  our  western  bound 
ary  to  the  line  of  the  Alleghanies,  and  (2)  to  shut  us  out 
from  any  part  in  the  cod  fisheries  ;  finally  they  (3)  insisted 
on  our  making  compensation  to  the  Tories  for  their  loss 
of  property. 

Our  commissioners,  Adams,  Franklin,  and  Jay,  refused  to 
yield  to  these  demands,  but  agreed  that  the  last  demand  should 
be  referred  to  the  legislatures  of  the  States,  with  a  recommen 
dation  that  they  give  it  favorable  consideration.  The  result 
was  that  when  the  final  treaty  was  signed  at  Paris,  September  3, 
1783,  it  fully  recognized  all  that  we  claimed,  namely  :  (i)  the 
independence  of  the  American  Republic  ;  (2)  the  Mississippi 
River  as  our  western  boundary  ;  (3)  our  right  to  fish  on  the 
banks  of  Newfoundland.641 


1777-1787.]       THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION.  2OQ 

236.  Articles  of  Confederation ;  Maryland  and  the  western 
land  claims.  —  Meanwhile  the   United    States   had   adopted 
(1781)  the  plan  of  confederation  first  reported  to  Congress  in 
1776  (§  209). 

Congress  voted  (1777)  to  accept  the  proposed  constitution, 
but  several  of  the  States  found  serious  objections  to  it.  In 
order  that  the  Articles  of  Confederation  should  go  into  effect, 
it  was  necessary  that  all  of  the  States  should  formally  ratify 
them.  Finally,  all  agreed  to  do  so  except  Maryland.  She 
positively  refused  unless  the  seven  States  which  claimed  west 
ern  territory  (§  173)  should  cede  their  claims  to  the  United 
States  for  the  general  good. 

For  a  long  time  none  of  the  States  claiming  western  lands 
would  agree  to  give  them  up.  This  difficulty  threatened  to 
prevent  the  adoption  of  any  regular  system  of  national  govern 
ment.  At  length,  however,  New  York  offered  to  surrender  her 
claim.  Connecticut  and  Virginia  had  already  virtually  prom 
ised  to  do  the  same.642  On  the  day  that  New  York  made  her 
offer,  Maryland  signed  the  Articles,  thus  making  the  Confedera 
tion  complete  (March  i,  1781). 

The  whole  immense  western  territory,  extending  to  the  Mis 
sissippi,  was  now  practically  secured  to  the  nation.  This  fact 
greatly  strengthened  the  bonds  of  the  new  Republic,  and 
promised  to  guarantee  its  permanency  and  its  growth.543 

237.  The  ordinance  for  the  Government  of  the  Northwest 
Territory  (1787).  —  After  New  York,  Virginia,  Massachusetts, 
and  Connecticut  had  completed  their  cessions  of  land  (1781- 
1787)  the  Congress  of  the  Confederation  took  action.     By  the 
famous  "Ordinance   of   1787"  —  "the   Magna  Charta  of  the 
West "  —  it  erected  a  Government  for  the  territory  northwest 
of  the  Ohio. 

Among  other  provisions  that  ordinance  enacted  :  (i)  "That 
no  one  should  ever  be  molested  on  account  of  his  mode  of  wor 
ship  or  religious  sentiments  in  said  territory."  (2)  That  schools 
and  the  means  of  education  should  be  "forever  encouraged." 


2io  THE  STUDENTS  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

(3)  Slavery  was  absolutely  barred  out,  but  slaves  escaping  from 
their  masters  in  the  States,  and  taking  refuge  in  the  Northwest 
Territory,  were  to  be  seized  and  returned  to  their  owners. 

By  this  last-mentioned  provision  this  celebrated  ordinance,  so 
highly  praised  by  Daniel  Webster,  did  two  opposite  things  :  it 
secured  an  enormous  area  to  freedom,  but  it  first  granted 
national  recognition  and  protection  to  the  existence  of  slavery. 

(4)  Finally,  the  ordinance  provided  that  all  States  formed 
from  this  territory  should  be  admitted  on  an  equal  footing  in 
every  respect  with  the  thirteen  original  States.644 

From  that  magnificent  domain,  embracing  about  270,000 
square  miles,  the  five  great  and  powerful  States  of  Ohio, 
Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin  (together  with 
eastern  Minnesota)  were  formed  between  the  years  1803- 
1848. 

238.  Chief  provisions  of  the  Articles  of  Confederation.  - 
The  "  Articles  of  Confederation  and  Perpetual  Union"  (1781) 
bound  the  States  (i)  to  "  enter  into  a  firm  league  of  friendship 
with  each  other."  (2)  All  votes  in  Congress  were  to  be  cast  by 
States,  and  each  State,  whatever  its  number  of  delegates,  was 
to  have  but  one  vote."  (3)  Congress  reserved  the  power  of 
declaring  war  and  peace,  and  of  negotiating  treaties.  (4)  Con 
gress,  on  appeal,  was  to  decide  all  disputes  between  the  States. 

(5)  The  regulation  of  commerce  and  the  raising  of  revenue  and 
taxes  were  left  entirely  to  the  control  of  the  separate  States. 

(6)  The  power  to  coin  and  issue  money  was  shared  by  the  general 
Government  with  the  States.     (7)  Congress  had  authority  to 
appoint  a  "  Committee  of  the  States  "  to  manage  the  general 
affairs  of  the  nation  when  the  national  Legislature  was  not  in 
session.     (8)   The  final  article  declared  that  the  Union  thus 
formed  should  be  "  perpetual,"  and  forbade  that  any  change 
should  hereafter  be  made  in  the  above  Constitution  "unless 
such  alteration  be  agreed  to  in  a  Congress  of  the  United  States, 
and   be    afterwards    confirmed   by  the    Legislatures  of  every 
State." 


THE  NORTHWEST  TERRITORY  was  divided  into  the  five 
following  states  (with  Minnesota  east  of  the  Mississippi) :  1.  Ohio, 
admitted 1  1803;  2.  Indiana,  admitted  1810;  3.  Illinois,  admitted 
1818 ;  4.  Michigan,  admitted  1837 ;  5.  Wisconsin,  admitted  1848. 
(See  note  on  map  of  U.  S.  1783.) 


THE  NORTHWEST  TERRITORY,  1787, 

South  Carolina  ceded  her  western 
territory  to  the  U.S.  in  1787. 


1781-1787.]       THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION.  2 1  I 

239.  Weakness  of  the  Confederation.  —  Under  this  Confed 
eration  Congress  consisted  of  a  single  house  which  represented 
the  States  but  not  the  people.  The  national  Government  had 
no  president;  it  was  simply  "a  body  without  a  head."  Con 
gress  could  advise,  request,  implore,  but  it  could  not  command. 

In  this  last  point  lay  the  fatal  weakness  of  the  whole  system. 
The  national  Government  could  make  treaties  but  could  not 
compel  their  observance.  It  could  borrow  money  but  could 
not  guarantee  that  a  single  dollar  of  the  debt  would  ever  be 
paid.  It  could  recommend  taxation  but  could  not  enforce  it. 
It  could  enact  laws  but  could  not  punish  those  who  refused  to 
obey  them.  It  could  make  war  but  could  not  raise  a  single 
soldier  to  fight  in  its  defence.  In  short,  as  Judge  Story  has 
aptly  said  :  "  Congress  could  declare  everything,  but  could  do 
nothing."545  Its  whole  attitude  was  that  of  a  suppliant. 

While  the  Revolution  was  in  progress  the  pressure  of  the 
war  forced  the  separate  States  to  stand  by  each  other ;  but  as 
soon  as  that  pressure  was  removed,  the  States,  like  a  barrel  that 
had  lost  its  hoops,  threatened  to  fall  to  pieces. 

'  240.  State  of  the  country  under  the  Confederation. — When 
peace  was  made,  Thomas  Paine  wrote  in  the  last  number  of  his 
"  American  Crisis  "  :  "  The  times  which  tried  men's  souls  are 
over."  It  was  a  great  mistake,  for  the  next  five  years  under 
the  Confederation  were  full  of  distress,  doubt,  discouragement, 
and  tendencies  to  disunion. 

Instead  of  presenting  a  bold,  united  front  to  the  world,  we 
exhibited  the  pitiful  spectacle  of  thirteen  little  discordant  repub 
lics  bound  together  with  "  a  rope  of  sand."  Hamilton  said  : 
"  There  is  scarcely  anything  that  can  wound  the  pride  or  de 
grade  the  character  of  an  independent  nation  which  we  do  not 
experience;"546  and  Washington  declared  that  we  were  mov 
ing  upon  "  crutches  "  and  tottering  to  our  "fall."  547 

241.  Attempts  of  Congress  to  raise  money ;  quarrels  about 
trade.  —  The  first  sign  of  this  fatal  weakness  was  seen  when 
the  Government  made  an  attempt  to  pay  the  soldiers  of  the 


212  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.        [nsi-ns?, 

Revolution  a  part  of  what  was  due  them.  Congress  called  on 
the  States  to  contribute  ;  some  responded,  others  did  not.  All 
national  demands  for  money  were  followed  by  a  like  result. 
Out  of  over  $6,000,000  called  for  (1782-1786),  Congress 
obtained  only  $i, 000,000. 548 

An  attempt  was  made  (1782)  to  amend  the  Articles  of  Con 
federation  so  as  to  give  the  Government  power  to  levy  a  five- 
per-cent  duty  on  imported  goods.  This  measure  was  proposed 
in  order  that  the  nation  might  get  means  to  discharge  a  part  of 
its  debt.  The  assent  of  all  the  States  was  required  ;  all  gave 
their  consent  but  Rhode  Island.  She  refused,  mainly  on  the 
ground  that  the  proposed  duty  would  fall  too  heavily  on 
the  chief  importing  States  —  of  which  she  was  then  one. 

Later  (1786),  the  project  was  revived  in  a  more  limited  form. 
New  York  then  refused  unless  she  could  appoint  her  own  col 
lectors.  This  proviso  killed  the  plan,  and  Congress  had  to  go 
on  as  best  it  could  with  an  empty  treasury. 

Quarrels  sprang  up  about  foreign  and  domestic  trade.  New 
England  wished  to  exclude  all  exports  and  imports  by  British 
ships,  but  the  Southern  States,  having  no  ships  of  their  own, 
demanded  why  they  should  be  asked  to  give  the  monopoly  of 
the  carrying  trade  to  the  North.549 

The  States  which  had  no  seaports  had  to  pay  tolls  to  the 
States  where  the  goods  were  received.  New  Jersey  was,  like 
a  cask,  tapped  at  both  ends  ;  it  paid  toll  at  New  York  and 
at  Philadelphia.  North  Carolina  was  in  a  similar  predicament. 

New  York  laid  a  tax  on  the  New  Jersey  and  Connecticut 
market-boats.  New  Jersey  retaliated  by  taxing  the  light-house 
which  New  York  had  built  at  Sandy  Hook  on  the  Jersey  shore. 
Connecticut  towns  took  their  revenge  by  boycotting  New  York, 
and  refusing  to  send  any  more  butter,  eggs,  and  early  vegetables 
to  that  city.650 

242.  Scarcity  of  specie;  Shays's  rebellion  (1786).  —  At 
the  same  time  the  whole  country  was  distressed  by  the  need 
of  "  hard  money."  There  was  no  mint ;  with  the  exception  of 


1786-1787.]         THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION.  213 

a  few  pennies,  the  only  coins  in  circulation  were  worn  and 
clipped  foreign  pieces.  Most  of  the  States  kept  their  print 
ing-presses  busy  manufacturing  "  soft  money."  These  notes 
were  constantly  falling  in  value.  Massachusetts  refused  to 
issue  irredeemable  paper  promises  to  pay,  and  her  country 
people  felt  the  lack  of  specie  all  the  more  keenly. 

The  total  public  and  private  debts  of  the  Commonwealth 
averaged  about  $200  for  every  taxpayer.  Many  farmers  who 
had  fought  in  the  Revolution  could  not  satisfy  their  creditors. 
They  might  have  boxes  full  of  worthless  continental  paper 
currency  in  their  attics,  but  they  saw  their  cattle  driven  off  by 
order  of  the  courts,  and  their  homesteads  sold  by  foreclosure 
of  mortgages. 

In  Worcester  County,  and  the  counties  west  of  it,  the  situa 
tion  became  desperate.  Excited  crowds  declared  that  all  prop 
erty  should  be  held  in  common,  since  all  had  fought  to  save  it. 
Then  came  the  cry :  "  Down  with  the  civil  courts  !  "  "  Down 
with  the  wicked  lawyers  !  "  "  Hurrah  for  '  soft  money '  and 
plenty  of  it  !  "  Kl 

Mobs  began  to  obstruct  the  sitting  of  courts.  Finally  Daniel 
Shays,  who  had  been  a  captain  in  the  Continental  Army,  led 
more  than  a  thousand  armed  men  to  Worcester  (1786),  took 
possession  of  the  court-house,  and  dispersed  the  judges. 

Later  (1787)  he  attempted  to  capture  the  U.  S.  arsenal 
at  Springfield  ;  blood  was  shed,  and  the  State  government  was 
believed  to  be  in  serious  peril.  But  the  Governor  sent  a  strong 
force  against  Shays  (1787)  and  the  rebellion  collapsed.552  Its 
progress  had  greatly  alarmed  Washington  and  all  friends  of 
order,  for  they  saw  that  there  was  danger  of  the  insurrection 
spreading  to  other  States,  and  they  knew  that  Congress  was 
practically  helpless.  Shays's  rebellion  emphasized  the  need  of 
a  strong  federal  government,  and  thus  helped  to  insure  the 
framing  of  a  new  and  more  efficient  constitution. 

243.  Trouble  in  the  West;  threats  of  secession;  Jefferson's 
letter.  —  In  the  West  trouble  of  a  still  more  dangerous  kind 


214  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

arose.  Spain  closed  the  Mississippi,  and  vowed  that  she  would 
keep  it  shut  until  she  secured  a  more  satisfactory  boundary  line 
for  her  American  possessions  in  the  South.  A  Kentucky  flat- 
boat  man,  disregarding  the  Spanish  decree,  started  boldly  down 
the  river  with  a  load  of  hardware.  The  Spanish  authorities  at 
Natchez  stopped  him,  seized  both  his  boat  and  cargo  (1786), 
and  left  him  to  get  back  home  on  foot  through  the  wilderness 
as  best  he  could. 

The  impetuous  spirit  of  the  Kentucky  settlers  was  roused. 
They  swore  that  if  the  river  was  not  opened  they  would  raise 
an  army  of  backwoods  riflemen,  who  would  force  their  way 
through  and  drive  the  Spaniards  into  the  sea. 

John  Jay  thought  that  we  should  not  really  need  the  use  of 
the  river  for  many  years.  He  advised  Congress  to  make  a 
treaty  with  Spain  and  give  up  all  claim  to  the  navigation  of  the 
Mississippi  for  a  quarter  of  a  century.  This  proposition  set 
the  country  in  a  blaze.  Indignation  meetings  were  held  by  the 
Kentuckians.  Many  threatened  that  if  Jay's  advice  was  taken 
they  would  secede  from  the  Union  and  form  an  alliance  with 
Great  Britain.  On  the  other  hand,  there  were  New  England 
men  who  vowed  they  would  secede  if  Jay's  advice  was  not 
taken.  In  this  emergency  Congress  stood  alarmed,  helpless, 
and  ashamed. 

Jefferson,  then  in  Paris,  wrote  (1787)  to  Madison,  saying  : 
"  I  never  had  any  interest  westward  of  the  Alleghanies,  and  I 
never  will  have  any,  .  .  .  but  I  will  venture  to  say  that  the  act 
which  abandons  the  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  is  an  act  of 
separation  between  the  eastern  and  the  western  country."563 

To  these  difficulties  we  must  add  the  financial  muddle. 
Many  of  the  States  perpetrated  frauds  in  their  issue  of  worth 
less  paper  money.  This  constituted  another  peril  which  was 
undermining  the  Confederation.554 

244.  The  Constitutional  Convention  at  Philadelphia  (1787). 

—  Meanwhile  Virginia  and  Maryland  had  a  dispute  over  the 

navigation  of  Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  Potomac.     The  commis- 


1787.]  THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION.  215 

sioners  appointed  to  decide  the  controversy  failed  to  agree. 
Finally  it  was  recommended  that  a  convention  should  be  held 
at  Philadelphia  "for  the  sole  and  express  purpose  of  revising 
the  Articles  of  Confederation." 

The  Convention  met  (May  25,  1787).  Eventually  all  of  the 
States  were  represented  except  Rhode  Island.  Washington, 
Franklin,  Hamilton,  and  Madison  were  among  the  fifty-five 
members.  Washington  was  chosen  to  preside.  The  delegates 
sat  with  closed  doors,  keeping  their  proceedings  secret.  They 
decided  that  instead  of  revising  the  Articles  of  Confederation 
they  would  draw  up  an  entirely  new  Constitution. 

245.  Conflicting  opinions  in  the  Convention.  —  The  Consti 
tutional  Convention  represented  widely  different  ideas  and 
interests  : 

(1)  A   part  of   the  delegates  emphasized   the   necessity  of 
national  sovereignty.     They  urged  that  all  the  chief  powers, 
including  the  control  of  foreign  trade,  should  be  centralized  in 
the    general    Government.     Others  vehemently  opposed  this, 
and  insisted  on  State  sovereignty.     Their  plan  was  to  grant 
the  Nation  the  least  possible  power,  but  to  reserve  the  utmost 
possible  to  the  separate  States. 

(2)  There  was  next  the  conflict  respecting  State  representa 
tion.     On  this  point  the  large  and  the  small  States  could  not 
agree.     The  former  naturally  demanded  representation  based 
on  population  ;    the   latter   demanded   that   all   representation 
should  be  equal,  so  that  the  vote  of  the  small  States  should 
count  for  as  much  as  that  of  their  more  powerful  neighbors. 

(3)  Finally,  the  great  slave-holding  States  insisted  that  all 
slaves  should  be  counted  in  making  up  the  basis  of  representa 
tion  in  Congress.     The  Northern  States,  on  the  other  hand, 
contended  that  only  the  white  population  should  be  counted. 
There  was  also  a  serious  difference  with  regard  to  the  foreign 
slave-trade.    The  great  majority  of  the  States  wished  to  prohibit 
it,  but  the  South  Carolina  delegates  absolutely  refused  to  vote 
for  .the  Constitution   unless  that  trade  should   be  kept  open. 


216  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [ns7. 

New  England  merchants  who  were  engaged  in  bringing  cargoes 
of  negroes  from  Africa  strongly  supported  South  Carolina. 

246.  The  three  great  compromises  of  the  Constitution.  — 
The  debate  on  the  above-mentioned  points  was  so  violent  that 
it  twice  threatened  to  break  up  the  Convention.     The  conflict 
was  finally  settled  by  three  great  compromises : 

(1)  It  was  agreed  that  the  national  Government  should  be 
invested  with  powers  of  the  first  importance.     It  was  author 
ized  to  regulate  foreign  commerce,  levy  taxes,  and  impose  custom 
duties ;  to  declare  war,  equip  armies,  and  call  out  the  militia 
to  suppress  insurrection  and  enforce  the  laws  of  the  Union. 
Finally,  it  was  to  have  authority  to  make  all  laws  necessary 
for  carrying  into  execution  the  powers  conferred  upon  it.555 

There  was  to  be  a  Supreme  Court,  with  a  number  of  lower 
federal  courts,  to  interpret  and  apply  the  provisions  of  the 
Constitution  and  the  laws  enacted  by  Congress. 

To  make  this  authority  effective  the  executive  power  was 
vested  in  a  President  of  the  United  States,  who  was  made 
Commander-in-Chief  of  the  army  and  navy. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  was  agreed  (by  later  action)  that  all 
"  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitution 
nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States  are  reserved  to  the  States 
respectively,  or  to  the  people."556 

(2)  It  was  decided  that  Congress,  instead  of  consisting  of  a 
single  House,  should  be  divided  into  the  Senate  and  the  House 
of  Representatives.     Representation  was  to  be  equal  in  the 
Senate,  —  each  State  to  have  two  members,  —  while  in  the  House 
of  Representatives  it  was  to  be  based  on  population. 

(3)  It  was  agreed  in  making  up  the  basis  of  direct  taxation 
and  representation  that  five  negroes  should  be  counted  as  equal 
to  three  whites,  because  it  was  assumed  that  the  productive 
labor  of  negroes  and  of    whites    would    stand    in    that    ratio. 
Slavery  was  to  be  protected  by  a  fugitive-slave  provision,  and  the 
importation  of  slaves  was  not  to  be  prohibited  by  Congress  before 
1808.     This  kept  the  negro  supply  open  for  twenty  years.657 


1787-1788.]       THE    REVOLUTION,    THE    CONSTITUTION. 

247.  The  Convention  adopts  the  new  Constitution,  and  it 
is  submitted  to  the  States.  —  When  the  great  work  was  com 
pleted  (September  17,  1787),  and  the  last  delegates  were  sign 
ing  the  Constitution,  the  white-haired  Franklin  rose.  Looking 
at  a  figure  of  a  half  sun  painted  on  the  back  of  the  President's 
chair,  he  said :  "  I  have  often  and  often  in  the  course  of  the 
session  looked  at  that  sun  without  being  able  to  tell  whether  it 
was  rising  or  setting ;  but  now  at  length,  I  have  the  happiness 
to  know  that  it  is  a  rising  and  not  a  setting  sun."558 

But  the  sun  did  not  rise  without  a  cloud.  The  country 
was  divided  between  the  Federalists,  who  advocated  the  Con 
stitution  on  the  ground  that  the  Republic  needed  a  strong 
government,  and  the  Anti-Federalists,  who  opposed  it  because 
they  feared  that  such  a  government  would  be  fatal  to  the  indi 
vidual  liberty  and  welfare  of  the  States  and  of  the  people. 
The  Constitution  was  finally  reluctantly  accepted  by  a  small 
majority;559  but  most  of  the  States  which  then  voted  to  come 
under  the  "  New  Roof "  demanded  that  it  should  speedily 
receive  important  amendments.  Virginia  expressly  qualified 
her  acceptance  of  the  Constitution  by  asserting  the  right  of 
the  people  to  resume  the  powers  they  had  delegated  to  the 
general  Government.  New  York  did  the  same.560 

North  Carolina  and  Rhode  Island,  fearing  that  their  issues 
of  paper  money  might  be  curtailed  by  the  proposed  Constitution, 
rejected  it.  The  Articles  of  Confederation  were  still  in  force. 
They  could  not  be  altered  or  set  aside  except  by  the  action  of 
the  "  Legislatures  of  every  State  "  (§  238).  But  notwithstanding 
this  provision,  when  eleven  States  had  ratified  the  new  Consti 
tution  the  Congress  of  the  Confederation  declared  it  in  force 
(September  13,  1788).  Thus  by  a  peaceful  revolution  a  major 
ity  of  the  States  quietly  overturned  the  old  form  of  government. 
They  withdrew  from  the  first  Union  (in  which  North  Carolina 
and  Rhode  Island  still  remained),  and  established  a  new  and 
"more  perfect  Union."561  The  two  above-named  States  stood 
out  by  themselves  until  the  recently  adopted  Constitution  went 


218  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.      [1775-1790. 

into  operation,  when  at  length  they  decided  (1789,  1790)  to 
join  the  majority,  and  so  the  last  two  pillars  in  the  new  "  tem 
ple  of  liberty"  were  triumphantly  set  up.  Many  years  later, 
John  Quincy  Adams  declared  that  the  Constitution  was  "  ex 
torted  from  the  grinding  necessity  of  a  reluctant  nation." 

The  first  presidential  election  had  already  taken  place. 
Under  the  restrictions  then  existing  (§  174)  only  one  in  twenty 
of  the  population  could  vote  —  the  proportion  now  is  not  far 
from  one  in  four.*  When  the  electoral  ballots  were  opened 
and  counted  (April  6,  1789)  in  the  presence  of  Congress  it 
was  found  that  George  Washington  had  been  unanimously 
elected  President  of  the  United  States,  and  that  John  Adams 
had  been  chosen  Vice-President. 

248.  Summary.  —  The  American  colonists  began  the  war 
of  the  Revolution  (1775),  not  for  the  purpose  of  separating  from 
the  English  Crown,  but  simply  to  obtain  their  constitutional 
rights  as  loyal  subjects  of  that  Crown.  The  contest  soon 
developed  (1776)  into  a  war  for  independence. 

Washington  conducted  the  war  to  a  successful  termination, 
and  by  the  treaty  of  peace  (1783)  Great  Britain  fully  recognized 
the  independence  of  the  United  States  of  America. 

During  the  first  part  of  the  Revolution  the  Government  of  the 
United  States  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Continental  Congress. 
Later  (1781),  a  "league  of  perpetual  friendship"  was  formed 
between  the  States  under  the  name  of  the  "  Articles  of  Con 
federation,"  and  the  Congress  of  the  Confederation  took  the 
management  of  the  affairs  of  the  national  Government. 

Owing  mainly  to  its  lack  of  needful  executive  and  coercive 
power  this  "  league  "  failed  to  give  satisfaction.  To  remedy 
this  defect,  and  to  form  "a  more  perfect  Union,"  a  new  Con 
stitution  was  framed  and  put  in  operation  by  eleven  of  the 
thirteen  States  (1789);  shortly  afterward  the  two  remaining 
States  decided  to  ratify  it,  and  thereby  entered  the  new  Union. 

*  See  Professor  F.  N.  Thorpe  in  Harper's  Magazine,  November,  1897. 
(p.  838.) 


V. 

THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT. 
(1789-1861.) 

For  A  uthorities  for  this  Chapter,  see  Appendix,  page  xxiv.     The  small  figures  in  the 
text  refer  to  Authorities  cited  on  page  xxx  of  the  Appendix. 


GEORGE  WASHINGTON   (FEDERALIST),   TWO  TERMS,   1789-1797. 

249.  The  inauguration ;  tasks  of  the  new  Government ; 
state  of  the  nation.  —  Congress  began  to  assemble  March  4, 
1789,  in  Federal  Hall,  New  York.  Washington's  inauguration 
took  place  on  the  balcony  of  the  hall,  April  30.  At  its  close  the 
bells  of  the  city  rang  out  a  joyous  peal,  the  cannon  on  the  Bat 
tery  fired  a  salute,  and  the  crowd  in  the  streets  shouted:  "Long 
live  George  Washington,  President  of  the  United  States."  562 

The  President  and  Congress  had  formidable  tasks  before 
them.  It  was  their  duty  to  set  up  and  start  the  machinery 
of  the  new  Government.  The  outlook  was  doubtful  if  not 
threatening. 

A  majority  of  the  States  virtually  demanded  the  prompt 
amendment  of  the  Constitution  as  the  price  of  their  allegiance 
to  the  Union  (§  247).  The  nation  was  deeply  in  debt,  and  had 
neither  revenue  nor  credit.  It  was  necessary  that  we  should 
be  able  to  defend  our  rights  against  foreign  attack,  and  to  main 
tain  domestic  order,  but  the  army  had  been  disbanded,  and  we 
did  not  possess  a  single  war-ship.  At  the  North,  Great  Britain 
refused  to  give  up  Oswego,  Niagara,  Detroit,  Mackinaw,  and 
other  fortified  posts,  on  the  ground  that  we  had  not  fully  carried 
out  our  treaty  pledges.  At  the  South,  Spain  denied  our 


220  THE  STUDENTS  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

right  to  the  free  navigation  of  the  lower  Mississippi  (§  243). 
West  of  the  Alleghanies  the  Indians  were  restless,  and  in  the 
Ohio  country  they  were  preparing  to  attack  the  whites. 

On  the  sea  the  Barbary  pirates  shut  the  Mediterranean 
against  our  commerce ;  every  American  vessel  which  ap 
proached  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  did  so  at  the  risk  of  losing 
both  crew  and  cargo. 

This  condition  of  affairs  at  home  and  abroad  gave  rise  to 
many  perplexing  questions;  but  before  Washington  retired  from 
office  (1797)  they  had  all  been  settled  in  a  manner  which 
secured  peace,  at  a  time  when  peace  was,  of  all  things,  most 
essential  to  the  welfare  of  the  nation. 

250.  Executive  Department ;  the  Cabinet ;  the  Supreme 
Court;  the  tariff;  tonnage  and  excise.  —  The  first  work 
accomplished  by  Congress  was  the  establishment  of  the  de 
partments  of  State,  the  Treasury,  and  War. 

Washington  chose  his  cabinet  officers  from  opposite  political 
ranks.  He  appointed  Hamilton,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury ; 
Knox,  Secretary  of  War ;  Jefferson,  Secretary  of  State ;  and 
Randolph,  Attorney-General.  The  first  two  were  Federalists, 
the  last  two  Anti-Federalists  (§§  247,  256). 

Congress  next  organized  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  and  the  inferior  federal  courts. 

Washington  appointed  John  Jay,  Chief-Justice.  The  court 
over  which  he  presided  was  entrusted  with  the  highest  powers 
granted  to  any  tribunal  in  the  Republic  :  that  of  determining, 
on  appeal,  the  constitutionality  of  the  acts  of  Congress,  and  of 
the  laws  of  the  States  (Appendix,  p.  xiii).  Speaking  of  the 
services  of  the  Supreme  Court,  Webster  said  that  without  it  the 
Constitution  "  would  be  no  Constitution,  the  Government  no 
Government."  ^ 

Meanwhile  Congress  was  discussing  that  most  urgent  of 
all  questions:  How  to  raise  a  revenue?  Should  it  be  obtained 
by  direct  tax,  or  by  imposing  a  duty  on  imported  goods  ? 
The  decision  was  in  favor  of  the  latter  method,  and  an  act 


1789-1791.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  221 

was  passed  (1789)  establishing  the  first  tariff.  The  preamble 
declared  that  the  tariff  was  "for  the  support  of  the  Gov 
ernment,  for  the  discharge  of  the  debts  of  the  United  States, 
and  the  encouragement  and  protection  of  manufactures."  ** 
The  average  duty  imposed  was  very  low,  —  less  than  nine  per 
cent.  In  the  course  of  the  next  eight  years  (1790-1797)  this 
rate  was  gradually  increased  until  it  reached  about  fourteen 
per  cent.565  Congress  next  passed  (1789)  a  tonnage  act  which 
levied  a  tax  of  six  cents  per  ton  on  vessels  built  and  owned  in 
the  United  States  and  engaged  in  foreign  trade,  thirty  cents  on 
vessels  built  in  America,  but  owned  abroad,  and  fifty  cents  per 
ton  on  all  other  merchant  vessels  entering  our  ports.566  Find 
ing  that  the  payment  of  the  entire  public  debt  would  require  a 
larger  revenue,  Congress  enacted  (1791)  a  law  which  imposed 
a  tax  of  from  twenty  to  forty  cents  a  gallon  on  imported  liquors, 
and  an  excise  duty  of  from  nine  to  thirty  cents  a  gallon  on  those 
distilled  in  the  States.567 

From  all  sources  the  Government  obtained  a  total  annual 
revenue  of  $4,600,000  —  a  sum  then  regarded  as  ample  for 
meeting  the  expenses  of  the  nation.  Since  that  date  the  reve 
nue  has  increased  nearly  a  hundredfold,  and  the  demands  on 
it  have  multiplied  in  like  ratio.668 

251.  Amendments  to  the  Constitution.  — A  majority  of  the 
States  had  called  for  certain  amendments  to  the  Constitution 

(*  247)- 

Congress  adopted  twelve,  ten  of  which  were  ratified  (1791) 
by  the  States.  They  practically  formed  a  "  Bill  of  Rights  " 
"for  the  more  efficient  protection  of  the  people"  (Appendix, 
p.  xvi). 

The  first  of  these  amendments  (Appendix,  p.  xvi)  is  especially 
noteworthy.  It  secures  freedom  of  speech  and  of  the  press 
(§  272),  the  right  of  petition,  and  the  free  exercise  of  religion. 
Finally,  it  expressly  forbids  the  establishment  of  a  national 
church.  The  leading  powers  of  Europe  had  always  considered 
such  a  church  indispensable  to  their  existence  ;  the  founders 


222  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.  [1790. 

of  the  American  Republic  were  the  first  to  create  a  government 
entirely  independent  of  any  creed  or  form  of  worship. 

The  tenth  amendment  (Appendix,  p.  xvii)  ranks  in  importance 
with  the  first.  It  reserves  to  the  States,  or  to  the  people,  all 
"  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitu 
tion,  nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States."  Later,  the  eleventh 
amendment  (Appendix,  p.  xvii)  restricted  the  power  of  the 
federal  courts  with  respect  to  the  States. 

252.  Hamilton's  report  on  the  public  debt.  —  Early  in  1790 
Hamilton   (§  250)  made  his  report  on  the  public  debt.     He 
divided  it  into  three  classes:    (i)   the  foreign  debt;   (2)   the 
domestic  debt ;  (3)  the  State  debts. 

The  first  amounted  to  nearly  $12,000,000.  It  represented, 
in  the  main,  money  which  we  had  borrowed  during  the  Revolu 
tion  from  France,  Spain,  and  private  capitalists  in  Holland. 
The  domestic  debt  of  $42,000,000  was  the  amount  which  the 
nation  was  owing  to  citizens  of  the  States.  Finally,  there  were 
the  State  debts,  estimated  at  $21,500,000. 

The  entire  national  and  State  obligations  footed  up  $75,500,- 
ooo.  Hamilton  called  this  total  "the  price  of  liberty."  He 
recommended  the  Government  to  make  provision  for  the  pay 
ment  of  the  whole  sum,  principal  and  interest,  believing  that 
strict  honesty  would  prove  to  be  the  best  possible  cement  for 
binding  the  new  Union  solidly  together.669 

253.  Debate  on  Hamilton's  proposition.  —  Congress  agreed 
without  dissent  to  the  first  part  of  the  Secretary's  scheme.     It 
was  not  only  willing  but  anxious  to  pay  every  dollar  which  we 
had  borrowed  abroad;  but  many  prominent  men  thought  it 
unwise  to  offer  to  discharge  the  full  amount  of  the  domestic 
debt.     The  certificates  of  this  debt  had  fallen  to  fifteen  cents 
on  the  dollar,  and  had  been  largely  bought  up  by  speculators 
who  would  be  the  only  ones  to  profit  by  their  redemption.    The 
supporters  of  Hamilton's  measure  contended  that  the  Govern 
ment  should  keep  its  contract  to  the  letter,  no  matter  who  held 
the  certificates.     By  so  doing,  said  they,  we  shall  put  our  credit 


1790.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  223 

on  a  firm  foundation,  and  teach  future  investors  in  our  national 
securities  not  to  sacrifice  them.  After  protracted  debate  this 
argument  prevailed,  and  Congress  decided  to  pay  both  the  for 
eign  and  the  domestic  debt.570 

The  great  final  contest  was  over  the  question  of  the  assump 
tion  of  the  State  debts.  The  Northern  States  owed  the  larger 
part,  and  were  generally  in  favor  of  shifting  the  responsibility 
of  payment  to  the  shoulders  of  the  national  Government.  The 
Southern  States,  which  owed  far  less,  declared  that  Congress 
had  no  right  to  assume  these  debts,  and  thereby  compel  the 
people  of  the  South  to  help  clear  off  obligations  which  they  had 
never  incurred.  They  furthermore  contended  that  it  was  very 
doubtful  whether  the  Constitution  authorized  such  an  act,  which 
they  thought  would  dangerously  encroach  on  the  right  and 
responsibility  of  the  States  to  manage  their  own  affairs.571  The 
advocates  of  Hamilton's  policy  replied  that  the  proposed  meas 
ure  was  necessary  for  the  common  good,  and  for  the  complete 
establishment  of  the  public  credit.572 

254.  "  Log-rolling  "  ;  funding  the  debt.  —  Eventually  the 
dispute  was  settled  by  compromise.  While  the  discussion  was 
going  on,  the  question  of  the  location  of  the  national  capital 
was  under  debate.  New  York  wanted  it  on  the  Hudson;  Penn 
sylvania,  on  the  Delaware ;  Maryland  and  Virginia,  on  the 
Potomac.  At  a  dinner  given  by  Jefferson,  Hamilton  found  an 
opportunity  to  settle  the  State-debt  and  the  national-capital 
questions  at  one  stroke,  by  bringing  into  play  the  backwoods 
custom  :  "  You  help  me  roll  my  log,  and  I  will  help  you  roll 
yours."  Two  Virginia  members  of  Congress  promised  to  vote 
for  the  assumption  scheme  on  condition  that  a  sufficient  num 
ber  of  Northern  votes  should  be  cast  to  secure  the  passage  of 
a  bill  permanently  locating  the  national  capital  on  the  Potomac. 
This  bargain  was  faithfully  carried  out.  Certain  Northern 
members  of  Congress  voted  for  an  act  which  established  the 
headquarters  of  the  federal  Government  at  Philadelphia  for  ten 
years  (1790-1800)  and  then  fixed  them  permanently  at  Wash- 


224  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1791. 

ington ;  on  the  other  hand,  certain  Southern  members  voted  for 
the  assumption  of  the  State  debts.  Both  measures  were  success 
fully  carried  through.573  This  last  act  completed  the  adoption 
of  Hamilton's  plan.  The  whole  public  debt  was  funded  by 
issuing  new  bonds  bearing  six  per  cent  interest,  and  pledging 
the  chief  part  of  the  revenue,  and  all  of  the  money  received 
from  the  sale  of  Government  lands  at  the  West  for  their  gradual 
redemption.  In  three  years  these  new  bonds  rose  to  par,  and 
the  credit  of  the  United  States  was  established  abroad  and  at 
home. 

255.  Bank  of  the  United  States;  the  mint.  —  Hamilton 
next  recommended  the  establishment  of  a  National  Bank,  simi 
lar  to  the  "Bank  of  North  America"  chartered  by  the  Congress 
of  the  Confederation  (1781),  but  which  soon  became  a  State 
institution,  and  which  still  exists  at  Philadelphia. 

There  were  then  (1791)  but  four  banks  in  the  entire  country, 
and  their  notes  had  no  circulation  outside  the  cities  in  which 
they  were  situated.  Most  of  the  people  of  the  States  had  never 
even  seen  a  bank-bill.55"4  Hamilton  urged  that  the  best  interests 
of  the  Government  and  of  trade  demanded  a  sound  national 
paper  currency,  which  would  pass  from  hand  to  hand,  and  be 
used  throughout  the  Union.576 

His  project  roused  a  hot  debate.  Some  members  of  Con 
gress  denounced  the  measure  as  a  scheme  for  enriching  a  few 
greedy  capitalists  at  the  expense  of  the  mass  of  the  people. 
Others  declared  that  it  was  a  political  plot  for  establishing  an 
aristocratic  institution  intended  to  pave  the  way  to  "  a  mon 
archy."  676  The  most  serious  objection  came  from  Madison  and 
his  followers.  They  denied  that  the  Constitution  gave  Con 
gress  power  to  charter  such  a  bank.  The  friends  of  the  meas 
ure  replied  that  the  power,  though  not  specifically  granted,  was 
clearly  implied  in  the  necessary  right  of  collecting  a  revenue 
and  paying  off  the  public  debt,  both  of  which  measures 
demanded  a  national  currency.  The  bill  finally  passed  by 
a  large  majority.  Washington  consulted  his  Cabinet  in  regard 


1791-1792.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  22$ 

to  signing  it.  Jefferson  and  Randolph  opposed  the  measure  as 
unconstitutional;  Hamilton  and  Knox  approved  it.  Hamilton's 
arguments  prevailed,  and  the  "  Bank  of  the  United  States  "  was 
chartered  for  twenty  years  (i79i-i8n).577  It  had  its  head 
office  at  Philadelphia,  with  numerous  branches.  It  began 
business  with  a  capital  of  $10,000,000,  one-fifth  subscribed  by 
the  Government,  and  the  remainder  by  individuals.  The  bills 
of  the  bank  were  redeemable  in  coin,  and  were  receivable  for 
all  payments  due  to  the  United  States. 

The  following  year  (1792)  the  first  national  mint  was  estab 
lished  at  Philadelphia.  It  issued  coins  (1793)  —  beginning 
with  a  hundred  and  fifty  tons  of  coppers  —  on  the  admirable 
decimal  system  recommended  by  Jefferson.  The  Spanish  dol- 
lar  divided  into  one  hundred  parts  was  taken  as  the  monetary 
unit.  A  double  standard  was  adopted,  and  the  ratio  of  coinage 
was  fixed  at  fifteen  ounces  of  silver  to  one  of  gold.  Trie  inten 
tion  was  to  maintain  strict  parity  of  value  between  the  two 
metals,  neither  of  which  was  then  mined  in  the  country.  But 
the  market  value  of  an  ounce  of  gold  was  found  to  be  some 
what  greater  than  that  of  fifteen  ounces  of  silver,  and  in  1834 
Congress  changed  the  ratio  to  sixteen  to  one.578 

256.  Rise  of  political  parties;  Federalists  vs.  Republi 
cans The  heated  discussion  over  the  establishment  of  the 

national  bank  (§  255)  gave  rise  (1792-1794)  to  two  regularly 
organized  political  parties — the  Federalists  led  by  Hamilton, 
and  the  Republicans  by  Jefferson.  The  Federalists  were  suc 
ceeded  by  the  National  Republicans  (1828),  the  Whigs  (1834), 
and  by  the  Republicans  (1854)  of  the  present  time  ;  the  Jeffer- 
sonian  party  soon  (1796)  took  the  broader  title  of  Democratic- 
Republicans  ;  in  time  this  official  party  name  was  popularly 
shortened  to  that  of  Democrats  (1828).  Jefferson  declared 
that  he  and  Hamilton  were  pitted  against  each  other  "like  two 
fighting  cocks";579  but  both  heartily  supported  the  Constitution. 
Their  opposition  sprang  from  their  different  interpretation  of 
that  instrument.  The  Federalists,  or  "broad-construction" 


226  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1792-, 

party,  held  that  the  Constitution  conferred  on  the  Government 
every  "implied  power"  necessary  to  its  action  and  not  expressly 
reserved  to  the  States.  The  Republicans,  or  "  strict  construc- 
tionists,"  contended  that  the  safety  of  the  people  demanded 
that  the  Government  should  be  bound  by  the  very  letter  of 
the  Constitution,  and  that  every  power  should  be  reserved  to 
the  States  which  was  not  specially  granted  to  Congress  or 
to  the  federal  authorities. 

In  this  controversy  each  party  could  appeal  to  the  Constitu 
tion  itself  for  support.  The  Federalists  triumphantly  cited 
what  has  been  called  the  "elastic  article,"  which  confers  on 
Congress  powers  of  very  extensive  range  (Appendix,  p.  x,  last 
paragraph  of  Sect.  8).  The  Republicans  confidently  quoted 
the  tenth  amendment,  which  lays  emphasis  on  the  powers 
reserved  to  the  States  (Appendix,  p.  xvii). 

Socially  Hamilton  and  Jefferson  stood  in  strong  contrast. 
Hamilton,  like  Adams,  believed  in  restricting  the  exercise  of 
political  rights  to  "the  rich,  the  well-born,  and  the  able";580 
Jefferson  was  opposed  to  all  class  privileges,  and  declared  that 
he  put  his  reliance  in  "the  good  sense  of  the  people."581  Ham 
ilton  was  an  aristocrat  who  admired  the  stability  of  the  English 
constitution;  Jefferson,  a  democrat,  who  sympathized  with  the 
French  Revolution  and  its  proclamation  of  "the  rights  of  man." 
The  violent  Republicans  said  that  the  Federalists  were  gallop 
ing  toward  monarchy,  and  nicknamed  them  "  Monocrats  ";  the 
violent  Federalists  called  their  opponents  "  Mobocrats,"  and 
declared  that  they  were  hurrying  toward  anarchy  at  break-neck 
speed. 

Both  parties  speedily  invoked  the  aid  of  the  press.  Fenno's 
"  Gazette"  defended  the  Federalists,  while  Freneau's  "  Gazette  " 
fired  broadsides  in  behalf  of  the  Republicans.  It  was  the  begin 
ning  of  the  modern  era,  in  which  Government  by  newspaper  has 
come  to  play  so  conspicuous  a  part. 

257.   Debate  on  slavery ;  the  first  fugitive-slave  law.  - 
Meanwhile  the  Quakers  and  Abolitionists  of  Pennsylvania  had 


1790-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  22/ 

presented  petitions  to  Congress  praying  for  the  suppression  of 
the  foreign  slave-trade,  and  for  the  adoption  of  measures  tend 
ing  to  emancipation.  These  petitions  caused  intense  excite 
ment.  Congress,  after  an  angry  and  prolonged  debate,  resolved 
that  it  had  no  constitutional  authority  to  prohibit  the  trade  in 
negroes  before  1808  (Appendix,  p.  x)  or  to  interfere  with  slavery 
in  the  States.  Three  years  later  (1793)  the  first  law,  based  on 
a  provision  of  the  Constitution  (Appendix,  p.  xiv),  was  enacted 
for  the  recovery  of  fugitive  slaves.  An  attempt  was  next  made 
to  prevent  the  presentation  of  abolition  petitions,  on  the  ground 
that  they  would  "  drive  a  wedge  into  the  Union  "  which  would 
split  off  the  Southern  States.582  But  it  was  impossible  to  stop 
the  discussion  of  this  burning  question,  which  was  destined  to 
go  on  until  finally  settled  by  secession  and  civil  war. 

258.  The  first  census  (1790);  the  West;  anthracite  coal; 
manufactures;  the  Oregon  country. — The  first  census  (1790) 
reported  a  total  population  of  nearly  4,000,000,  including  about 
700,000  slaves.  Nearly  the  whole  of  this  population  was  east 
of  the  Alleghanies;  but  pioneers  from  the  States  had  long  been 
crossing  the  mountains  and  making  scattered  settlements  in 
the  western  wilderness  (§  137),  and  Pittsburg  (§  169)  was  then 
a  thriving  town  of  about  two  hundred  houses.  Washington 
saw  the  importance  of  opening  water  communication  with  the 
West,  and  used  every  means  in  his  power  to  accomplish  the 
great  work.583 

Through  the  efforts  of  Manasseh  Cutler,  the  Ohio  Company 
succeeded  in  purchasing  5,000,000  acres  of  Government  land, 
and  sent  out  General  Rufus  Putnam  (§  207)  with  a  band  of 
emigrants.  They  began  the  settlement  of  Marietta  (1788). 
Late  in  the  same  year  the  building  of  another  group  of  log 
huts,  farther  down  the  river,  marked  the  beginning  of  the  city 
of  Cincinnati.  Speaking  of  the  beautiful  Ohio  valley,  Washing 
ton  said:  "  If  I  was  a  young  man,  I  know  of  no  country  where 
I  should  rather  fix  my  habitation."584 

Three  years  later  (1791)  anthracite  coal  was  accidentally  dis- 


228 


THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1790-1792. 


covered  at  Mauch  Chunk  Mountain  in  Pennsylvania  (§  143). 
The  first  attempts  to  use  this  coal  for  fuel  completely  failed,  and 
in  Philadelphia  it  was  taken  to  mend  the  roads.  Later  experi 
ments  proved  that  this  black  stone  would  burn,  and  it  came 
slowly  into  use  for  manufacturing  and  heating  purposes. 

With  few  exceptions  the  chief  industry  of  the  United  States 
was  agriculture.     Washington  in  his  first  message  (1790)  earn- 


The  United  States,    1790-1800. 

estly  recommended  the  encouragement  of  manufactures.  Ham 
ilton  in  his  famous  report  on  that  subject  took  the  ground  that, 
since  reciprocity  of  free  trade  was  not  then  to  be  expected,  it 
was  the  duty  of  Congress  to  stimulate  the  establishment  of 
manufactures  by  a  system  of  protective  duties  and  bounties; 
but  no  action  was  taken  until  after  the  War  of  i8i2.586 

Commerce  was  thriving,  and  every  American  vessel  was  in 
demand.  New  England  shipowners  were  not  only  making 
fortunes  in  the  India  trade,  but  were  opening  up  a  traffic  in 
furs  between  the  northern  Pacific  coast  and  China.  Captain 
Robert  Gray  of  Boston,  one  of  the  pioneers  in  that  trade,  first 


1793-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT. 

carried  the  American  flag  (1790)  round  the  world.  Two  years 
later  (1792)  he  was  the  first  white  man  to  enter  that  great  river 
of  the  West  which  he  named  the  Columbia,  thereby  securing  to 
the  United  States  its  original  claim  to  the  Oregon  country.586 

259.  The  cultivation  and  manufacture  of  cotton;  the 

cotton-gin  (1793) Before  Washington  entered  office,  Tench 

Coxe,  of  Philadelphia,  urged  Southern  planters  to  turn  their 
attention  to  cotton-raising.  In  England  improved  machines 
for  making  cotton  cloth  had  created  an  immense  demand  for 
the  raw  material,  which  was  then  obtained  from  the  East  and 
the  West  Indies. 

A  few  bags  of  cotton  had  been  exported  (1784)  from  Charles 
ton  to  Liverpool,  but  planters  found  rice  and  tobacco  their  most 
profitable  crops.  Several  cotton  mills  had  been  built  in  New 
England,  but  their  rudely  constructed  machinery  gave  little 
promise  of  success. 

Subsequently  Samuel  Slater,  a  young  Englishman,  came  to 
this  country,  and  working  from  memory  alone,  set  up  (1790) 
for  Almy  &  Brown  of  Pawtucket,  Rhode  Island,  faithful  copies 
of  the  best  cotton-spinning  machines  used  in  the  English 
factories.587 

The  next  question  was  how  to  obtain  an  abundant  supply  of 
American  cotton.  The  Southern  planters  were  ready  to  furnish 
it,  provided  some  quick  and  efficient  means  could  be  found  for 
separating  the  seed  from  the  fibre.  When  done  by  hand,  this 
process  was  tedious  and  expensive,  as  it  took  a  negro  an  entire 
day  to  clean  a  single  pound  ready  for  market.  In  1793  Eli 
Whitney,  of  Massachusetts,  invented  the  cotton-gin,  which  would 
clean  a  thousand  pounds  of  cotton  in  a  day.588  His  machine 
wrought  an  industrial  revolution  at  the  South,  and  produced 
economic  and  political  results  which  were  felt  throughout  the 
Union,  i.  It  "trebled  the  value  of  land"  at  the  South,  caused 
an  enormous  rise  in  the  price  of  negroes,  and  stimulated  the 
rapid  settlement  of  the  Gulf  States.  2.  It  made  cotton  the 
"  king  "  of  Southern  staples.  In  ten  years'  time  we  were  sup- 


230  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.      [1792-1793. 

plying  our  own  demands  and  exporting  50,000  bales  besides  ; 
yet  this  was  only  the  beginning.  3.  Cotton  culture  encouraged 
the  building  of  a  great  number  of  factories  at  the  North,  and 
gave  employment  to  fleets  of  vessels  engaged  in  the  carrying 
trade.  4.  On  the  other  hand,  it  killed  the  hope  of  gradual 
emancipation,  which  the  "  Fathers  of  the  Republic  "  had  cher 
ished,  since  it  interested  both  Southern  and  Northern  capitalists 
in  the  profits  of  slave  labor,  and  encouraged  the  flagrant  viola 
tion  of  the  law  prohibiting  the  continuance  of  the  foreign  slave- 
trade  after  i8o8.589  The  result  was  that  Whitney's  invention 
contributed  powerfully  to  make  the  maintenance  and  extension 
of  slavery  for  nearly  seventy  years  the  most  prominent  and  the 
most  dangerous  question  in  our  political  history.590 

260.  Fears  of  disunion;  second  presidential  election. — 
Meanwhile  Washington's  first  term  of  office  was  drawing  to  a 
close.     He  was  eager  to  retire  to  Mount  Vernon.     "  I  would 
rather,"  said  he,  "  take  my  spade  in  my  hand  and  work  for  my 
bread  than  remain  where  I  am."  591     But  Hamilton  and  Jeffer 
son,  though  bitter  political  opponents  (§  256),  united  in  begging 
him  to  stand  for  a  second  term.     Hamilton  thought  that  the 
Union  was  not  yet  "firmly  established";592  Jefferson  feared 
secession  and  civil  war.     He  declared  in  his  letters  that  a  "cor 
rupt  squadron  "  of  Federalists  in  the  Eastern  States  had  formed 
a  plot  to  overthrow  the  Republic,  and  set  up  a  monarchy  on  its 
ruins.693     He  wrote  to  Washington:  "The  confidence  of  the 
whole  country  is  centered  in  you."    "  North  and  South  will  hang 
together  if  they  have  you  to  hang  on."  594 

Moved  by  these  entreaties  Washington  consented  to  become 
a  candidate.  He  was  again  unanimously  elected  (1792);  John 
Adams  became  a  second  time  Vice-President;  but  a  majority 
of  the  new  House  of  Representatives  were  Jeffersonian  Repub 
licans.595 

261.  News    from    France;    proclamation   of   neutrality 
(1793).  —  Shortly    after    Washington's    second    inauguration 
(1793)    news    arrived    that    the    French    Revolutionists    had 


1793.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  231 

declared  war  against  Great  Britain.  In  the  course  of  our 
own  Revolution  we  had  made  a  treaty  (1778)  with  France 
(§  219),  which  bound  both  nations  to  an  offensive  and  defensive 
alliance.  By  its  terms  we  guaranteed  Louis  XVI.  his  posses 
sions  in  the  West  Indies,  and  pledged  ourselves  to  shelter 
French  privateers.  Subsequently  Louis  XVI.  was  guillotined, 
and  the  Revolutionists  set  up  a  new  Government.  Now  that 
the  monarchy  had  been  overturned,  the  question  arose  whether 
we  were  still  bound  by  the  treaty  we  had  made  with  the  late 
King.  Were  we  under  obligations  to  take  up  arms  in  defence 
of  the  French  Republic,  or  should  we  declare  ourselves  neutral  ? 

An  immense  number  of  our  people  naturally  sympathized 
with  the  movement  in  France  which,  following  our  example, 
had  established  a  commonwealth  based  on  the  "rights  of  man." 
The  victories  gained  by  the  soldiers  of  the  French  Republic 
were  celebrated  in  Boston  and  Philadelphia  with  the  wildest 
enthusiasm.  The  tricolor  was  displayed  side  by  side  with  the 
"stars  and  stripes,"  bands  played  alternately  "Yankee  Doodle  " 
and  the  "  Marseillaise,"  and  cakes  stamped  "  Liberty  and 
Equality"  were  distributed  to  processions  of  gaily  dressed 
school-children.596 

Washington  felt  the  gravity  of  the  crisis  —  a  word  might 
involve  us  in  a  second  war  with  Great  Britain  before  we  had 
fully  recovered  from  the  War  of  Independence.  The  President 
called  a  cabinet  meeting — the  first  on  record  —  to  consider 
what  action  should  be  taken.  It  seemed  probable  that,  in  such 
a  juncture,  Hamilton  and  Jefferson  would  take  opposite  sides 
(§  256) ;  but  after  a  prolonged  discussion,  it  was  unanimously 
determined  that  we  should  remain  strictly  neutral.  A  few  days 
later  Washington  issued  (1793)  a  proclamation  announcing  that 
decision.597 

The  opposition  press  denounced  the  proclamation  in  the  most 
violent  terms.  They  accused  the  President  of  deliberately 
breaking  a  solemn  treaty  with  a  friendly  power  that  had  helped 
us  in  our  direst  need.  They  declared  that  Washington  had 


THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1793-1794. 

usurped  authority  delegated  to  Congress,  that  he  hated  Repub 
lican  institutions,  and  was  ambitious  to  make  himself  King.598 
Henceforth,  for  some  years,  America  was  divided  between  a 
French  party  and  an  English  party  —  one  shouting  for  liberty, 
the  other  for  order.  Worn  out  with  the  abuse  which  the 
extreme  Republicans  heaped  upon  him,  Washington  exclaimed 
that  he  would  rather  be  in  his  grave  than  be  President.599 

262.  "  Citizen  "  Genet. —  Meanwhile  "  Citizen  "  Genet,  the 
minister  from  France,  had  arrived  (April  8,  1793)  at  Charleston. 
He  was  a  self-sufficient  young  man,  fully  conscious  of  his  own 
importance.     He  seemed  to  regard  the  United  States  not  as 
an  independent   power,   but  rather   as  an   appendage   to  the 
French  Republic.     Without  waiting  to  consult  Washington,  he 
forthwith  issued  commissions  to  privateers  which  began  captur 
ing  British  vessels  off  our  coast;   he  recruited  men   for  the 
French  service,  and  asked  for  the  immediate  payment  of  our 
debt  to  France,  although  that   payment  was  not  yet  due.600 
Many  people  hailed  Genet  with  delight,  and  numerous  so-called 
"Democratic  Clubs  "  were  organized  in  imitation  of  the  French 
Revolutionary  Clubs. 

The  Government  stopped  Genet's  privateers,  and  warned  him 
not  to  fit  out  any  more.  He  was  told  that  he  must  respect  the 
proclamation  of  neutrality.  In  his  rage  he  publicly  accused  the 
administration  of  having  basely  abandoned  the  cause  of  France. 
He  threatened  to  appeal  to  the  people  as  the  true  sovereigns 
in  America,  in  the  belief  that  thousands  of  eager  hands  were 
ready  to  drag  Washington  from  his  house  and  force  him  to 
resign.601  The  President  met  Genet's  mad  threats  by  demand 
ing  and  obtaining  his  recall  (1794).  A  reaction  speedily  set  in 
against  the  hot-headed  Frenchman,  and  his  influence  subsided 
as  rapidly  as  it  had  risen. 

263.  The  Whiskey  Insurrection ;  Wayne's  victory  over  the 
Indians. —  Not  long  after  Genet's  recall  the  Government  resolved 
to  take  decided  measures  for  enforcing  the  excise  duty  (§  250) 
in  western  Pennsylvania,  where  there  was  a  great  number  of 


89     Longitude 


86         from 


Greenwich        81 


i.  Fort  Wayne;  2.  Fort  Defiance;  3.  Fort  Adams;  4.  Fort  Recovery;  5.  Fort  Loramie  ; 
6.  Fort  Greenville  ;  7.  Fort  Jefferson ;  8.  Fort  Harmar.  The  Connecticut  and  the  Virginia 
Reserves  were  portions  of  the  original  land  claims  of  those  States  which  they  reserved  when 
they  ceded  their  territory  northwest  of  the  Ohio  to  the  United  States. 

The  Ohio  Company  (see  §  258)  held  an  immense  tract  bordering  on  the  river.  Connecticut 
ceded  her  Reserve  to  the  United  States  in  1800 ;  Virginia  did  the  same  in  1852.  By  the  Treaty 
of  1795  the  Indians  ceded  all  lands  east  and  south  of  the  treaty  line  shown  in  map,  and  six 
teen  smaller  tracts— .the  sites  of  forts  and  trading  posts  —  west  and  north  of  the  line. 


1794.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  233 

small  distilleries.  In  that  section  of  the  State,  transportation 
over  the  mountains  was  excessively  difficult,  and  the  farmers 
found  it  more  profitable  to  have  their  grain  distilled  into 
liquor  than  to  try  to  haul  it  in  bulk  to  eastern  markets.  Coin 
was  so  scarce  among  the  people  of  that  part  of  the  country  that 
whiskey  was  generally  used  for  currency — a  gallon  jug  of  it 
passing  for  a  shilling.  The  excise  duty  of  nine  cents  a  gallon 
(§  250)  bore  with  great  hardship  on  the  whole  population  of 
the  district.  They  denounced  the  tax  as  unconstitutional  and 
oppressive,  and  drove  the  excise  officers  out  of  the  country.602 

Washington  feared  that  the  rioters  might  threaten  "  the  very 
existence  of  Government." 603  He  accordingly  despatched  (1794) 
an  army  of  15,000  militia  to  enforce  the  law.  The  troops  crossed 
the  Alleghanies  and  restored  order  without  bloodshed. 

Meanwhile  an  Indian  war  was  raging  in  the  Ohio  country. 
General  Harmar  had  been  defeated,  and  the  next  year  (1791) 
General  St.  Clair,  who  succeeded  him,  saw  his  own  army  cut  to 
pieces.  Washington  then  sent  out  Anthony  Wayne,  of  Revo 
lutionary  fame  (§  224),  to  conquer  a  peace.  The  savages  had 
risen  with  the  determination  to  kill  or  expel  every  white  settler. 
They  now  found  that  they  must  get  the  better  of  "  the  chief 
that  never  slept."  Late  in  the  summer  of  1794,  Wayne  gained 
a  decisive  victory  at  "  Fallen  Timbers."  The  next  year  the 
Indians  signed  a  treaty  of  peace  at  Greenville,  by  which  they 
gave  up  all  claim  to  about  25,000  square  miles  of  territory. 
This  treaty  opened  the  greater  part  of  what  is  now  the  State 
of  Ohio  to  settlement.604 

264.  Danger  of  war  with  England;  impressment  of 
sailors.  —  Meanwhile  there  was  serious  danger  of  trouble  with 
England.  Since  that  country  and  France  had  been  at  war  (§  261) 
both  nations  had  ordered  their  cruisers  to  capture  American 
vessels  found  carrying  provisions  to  either  belligerent.  These 
decrees  threatened  to  destroy  a  large  part  of  our  foreign  com 
merce.  England  as  "  mistress  of  the  seas  "  could  of  course  do 
us  more  harm  than  France,  and  hence  the  feeling  rose  higher 


234  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1794-1795. 

against  her.  But  we  had  another  grievance  for  which  England 
was  alone  responsible:  this  was  her  assumption  of  the  right  of 
search  and  impressment.  The  English  navy  was  so  short- 
handed  that  press-gangs  made  a  business  of  kidnapping  men 
in  the  English  ports,  and  the  royal  Government  issued  orders 
to  seize  British  sailors  found  in  the  merchant  service  anywhere 
on  the  open  ocean.  Thousands  of  these  sailors,  tempted  by 
the  high  wages  we  offered,  had  shipped  on  our  vessels,  and  in 
many  cases  had  become  American  citizens.  England  denied 
the  right  of  these  men  to  leave  her  service  or  to  swear  allegiance 
to  the  American  flag,  and  claimed  them  as  her  subjects.  Brit 
ish  men-of-war  constantly  stopped  our  merchantmen  and  mus 
tered  their  crews  on  deck  for  examination.  Often  it  was  a 
difficult  matter  to  tell  an  English  sailor  from  an  American. 
Generally  speaking,  the  search  was  simply  a  farce,  and  His 
Majesty's  officer  carried  off  as  many  able-bodied  seamen  as 
he  wanted  without  troubling  himself  about  any  question  of 
nationality. 

265.  The  sixty  days1  embargo;  the  Jay  treaty  (1795).— 
The  excitement  over  the  action  of  England  was  so  great  that 
Washington  feared  the  country  would  drift  into  war.  To  pro 
tect  our  vessels  from  seizure  in  case  hostilities  should  be  sud 
denly  declared,  he  induced  Congress  to  declare  a  sixty  days' 
embargo  (1794).  Before  the  embargo  expired  Washington 
sent  Chief-Justice  Jay  (§  250)  to  London  to  endeavor  to  nego 
tiate  a  treaty  of  amity  and  commerce  with  Great  Britain. 

The  five  points  we  especially  wished  to  secure  were:  (i)  the 
renunciation  of  the  assumed  right  of  search  and  impressment; 
(2)  the  surrender  of  the  frontier  forts  held  by  the  British 
(§  249);  (3)  the  grant  of  unrestricted  trade  with  the  West 
Indies ;  (4)  the  recognition  of  the  right  of  neutrals  to  claim,  as 
we  did,  that  free  ships  make  "free  goods,"  and  were,  therefore, 
exempt  from  seizure  ;  (5)  damages  for  negroes  carried  off  by 
the  British  armies  at  the  close  of  the  Revolution  (1783),  and 
compensation  for  the  injury  our  commerce  had  since  received. 


1795.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  235 

Jay  succeeded  in  making  a  treaty  ;  but  it  only  partially  cov 
ered  the  ground,  and  the  commercial  articles  in  it  expired,  by 
limitation,  in  1804.  The  treaty,  as  Jay  signed  it,  provided: 
(i)  that  Great  Britain  should  (by  June  i,  1796)  give  up  the 
posts  she  held  on  our  frontier  (§  249);  (2)  that  she  should  make 
compensation  for  all  American  vessels  which  she  had  seized 
unlawfully.  Under  this  clause  our  merchants  eventually 
received  more  than  $10,000,000  in  damages;  (3)  Great  Britain 
agreed  to  open  her  ports  in  the  West  Indies,  but  only  to 
vessels  of  less  than  seventy  tons'  burden.  These  were  all 
the  concessions  that  England  would  make  ;  she  positively 
refused  to  pay  a  copper  for  the  negroes  she  had  carried 
off,  to  listen  to  our  claim  that  free  ships  should  make  free 
goods,  or  to  relinquish  her  assumed  right  of  search  and 
impressment. 

In  return  for  such  grants  as  we  obtained  we  bound  ourselves 
to:  (i)  pay  all  debts  due  to  British  merchants  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  American  Revolution;  (2)  to  renounce  the  transportation 
to  Europe  of  West  India  products,  and  furthermore,  of  Ameri 
can  cotton,  of  whose  growing  importance,  as  an  export  (§  259), 
Jay  seems  to  have  known  nothing. 

266.  Action  on  the  Jay  treaty;  excitement  of  the  people. 
-The  Senate  of  the  United  States  in  secret  session  accepted 
the  treaty  as  a  whole,  but  struck  out  the  article  by  which  we 
renounced  our  right  to  unlimited  transportation  and  exporta 
tion,  and  with  it  the  privilege  of  Wrest  India  trade  which  was 
part  of  that  article.605  England  agreed  to  the  change. 

The  Chambers  of  Commerce  of  New  York  and  Boston 
approved  the  action  of  the  Senate,  but  large  numbers  of  people 
throughout  the  country  vehemently  condemned  the  treaty, 
declaring  that  England  had  got  the  oyster  and  had  left  us  the 
shell.  In  Philadelphia  an  infuriated  mob  burned  a  copy  of 
the  treaty  and  guillotined  an  effigy  of  Jay.  In  New  York, 
Savannah,  Charleston,  and  Portsmouth,  there  were  similar 
riotous  demonstrations.60* 


236  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1795-1796. 

When  it  was  learned  that  Washington  had  actually  signed 
(1795)  the  obnoxious  treaty,  the  excitement  rose  to  its  highest 
pitch.  The  extreme  journals  of  the  opposition  press  accused 
the  President  of  treason,  threatened  him  with  impeachment,  and 
ridiculed  him  as  the  "step-father  of  his  country."607  Later  the 
House  of  Representatives  threatened  to  repudiate  the  treaty; 
but  Fisher  Ames,  in  what  was  practically  his  dying  speech, 
persuaded  them  to  accept  it.608  Then  a  reaction  set  in,  and 
eventually  many  of  those  who  had  denounced  Jay's  work  most 
fiercely,  admitted  that,  all  things  considered,  he  had  done  well 
in  keeping  us  from  war.609 

267.  Algiers ;  treaty  with  Spain ;  Washington's  farewell 
address;  presidential  election;  new  States.  —  In  the  autumn 
(1795)  we  made  a  treaty  with  Algiers,610  by  which  we  bought 
the  release  of  American  sailors  held  in  slavery  in  Africa  and 
secured  the  temporary  right  of  pursuing  our  commerce  in  the 
Mediterranean  without  molestation  (§  249).  In  taking  this 
humiliating  course  we  simply  followed  the  example  of  European 
nations  that  had  long  paid  tribute  to  these  notorious  pirates.611 

A  little  later  we  negotiated  a  treaty  (1795)  with  Spain.612  By  it 
we  secured  :  (i)  the  Florida  boundary  as  claimed  by  the  United 
States  (see  Appendix,  xxxviii*);  (2)  the  free  navigation  of  the 
lower  Mississippi  —  a  point  in  dispute  which  had  once  threatened 
to  dissolve  the  Union  (§  243);  (3)  the  "right  of  deposit,"  or 
storage,  at  New  Orleans  for  American  exports  and  imports.613 

The  following  year  (1796)  Washington  issued  his  farewell 
address.  He  warned  his  fellow-countrymen  of  the  danger  of 
sectional  jealousy,  and  of  parties  divided  by  geographical  lines, 
and  urged  the  people  to  devote  all  their  strength  to  the 
preservation  of  the  Union. 

The  presidential  election  (1796)  resulted  in  the  choice  of 
John  Adams,  Federalist,  with  Thomas  Jefferson,  Republican, 
as  Vice-President.  The  electoral  vote  stood  71  to  68,  and,  as 
Adams  obtained  only  a  bare  majority,  the  opposition  dubbed 
him  the  President  of  three  votes.  The  closeness  of  the  con- 


1789-1797.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  237 

test  showed  how  much  the  Democratic-Republican  Party  had 
gained.  A  scurrilous  Philadelphia  paper  dared  to  congratulate 
the  people  on  the  retirement  of  Washington,  and  denounced 
him  as  the  man  who  had  "debauched"  and  "deceived"  the 
nation.614  But  the  mass  of  the  people  remained  unflinchingly 
loyal  to  the  great  leader  who  had  secured  our  independence, 
and  who  in  all  things  sought  to  establish  the  lasting  welfare  of 
the  American  Republic. 

Meanwhile  three  new  States,  Vermont  (1791),  Kentucky 
(1792),  and  Tennessee  (1796),  had  been  added,  making  the 
total  number  sixteen.  The  admission  of  these  States  was  espe 
cially  significant  in  two  respects:  (i)  it  showed  that  Congress 
had  adopted  the  policy  of  endeavoring  to  balance  the  slave  and 
the  free  States  in  their  division  of  political  power;  (2)  these 
new  States  had  framed  constitutions  which  practically  estab 
lished  "manhood  suffrage."  That  fact  stood  out  in  striking 
contrast  to  the  restricted  suffrage  which  still  generally  prevailed 
in  the  original  thirteen  States  (§§  174,  247);  it  was  significant 
of  the  democratic  tendencies  of  the  time.615 

268.  Summary.  — The  administration  of  Washington  organ 
ized  the  new  Government  on  a  broad  and  permanent  basis. 
It  funded  the  public  debt,  and  thereby  established  our  national 
credit  at  home  and  abroad.  It  forced  the  Indians  to  come  to 
terms,  and  so  threw  open  the  Ohio  country  to  peaceful  settle 
ment.  It  admitted  the  first  three  new  States  to  the  Union. 
It  maintained  neutrality  with  the  hostile  powers  of  Europe, 
and  by  treaties  negotiated  with  England,  Algiers,  and  Spain, 
it  secured  the  evacuation  of  the  British  forts  on  our  frontiers, 
unrestricted  commerce  with  the  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean,  and  the  free  navigation  of  the  lower  Mississippi. 
The  invention  of  the  cotton-gin  opened  up  new  fields  of  indus 
try,  but  fastened  slavery  on  the  South,  and  made  its  mainten 
ance  and  extension  for  many  years  one  of  the  chief  objects 
with  a  large  body  of  the  people. 


238  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1797. 

JOHN  ADAMS  (FEDERALIST),  ONE  TERM,  1797-1801. 

269.  Inaugural  address;  trouble  with  France;  the  "X. 
Y.  Z.  Papers. "  -The  political  opponents  of  Mr.  Adams 
(§  256)  accused  him  of  "an  awful  squinting"  toward  "a 
monarchy."616  He  declared  in  his  inaugural  address  (§  267) 
that  the  Constitution  had  always  impressed  him  as  "  a  result 
of  good  heads  prompted  by  good  hearts,"  that  it  had  established 
the  system  of  Government  which  he  had  ever  "  most  esteemed," 
and  which  he  believed  best  reflected  the. "power  and  majesty 
of  the  people."617 

Mr.  Adams  had  no  sooner  entered  office  than  trouble  broke 
out  with  France.  The  ratification  of  the  Jay  treaty  (§  265)  had 
thrown  the  French  authorities  into  a  violent  rage;  they  accused 
us  of  truckling  to  England,  and  retaliated  by  ordering  the  con 
fiscation  of  American  ships  carrying  English  goods  even  when 
not  "contraband  of  war."  This  action  virtually  annulled  the 
treaty  of  1778  (§219),  which  had  stipulated  that  "  free  ships 
should  make  free  goods."  They  furthermore  decreed  that 
American  sailors  found  on  English  naval  vessels  —  though  im 
pressed  into  the  British  service  —  should  be  considered  pirates, 
liable  to  be  hanged.618 

Not  satisfied  with  these  extreme  procedures,  the  French 
Directory  ordered  our  Minister,  C.  C.  Pinckney,  to  leave 
Paris,  and  threatened  to  subject  him  to  police  supervision 
while  he  remained.619  This  action  forced  him  to  retire  to 
Holland. 

In  the  hope  of  preserving  peace,  the  President  sent  out 
Pinckney,  Gerry,  and  Marshall  to  treat  with  France.  Talley 
rand,  the  Secretary  of  Foreign  Affairs,  did  not  receive  our  com 
missioners  officially,  but  sent  three  emissaries  to  confer  with 
them  privately.  Talleyrand's  agents  had  the  effrontery  to  tell 
the  American  envoys  that  certain  passages  in  President  Adams's 
speech  to  Congress  had  offended  the  Directory,  and  that  they 
must  be  satisfactorily  explained  away  or  toned  down.  They 


1797.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  239 

next  demanded  a  loan  from  the  United  States  to  the  French 
Republic.  Finally,  they  told  our  envoys  that  they  would  be 
expected  to  make  the  members  of  the  Directory  a  handsome 
present.  "We  must  have  money,"  said  they,  "plenty  of 
money."  They  intimated  that  unless  a  quarter  of  a  million 
of  dollars  was  promptly  handed  over  to  them,  orders  would  be 
given  to  French  frigates  to  ravage  the  American  coast.620  The 
American  commissioners  transmitted  full  reports  of  these 
astounding  demands  to  President  Adams.  He  sent  (1797) 
copies  of  the  despatches  to  Congress,  but  substituted  the  letters 
"X.  Y.  Z."  for  the  names  of  Talleyrand's  three  agents;  hence 
the  title,  the  "X.  Y.  Z.  Papers."621 

270.  The  American  war  spirit  roused ;  France  yields.— 
The  publication  of  the  "X.  Y.  Z."  despatches  was  like  the 
falling  of  a  spark  in  a  powder  magazine.  The  war  spirit  was 
roused.  President  Adams  declared:  "I  will  never  send  another 
minister  to  France  without  assurances  that  he  will  be  received, 
respected,  and  honored,  as  the  representative  of  a  great,  free, 
powerful,  and  independent  nation."622 

Everywhere  the  cry  was  heard  :  "  millions  for  defence ;  but 
not  one  cent  for  tribute." 623  A  few  opposition  newspapers 
ventured  to  suggest  that  we  might  as  well  buy  peace  from 
France  as  buy  it  from  the  Algerine  pirates  (§  267),  but  no  heed 
was  given  to  them.  Congress  appointed  Washington  com 
mander  of  a  provisional  army  and  voted  (1797)  to  complete 
without  delay  the  three  frigates,  "United  States,"  "Constella 
tion,"  and  "  Constitution,"  which  were  then  on  the  stocks. 
The  first  of  these  ships  was  launched  that  year  (1797).  It  was 
the  beginning  of  the  modern  American  navy.  Orders  were 
given  for  the  construction  of  twelve  additional  men-of-war, 
and  commissions  were  issued  to  the  commanders  of  several 
hundred  private  armed  vessels.  Intercourse  with  France  was 
suspended,  the  treaty  of  1778  (§  219)  was  pronounced  void,  and 
the  streets  rang  with  the  new  songs  of  "Hail  Columbia,"  and 
"  Adams  and  Liberty." 


24O  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.  [1798-. 

War,  though  not  formally  declared,  actually  began,  and 
Commodore  Truxton  of  the  "Constellation  "  captured  a  French 
frigate  (1799).  When  France  saw  that  America  was  not  to  be 
bullied  into  purchasing  peace,  the  adroit  Talleyrand  denied  the 
demands  which  his  agents  had  insolently  made  for  a  loan  and 
gifts  (§  269),  and  pledged  his  Government  to  receive  any 
minister  we  might  think  proper  to  send. 

271.  A  new  naturalization  act ;  the  Alien  and  the  Sedition 
Laws.  —  Meanwhile,  the  French  Revolution,  and  the  reaction 
against  it  in  Europe,  had  driven  thousands  of  refugees  to  our 
shores.  We  were  glad  to  welcome  many  of  these  men  ;  but 
others  who  came  were  agitators  and  anarchists.  They  put 
liberty  and  law  to  shame,  and,  like  the  wild  ass  of  the  desert, 
rushed  madly  about  kicking  at  everything. 

To  meet  this  state  of  things  Congress  passed  a  new  natural 
ization  act  (1798).  It  required  fourteen  years'  residence  (instead 
of  five)  for  admission  to  citizenship,  and  ordered  all  foreign 
residents  to  be  registered.624 

This  stringent  legislation  was  followed  by  the  Alien  Act 
(1798)  limited  to  two  years'  duration.  It  was  directed  mainly 
against  French  residents,  who  were  suspected  of  plotting  to 
overthrow  the  Government.  It  empowered  the  President  to 
banish,  without  trial,  all  aliens  whom  he  believed  to  be  danger 
ous  to  the  peace  and  safety  of  the  United  States.  Should  such 
persons  refuse  to  obey  the  order  to  leave  the  country,  they  might 
be  imprisoned  for  a  term  not  exceeding  three  years.625  This 
act  was  never  enforced,  but  several  hundred  Frenchmen  took 
the  alarm,  and  set  sail  for  Europe. 

Congress  next  passed  the  Sedition  Act  (1798),  limited  to  less 
than  three  years,  and  directed  mainly  against  the  opposition 
press.  It  punished,  by  a  fine  not  exceeding  $2000  and  by  im 
prisonment  not  exceeding  two  years,  any  person  convicted  by 
jury  of  the  following  offences :  (i)  of  having  written  or  published 
"false,  scandalous,  and  malicious"  statements,  with  intent  to 
bring  the  President  or  Congress  into  contempt ;  (2)  of  exciting 


1798-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  24! 

against  them  "the  hatred  of  the  good  people  of  the  United 
States";  (3)  of  stirring  up  "sedition  within  the  United  States." 
The  act  granted  the  accused  the  right  of  giving  "  in  evidence  in 
his  defence  the  truth  of  the  matter  contained  in  the  publication 
charged  as  a  libel";  this  privilege,  as  we  have  seen  (§  69),  was 
not  granted  by  the  common  law.  The  act  furthermore  provided 
that  the  jury  might  "  determine  the  law  and  the  fact."626 

272.  Opposition  to  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Acts.  —  A  multi 
tude  of  petitions  were  at  once  sent  to  Congress  praying  for  the 
immediate  repeal  of  this  legislation.  The  petitioners  declared 
that  the  Alien  Act  violated  the  Constitution  by  depriving  the 
States  of  their  right  to  admit  foreigners  (Appendix,  p.  x,  Sect. 
9),  and  by  denying  trial  by  jury.  They  called  for  the  repeal  of 
the  Sedition  Act  on  similar  grounds.  They  considered  that  it 
was  in  direct  conflict  with  the  first  amendment  to  the  Constitu 
tion  which  guaranteed  the  freedom  of  the  press  (Appendix, 
p.  xvi),  though  Judge  McKean  of  Pennsylvania  had  pointed  out 
the  fact  that  the  liberty  of  the  press  "  consists  in  laying  no 
previous  restraint  upon  publication,  and  not  in  freedom  from 
censure  for  criminal  matter  when  published."627 

The  Alien  Act  remained  a  dead  letter ;  but  the  Sedition  Act 
was  vigorously  enforced  in  a  number  of  instances.628  The  two 
most  notable  cases  (1798)  were  those  of  Matthew  Lyon,  a 
Republican  member  of  Congress  from  Vermont,  and  secondly, 
that  of  the  proprietor  of  the  "Vermont  Gazette."  Lyon  was 
accused  of  having  charged  President  Adams  with  "  ridiculous 
pomp  "  and  "  selfish  avarice."  He  had  also  publicly  read  a 
letter  from  abroad  in  which  the  writer  wondered  why  Congress 
did  not  send  the  President  to  a  "madhouse."629  Lyon  was 
convicted,  sentenced  to  four  months'  imprisonment,  and  con 
demned  to  pay  a  fine  of  $  i  ooo.  The  proprietor  of  the  "  Gazette  " 
made  some  sharp  comments  on  this  sentence,  and  he  was  fined 
and  sent  to  the  same  "  Federal  Bastille  "  where  the  unfortunate 
Lyon  had  nearly  frozen  in  his  cell.  When  their  sentences 
expired,  both  offenders  received  an  enthusiastic  public  recep- 


242  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1798-1799. 

tion  from  those  who  regarded  them  as  martyrs  in  the  cause  of 
Republican  liberty. 

273.  The  Kentucky  and  Virginia  nullification  resolutions. 
-  In  the  South  the  opposition  to  the  Alien  and  the  Sedition 
Acts  took  a  very  serious  form.  The  legislature  of  Kentucky 
adopted  (1798)  a  series  of  resolutions,  which  were  substantially 
the  work  of  Jefferson.  He  believed  that  the  makers  of  these 
two  laws  deliberately  intended  to  violate  the  Constitution,  over 
throw  the  Republic,  and  prepare  the  way  for  the  establishment 
of  a  monarchy.  The  Kentucky  Resolutions  declared  that 
whenever  "  the  general  Government  assumes  undelegated 
powers,  its  acts  are  unauthoritative,  void,  and  of  no  force."  ^ 
Virginia  followed  with  resolutions  drawn  by  Madison.  They 
affirmed  that  when  the  federal  Government  exceeds  its  authority, 
the  "  States  "  (Madison  was  careful  to  use  the  plural)  have  the 
right  "to  interpose  for  arresting  the  progress  of  the  evil."631 
Both  sets  of  resolutions  professed  entire  loyalty  to  the  Repub 
lic  ;  but  both  distinctly  declared  that  they  regarded  the  Union 
simply  as  a  "compact"  made  between  "sovereign  States,"632 
and  that  no  "  common  judge  "  existed  to  determine  disputes 
between  them  and  the  national  Government. 

Kentucky  and  Virginia  appealed  to  their  fourteen  sister  States 
to  sustain  them.  Seven  declared  against  them,  and  not  one  for 
them.  All  denied  the  right  of  a  State  to  sit  in  judgment  on  a 
federal  law,  and  Rhode  Island  declared  that  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States  alone  had  authority  to  decide 
whether  an  act  of  Congress  was  or  was  not  constitutional.633 

The  following  year  (1799)  the  legislature  of  Kentucky  reaf 
firmed  its  original  resolutions  in  stronger  form,  and  declared 
its  conviction  that  "nullification"  was  the  "rightful  remedy"; 
but  having  stated  this  principle,  the  legislature  prudently 
added  "  this  commonwealth  will  bow  to  the  laws  of  the 
Union."634 

After  Jefferson's  death  South  Carolina  did  actually  proceed 
(1831)  to  nullify  an  act  of  Congress,  but  Madison  then  was  the 


1799-1801.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  243 

first  to  protest  against  the  "  colossal  heresy  "  of  a  State's  pre 
suming  to  set  the  federal  Government  at  defiance.635 

274.  Death  of  Washington ;  the  new  national  capital ;  the 
presidential  election.  —  Near  the  close  of  the  century  (1799) 
the  country  was  called  to  mourn  the  sudden  death  of  Washing 
ton.     In  announcing  this  to  Congress,  John  Marshall  spoke  of 
him,  in  Lee's  words,  as  the  man  who  stood  "  first  in  war,  first 
in  peace,  and  first  in  the  hearts  of  his  fellow-citizens."  636 

The  next  Congress  assembled  (1800)  in  the  unfinished 
national  capitol  which  was  rising  on  the  banks  of  the  Potomac, 
in  the  city  named  in  honor  of  the  great  leader  who  had  gone 
to  his  reward. 

In  the  presidential  election  Aaron  Burr  and  Jefferson,  the 
Democratic-Republican  (§  256)  candidates,  each  received 
seventy-three  electoral  votes.  This  tie  threw  the  election  into 
the  House  of  Representatives  (Appendix,  p.  xi),  which  was 
strongly  Federalist.  After  balloting  for  a  week,  ten  votes  were 
cast  for  Jefferson,  and  four  for  Burr;  under  the  Constitution, 
as  it  then  stood  (Appendix,  p.  xi),  this  made  Jefferson  President 
and  Burr  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

275.  The  "  midnight  judges  "  ;  fall  of  the  Federalists.  - 
It  was  known  that  the  next  Congress  would  have  a  large  Dem 
ocratic-Republican  majority.     The  Federalist  Congress,   then 
in  session,   passed  (1801)   a  Judiciary  Act   creating  eighteen 
new  judges  for  federal  courts.637     During  the  last  few  weeks  of 
his  presidency  Mr.  Adams  was  busy  signing  commissions  for 
these  judges  whom  he  selected  from  his  own  party.     It  was 
currently  reported  that  he  was  occupied  in  this  work  up  to  the 
last  hours  of  the  last  night  of  his  administration,  and  the  oppo 
sition    nicknamed    the    men    he    had    chosen    "  the    midnight 
judges.""8 

The  office  of  Chief-Justice  having  become  vacant,  President 
Adams  appointed  John  Marshall,  a  man  of  "  majestic  intellect," 
to  that  position.  He  held  it  with  honor  to  himself  and  to  the 
nation  for  the  next  thirty-five  years.  His  masterly  decisions 


244  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.  [1801- 

on  constitutional  points  favored  the  "  broad-construction " 
theory  (§  256);  the  importance  of  these  decisions  gained  for 
him  the  title  of  the  "second  maker  "  of  the  Constitution.689 

The  passage  of  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws  (§  271)  destroyed 
the  popularity  of  the  Federalist  party,  and  with  the  election  of 
Jefferson  it  fell,  never  to  rise  again  as  a  national  power.  That 
party  had  organized  the  federal  Government.  Hamilton, 
Adams,  and  Marshall  were  among  its  leaders,  and  Washington 
sympathized  largely  with  their  views.  They  were  conservatives, 
and  deemed  it  prudent  to  make  haste  slowly;  but  they  have 
never  been  surpassed  in  devotion  to  what  they  believed  to  be 
the  highest  welfare  of  the  American  Republic.640 

276.  Summary.  —  The  principal  events  of  Adams's  admin 
istration  were  :  (i)  the  difficulty  with  France,  represented  by 
the  X.  Y.  Z.  papers ;  (2)  the  passage  of  the  new  Naturalization 
Act,  followed  by  the  Alien  and  Sedition  Acts  ;  (3)  the  Kentucky 
and  Virginia  nullification  resolutions  ;  (4)  the  death  of  Wash 
ington,  and  the  fall  of  the  Federalist  Party. 


THOMAS  JEFFERSON  (DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN),  TWO  TERMS, 

1801-1809. 

277.  Jefferson  and  "political  revolution. "  —  Jefferson 
regarded  his  election  (§  274)  as  a  "political  revolution." 
It  was,  he  said,  "  as  real  a  revolution  in  the  principles  of  our 
Government  as  that  of  1776  was  in  its  form."641  The  Federal 
ists  had  held  control  for  twelve  years;  for  the  next  forty  years 
the  opposite  party  was  to  stand  at  the  helm  and,  in  Jefferson's 
words,  put  the  ship  on  her  "Republican  tack."642  Henceforth 
there  were  to  be  "  no  more  coaches-and-six,  no  more  court-dress, 
no  more  levees,"  or  "  half-monarchical  state,"  as  in  the  days  of 
Washington,  but  only  plain  democratic  simplicity. 

The  inauguration  at  what  was  called  the  "palace"-— in 
reality  a  "palace  in  the  woods"-  — marked  the  transfer  of 
power  from  the  conservative  Federalist  Party  which  had 


LEADING  CONSTITUTIONAL  CASES 

Decided  by  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  (1793-1835), 

When  Chief-Justice  Marshall  took  his  seat  in  the  Supreme 
Court  of  the  United  States  in  1801,  "the  nation,  the  Consti 
tution,  and  the  laws  were  in  their  infancy."  Judge  Story  says 
that  scarcely  more  than  two  or  three  questions  of  consti 
tutional  law  had  ever  engaged  the  attention  of  that  Court. 

Of  these  the  case  of  Chisholm  v.  Georgia  (1793)  was  the  most 
important.  The  Court,  Chief-Justice  Jay  presiding,  then 


asserted  its  right  to  hear  the  suit,  on  appeal,  of  a  citizen  of 
one  State  against  another  State,  and  to  enter  judgment  against 
that  State  ;  but  the  right  was  promptly  taken  away  by  the 
Eleventh  Amendment  to  the  Constitution  (1798)  (§  242). 

I.  Chief-Justice    Marshall's   first   important   constitutional 
decision  was  made  in  the  case  of  Marbury  v.  Madison  (1803). 
The    Court    then   declared    that   Congress  was   powerless   to 
enact  a  law  conflicting  with  the  Constitution.     This  decision 
has  never  since  been  questioned. 

II.  Sixteen  years  later  the  case  of  McCulloch  v.  Maryland  was 
argued  (1819).     The  Court  then  took  its  stand  in  the  most  posi 
tive  manner  on  the  "broad  construction"  (  §§  256,  277)  of  the 


Constitution.  It  declared  that  it  possessed  full  authority  to 
annul  a  State  law  which  conflicted  with  the  "  implied  powers  " 
of  the  Constitution  and  with  those  of  the  Federal  government. 

III.  Later  in  the  same  year,  the  Court  by  its  decision  in  the 
Dartmouth  College  case  (1819)  limited  the  power  of  a  State  to 
set  aside  a  contract. 

IV.  In  a  fourth  leading  case,  that  of  Cohens  v.  Virginia  (1821), 
the  Court  asserted  its  right  to  hear  suits  brought  on  appeal 
from  the  State  courts,  and  to  act  as  a  final  tribunal  in  such 
cases.     In  rendering  this  decision  Chief-Justice  Marshall  inci 
dentally  took  occasion  to  condemn  the  doctrines  of  nullification 
and  secession.     He  declared  that  the  United  States  has  the 
right  to  control  all  individuals  or  State  governments  within 
its  boundaries. 

V.  Finally,  in  the  case  of  the  American  Insurance  Co.  v.  Canter 
(1828),  the  Court  declared   that  "the  Government   possesses 
the   power  of  acquiring  territory,   either  by  conquest   or  by 
treaty." 

These,  and  kindred  decisions,1  extending  over  a  space  of 
more  than  thirty-four  years,  fully  entitled  Chief-Justice  Mar 
shall2  to  be  called  "the  second  maker  of  the  Constitution," 
for  he,  more  than  any  other  man  of  his  day,  created  "con 
stitutional  government,  as  we  now  understand  that  term." 
Finally,  as  Judge  Landon  remarks,  "  It  is  plain  now  that  we 
are  largely  indebted  to  the  Court  for  our  continued  existence 
as  a  nation,  and  for  the  harmony,  stability,  excellence,  and 
success  of  our  Federal  system." 

1  Several  of  these  decisions  (as  in  that  of  McCulloch  v.  Maryland)  upheld 
the  powers  of  Congress,  e.g.  Osborn  v.  the  Bank  of  the  United  States.     Others 
(as  in  Cohens  v.  Virginia)  asserted  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Court,  e.g.  Martin 
v.  Hunter's  Lessees.     Finally,  a  number  of  others  (as  in  the  Dartmouth  Col 
lege  case)  set  aside  State  laws  which  conflicted  with  the  Federal  Constitu 
tion,  e.g.  United  States  v.  Peters  or  the  Olmstead  case,  Fletcher  v.  Peck,  and 
Gibbons  v.  Ogden.     See  a  classified  list  of  these  cases  in  McMaster's  "  United 
States,"  V,  412. 

In  some  of  the  last-mentioned  decisions  the  States  "struck  back,"  and 
declined  to  recognize  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Court.  Thus  Georgia  (1831- 
1832)  positively  refused  to  abide  by  its  decision  or  to  obey  its  mandate  (§  340). 
That  State  took  the  ground  that  it  had  sovereign  power  to  annul  all  laws 
and  ordinances  made  by  the  Cherokee  Indians  within  its  borders,  and  to  cut 
up  their  territory  and  annex  it.  The  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
denied  that  Georgia  could  constitutionally  exercise  such  power,  and  the  State 
defied  its  authority.  President  Jackson  not  only  took  no  steps  to  uphold 
the  Court,  but  was  reported  to  have  said :  "  John  Marshall  has  made  his 
decision  ;  now  let  him  enforce  it."  See  Von  Hoist's  "  Constitutional  History 
of  the  United  States,"  I,  448-458. 

2  See  Magruder's  "  Life  of  Marshall "  ;  Van  Santvoord's  "  Lives  of  the 
Chief-Justices  of  the  United  States " ;   Dr.  Henry  Hitchcock's  lecture  on 
Chief-Justice  Marshall  in  the  Political  Science  Lectures  of  the  University 
of  Michigan  for   1889;    Carson's  "History  of   the  Supreme   Court  of  the 
United  States,"  and  Landon's  "  Constitutional  History  of  the  United  States  » 
(revised  edition). 


1801.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  245 

successfully  organized  the  Government  to  the  Democratic- 
Republican  Party.  The  first  believed  in  the  "  broad  construc 
tion  "  of  the  Constitution  (§  256),  in  limited  suffrage,  and  laid 
stress  on  National  Sovereignty;  the  second  advocated  "  strict 
construction  "  (§  256),  and  favored  manhood  suffrage  (§  267)  ; 
Jefferson,  its  founder,  was  strongly  inclined  to  uphold  State- 
Rights,  or  what  was  later  called  State-Sovereignty  (§  273). 

These  opposite  political  tendencies  were  personified  in  the 
President-elect  and  Chief-Justice  Marshall  (§  275)  as  they  met 
face  to  face  on  the  4th  of  March,  1801,  one  to  administer,  the 
other  to  take,  the  oath  of  office  (Appendix,  p.  xii).  Jefferson,  as 
a  Democrat,  was  "  bent  on  restricting  the  power  of  the  national 
Government  in  the  interests  of  human  liberty  " ;  Marshall,  as  a 
Federalist,  was  resolved  to  enlarge  that  power  "  in  the  interests 
of  justice  and  nationality."643 

278.  The  United  States  in  1801;  material  obstacles  to 
union.  —  The  second  census  (1800)  showed  an  increase  of 
over  thirty-five  per  cent  (§258).  It  reported  the  total  popula 
tion  of  the  United  States,  including  nearly  900,000  slaves,  at  a 
little  over  5,300,000  —  or  less  than  the  single  States  of  New 
York  or  Pennsylvania  have  to-day.  The  country  west  of  the 
Alleghanies  had  perhaps  500,000  settlers.  It  attracted  a  steady 
stream  of  emigrants,  but  the  wilderness  was  so  vast  that  Jeffer 
son  thought  it  might  require  a  "  thousand  generations  "  to  fill 
it.644  Pittsburg,  Cincinnati,  Knoxville,  and  Louisville  were  slowly 
gaining  ground.  Nashville  was  then  the  farthest  outpost  in  the 
southwest.  In  the  northwest  less  progress  had  been  made, 
and  it  was  not  until  three  years  later  (1804)  that  Fort  Dearborn 
was  erected  as  a  frontier  defence  on  the  ground  where  Chicago 
now  stands. 

Facilities  for  travel  and  transportation  had  not  essentially 
improved  since  Columbus  first  set  foot  on  the  shores  of  the 
New  World.  Only  three  roads  had  been  cut  through  the 
forest  to  the  West.  These  were  of  the  roughest  sort,  and 
wagons  did  well  when  they  crept  over  them  at  the  rate  of  three 


246  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [mi-. 

miles  an  hour.  In  point  of  time  it  was  actually  farther  from 
New  York  City  to  the  Mississippi  then,  than  it  is  now  from  New 
York  to  Japan.  The  long  mountain  range  which  separated  the 
eastern  from  the  western  settlements  seemed  to  many  the  geo 
graphical  limit  of  the  Republic.  Nature  had  apparently  allied 
the  West  with  the  Mississippi,  and,  unless  canals  could  be  cut 
between  the  Atlantic  States  and  the  section  beyond  the  Appa 
lachians,  it  was  difficult  to  see  how  both  could  be  held  together 
under  a  single  central  Government.  Statesmen  like  Fisher 
Ames  did  not  hesitate  to  declare:  "Our  country  is  too  big  for 
union  "  -^5  and  Jefferson,  notwithstanding  his  ardent  patriotism, 
said:  "Whether  we  remain  in  one  confederacy  or  form  into 
Atlantic  and  Mississippi  Confederations  I  believe  not  very 
important  to  the  happiness  of  either  party."  646 

279.  Appointments  to  office;  repeal  of  Federalist  laws; 
admission  of  Ohio.  —  Jefferson  had  no  sooner  come  into  power 
than  he  was  beset  with  applications  for  office.  His  first  inten 
tion  was  to  let  those  who  held  positions  remain  undisturbed. 
"Probably,"  said  he,  "not  twenty  will  be  removed,  and  those 
only  for  doing  what  they  ought  not  to  have  done."  647  But  a 
little  later  he  felt  that  he  must  yield  to  pressure  and  give  his 
own  party  "a  due  participation  of  office,"  from  which,  he 
declared,  they  had  been  wholly  excluded.648  The  only  way  to 
do  this  was  to  remove  a  certain  proportion  of  Federalists ;  for, 
said  he,  "few  die  and  none  resign."  He  declared  that  as  soon 
as  he  had  secured  to  the  Republicans  "their  just  share,"  he 
should  make  no  more  appointments  for  party  purposes,  but 
"gladly  return"  to  that  state  of  things  when  the  only  ques 
tions  respecting  a  candidate  would  be  :  "  Is  he  honest  ?  Is  he 
capable  ?  Is  he  faithful  to  the  Constitution  ?  "  ^ 

In  the  course  of  the  first  fourteen  months,  the  President 
made  only  sixteen  removals  without  showing  cause,  and  in  the 
whole  course  of  his  administration  he  made,  according  to  Von 
Hoist,  but  thirty-nine.  Other  authorities  claim  that  this  esti 
mate  is  far  too  low;  and  Jefferson  himself  stated  in  1803 


1803.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  247 

that  out  of  316  offices  only  130  continued  to  be  "held  by 
Federalists."650 

In  its  turn  Congress  proceeded  to  pass  the  sponge  over  the 
slate  of  recent  Federalist  legislation.  It  repealed  the  Judiciary, 
Naturalization,  and  Excise  Acts  (§§  275,  271,  250).  The 
obnoxious  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws  had  already  expired  by 
limitation  (§  271).  Congress  next  passed  the  Xllth  amend 
ment  to  the  Constitution  (Appendix,  p.  xvii).  It  changed  the 
form  of  the  presidential  election  to  that  which  has  ever  since 
been  followed. 

Early  in  1803  the  admission  of  Ohio  raised  the  total  number 
of  States  to  seventeen.  Like  the  three  new  States  which  had 
preceded  it  (§  267),  Ohio  declared  in  favor  of  "manhood  suf 
frage."  The  old  States  were  meanwhile  reconstructing  their 
constitutions  on  the  same  broad  lines.  The  change  was  in  the 
direction  of  Jefferson's  principle  of  trusting  everything  to  "  the 
good  sense  of  the  people  "  (§  256).  It  meant  that  the  time  was 
speedily  coming  when  the  votes  of  the  masses,  rather  than  those 
of  the  select  few,  would  control  the  destinies  of  the  Republic. 

280.  Spain  cedes  Louisiana  to  France;  we  purchase  the 
province  (1803).  —  The  year  following  Jefferson's  inauguration 
news  was  received  that  Spain  had  ceded  Louisiana  (§  172)  to 
France.  This  change  hemmed  us  in  between  two  powers 
hostile  to  each  other,  —  Great  Britain  on  the  north,  and  France 
on  the  south  and  west.  Jefferson  fully  realized  the  gravity  of 
the  situation.  He  wrote  to  Chancellor  Livingston,  our  minister 
at  Paris,  saying  that  although  we  had  always  regarded  France 
as  our  "friend,"  yet  we  could  no  longer  do  so  if  she  held  New 
Orleans.  The  possession  of  that  spot,  added  Jefferson,  makes 
her  "our  natural  enemy."  Through  New  Orleans,  said  he,  the 
produce  of  three-eighths  of  our  territory  "  must  pass  to  market. 
France,  placing  herself  in  that  door,  assumes  to  us  the  attitude 
of  defiance."  W1 

It  was  the  intention  of  Bonaparte  to  establish  a  military  des 
potism  at  New  Orleans.  "From  that  moment,"  said  Jefferson, 


248 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


[1803. 


"  we  must  marry  ourselves  to  the  British  fleet  and  nation."  M2 
Much  as  he  disliked  war,  he  declared  that,  rather  than  abandon 
our  claim  to  the  free  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  and  see  the 
Western  States  severed  from  the  Union,  we  would  draw  the 
sword  on  France  and  "throw  away  the  scabbard."658 

But  the   President  hoped  to  come  to  an  amicable  under 
standing  with  Bonaparte.    "  Peace,"  said  he,  "  is  our  passion."664 


The  United  States  in  I  803    after  the  Purchase  of   Louisiana,  with  boundary  of  I  8  I  9  (§  3  I  8). 

(West  Florida,  as  far  eastward  as  the  Perdido  River,  was  claimed  as  part  of  the  purchase. 
Congress  had  divided  (1800)  the  territory  north  of  the  Ohio  and  east  of  the  Mississippi 
into  "  Indiana  Territory"  and  the  "  Northwest  Territory  "  ;  the  "Oregon  Country  " 
was  held  jointly  with  Great  Britain.) 

Monroe  was  despatched  to  Paris  to  join  Livingston.  The  com 
missioners  were  instructed  to  offer  as  high  as  $10,000,000  for 
New  Orleans  and  the  East  and  West  Floridas  —  or  at  any  rate 
to  secure,  if  possible,  the  permanent  "  right  of  deposit "  (§  267) 
at  New  Orleans.  Before  Monroe  reached  his  destination, 
Bonaparte  had  resolved  to  renew  the  war  with  England 
(§  264);  and  to  our  amazement  offered  to  sell  us  not  only 
New  Orleans,  but  the  entire  province  of  Louisiana.  The  com 
missioners  negotiated  a  treaty  of  purchase  for  $15,000,000. 


1803-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  249 

Thus,  at  one  stroke  of  the  pen  (1803),  as  Jefferson  declared, 
we  "more  than  doubled  the  area  of  the  United  States." 

The  boundaries  of  Louisiana  were  not  clearly  defined,  and  it 
was  a  question  whether  Texas  or  any  part  of  West  Florida 
was  included  in  the  purchase.  The  treaty,  as  it  was  finally 
agreed  upon,  gave  us  the  absolute  control  of  the  Mississippi, 
and  secured  to  us  the  whole  region  west  of  that  river  and 
north  of  Texas,  as  far  back  as  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The 
foreign  population  of  Louisiana  held  slaves  at  New  Orleans 
and  St.  Louis.  The  purchase  treaty  virtually  recognized  their 
legal  right  to  such  property,  and  guaranteed  that  all  free  white 
inhabitants  of  the  territory  should  be  incorporated  as  citizens 
of  the  Union. 

281.  Question  of  the  constitutionality  of  the  Louisiana 
purchase.  —  Jefferson,  as  the  leader  of  the  "strict-construc 
tion"  party  (§  256),  admitted  that  the  Constitution  did  not 
authorize  the  Government  to  purchase  new  territory,  yet  he  felt 
constrained  to  sign  the  treaty.  He  believed  that  the  preserva 
tion  of  the  Union  depended  on  keeping  the  navigation  of  the 
Mississippi  open.655  There  was  no  time  to  discuss  questions  of 
limitations  of  authority,  and  the  President  resolved,  as  he  said, 
"to  shut  up  "  the  Constitution  until  the  acquisition  of  Louisiana 
should  be  ratified;  then  he  proposed  asking  the  nation  to  justify 
the  act  by  an  amendment  to  that  instrument,  but  the  amendment 
was  never  called  for.656 

The  extreme  Federalists  opposed  the  ratification  of  the  pur 
chase  of  "  an  unmeasured  world  beyond  the  Mississippi." 65T 
They  declared  that  it  would  destroy  the  existing  political 
balance,  and  render  the  New  England  States  insignificant.658 
Others  feared  that  it  would  increase  the  power  of  slave  repre 
sentation,  while  at  the  same  time  it  would  dangerously  weaken 
us  by  greatly  extending  the  line  which  we  must  defend  against 
foreign  invasion.659  Then,  too,  there  was  the  question  whether 
the  federal  Government  could  successfully  exert  its  power  over 
such  an  enormous  territory. 


250  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN   HISTORY.        [isoa  IBM. 

282.  Secession  plot;  Quincy's  threat;  results  of  the 
Louisiana  purchase.  —  A  little  later  a  few  ultra  Federalists  en 
deavored  to  organize  a  plot  for  separating  New  England  and 
New  York  from  the  Union.  Their  purpose  was  to  form  an 
independent  Northern  Confederacy;  but  the  conspiracy  failed 
to  receive  any  substantial  encouragement.660 

When  the  question  of  the  admission  of  the  lower  part  of 
Louisiana  as  a  slave  State  (§  280)  came  up  for  debate  (1811), 
Josiah  Quincy  of  Massachusetts  violently  opposed  it  in  the 
House.  He  said:  "If  this  bill  passes,  it  is  my  deliberate 
opinion  that  it  is  virtually  a  dissolution  of  the  Union;  that  it 
will  free  the  States  from  their  moral  obligation,  and  as  it  will 
be  the  right  of  all,  so  it  will  be  the  duty  of  some,  definitely  to 
prepare  for  a  separation,  amicably  if  they  can,  violently  if  they 
must."  ™- 

Senator  Grundy  of  Tennessee  admitted,  a  little  later,  that 
when  the  recently  acquired  territory  should  become  "fully 
peopled,"  the  Northern  States  would  "lose  their  power,"  and 
would  then  be  at  the  mercy  of  the  Southern  section.662  This  was 
the  danger  which  the  representative  from  Massachusetts  had  in 
mind.  His  speech  was  the  first  unmistakable  announcement 
in  Congress  of  the  doctrine  of  secession.  But  Quincy  in  this 
respect  practically  stood  alone,  for  Massachusetts  gave  its 
assent  to  the  admission  of  the  new  State.66"3 

In  reviewing  the  acquisition  of  the  province  of  Louisiana,  we 
see  that  it  eventually  had  five  important  results  :  (i)  it  secured 
to  us  the  port  of  New  Orleans,  the  entire  control  of  the  Mis 
sissippi,  and  it  doubled  the  area  of  the  United  States  ;  (2)  it 
strengthened  the  bond  of  Union  in  the  Southwest  ;  (3)  it  gave 
new  force  to  arguments  for  internal  improvements  —  the  build 
ing  of  roads  and  canals  to  connect  the  East  and  the  West ;  and, 
taken  in  connection  with  the  acquisition  of  California,  it  later 
made  the  Pacific  railway  a  necessity  ;  (4)  it  added  a  foreign 
population  that  held  slaves  at  New  Orleans  and  at  St.  Louis 
(§  280),  and  it  opened  up  an  immense  field  for  the  "conflict 


1804-1806.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  25! 

between  slavery  and  freedom";  (5)  finally,  it  weakened  "strict 
construction  "  (§  256)  and  encouraged  the  opposite  interpreta 
tion  of  the  Constitution. 

283.  Expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clark  (1804-1806).  —  In 
the  spring  following  the  purchase  of  the  province  of  Louisiana, 
Jefferson  sent  out  Lewis  and  Clark  to  explore  the  Missouri  to 
its  source,  and  to  push  forward  to  the  Pacific.  The  expedition 
started  in  three  boats  from  St.  Louis  (May,  1804).  The  party 
spent  the  entire  summer  laboriously  working  their  way  up 
stream  against  the  powerful  current,  their  average  progress 
not  exceeding  nine  miles  a  day.  At  the  end  of  the  season  they 
went  into  winter  quarters  at  a  point  not  very  far  above  the  site 
of  the  present  city  of  Bismarck,  North  Dakota. 

The  next  spring,  taking  an  Indian  woman  for  their  guide, 
they  set  out  again  on  their  journey  through  the  great  "Lone 
Land."  By  midsummer  they  had  passed  through  the  wild 
gorge  of  the  Missouri  known  as  the  "Gates  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,"  and  soon  afterward  reached  the  site  of  what  is 
now  the  capital  of  Montana.  In  August  (1805)  they  arrived 
at  a  point  where  they  could  bestride  the  head-waters  of  that 
great  stream  which  they  had  so  long  been  ascending  and  which 
had  seemed  to  them  well-nigh  endless. 

A  few  days  later  they  stood  on  the  "  Crown  of  the  Conti 
nent,"  in  the  midst  of  that  wonderful  knot  of  ridges  and  peaks 
from  which  rise  the  Columbia  (§  258),  the  Colorado,  and  the 
Missouri.  Early  in  October  (1805)  they  embarked  in  log 
canoes  on  the  Clear  Water,  a  tributary  of  the  Columbia,  and 
began  to  paddle  their  way  downward  toward  the  setting  sun. 
In  November  they  heard  the  roar  of  breakers  through  the 
fog ;  when  it  lifted  they  beheld  the  Pacific  —  that  ocean,  says 
Lewis,  which  was  "the  object  of  all  our  labors,  the  reward 
of  all  our  anxieties."664  On  their  return  Clark's  party  struck 
southward  and  came  down  the  valley  of  the  Yellowstone  ;  the 
joint  expedition  reached  St.  Louis  in  the  autumn  of  1806. 
(See  map,  §  405.) 


252  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1804-1806. 

In  the  course  of  about  two  years  and  a  half  the  exploring 
party  had  travelled  over  eight  thousand  miles,  through  a  region 
which  no  white  man  was  known  to  have  crossed  before.  They 
had  found  practicable  passes  through  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
confirmed  our  claim  to  the  Oregon  country  (§  258),  and  opened 
the  way  to  the  valley  of  the  Columbia  and  the  Pacific  slope. 
Furthermore,  they  furnished  us  with  our  first  definite  knowledge 
of  that  magnificent  territory  in  which  ten  great  States,  with  a 
population  of  many  millions,  have  since  "arisen  in  the  wilder- 
ness.'M  At  the  same  time  Lieutenant  Z.  M.  Pike  explored 
the  sources  of  the  Mississippi  (1806),  and  measured  the  lofty 
peak  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  which  now  bears  his  name.666 

284.  Prosperity  of  the  country;  the  presidential  election. 
—  When  Jefferson  entered  office  the  national  debt  amounted  to 

nearly  $83,000,000,  and  the  rate  of  taxation  was  heavy;  by 
judicious  management  Gallatin,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  paid 
off  a  large  part  of  the  debt,  and  at  the  same  time  reduced  the 
taxes.  Meanwhile  commerce  was  making  rapid  gains,  and  the 
country  generally  enjoyed  a  high  degree  of  prosperity. 

The  Democratic-Republicans  nominated  Jefferson  (1804)  for 
a  second  term;  he  was  elected  (with  George  Clinton  as  Vice- 
President)  by  an  overwhelming  majority  over  C.  C.  Pinckney, 
the  Federalist  candidate,  the  electoral  vote  standing  162  to  14. 

Jefferson  said,  ''the  people  in  mass  have  joined  us";  the 
truth  was  that  a  fusion  of  parties  had  gradually  taken  place, 
the  Federalists  having  been  Republicanized,  and  the  Republi 
cans  or  Democrats  Federalized.667 

285.  Jefferson's  second  inauguration  (1805);    "  internal 
improvements " ;  peace  with  Tripoli.  —  In  his  second  inaugural 
Jefferson  bade  the  people  look  forward  to  the  extinction  of  the 
entire  public  debt.     Then,  he  said,  an  amendment  to  the  Con 
stitution  would  enable  Congress  to  expend  the  surplus  revenue 
in  making  roads,  canals,  and  other  "internal  improvements." 
The  next  year  (1806)  Congress,  without  waiting  for  such  an 
amendment,     appropriated    $30,000    toward    constructing   "a 


1805-1811.]        THE    UNION,   NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  253 

national  road "  from  Cumberland,  Maryland,  to  the  Ohio 
River ;  but  the  first  mile  of  this  famous  highway  was  not 
begun  until  five  years  later  (18 n). 

Before  the  year  closed  our  navy  (§  270)  gained  a  brilliant 
triumph  over  the  Barbary  pirates  (§§  249,  267).  When  near 
the  end  of  Adams's  administration  Captain  Bainbridge  was  sent 
out  (1800)  to  pay  the  Dey  of  Algiers  his  annual  tribute  (§  267); 
that  potentate  treated  him  with  such  insolence  that  Bainbridge 
indignantly  wrote  :  "  I  hope  I  shall  never  again  be  sent  to 
Algiers  with  tribute  unless  I  am  authorized  to  deliver  it  from 
the  mouths  of  our  cannon."  ees  Shortly  afterward  the  Pasha  of 
Tripoli  declared  war  against  us  because  we  had  not  promptly 
met  his  exorbitant  demands  for  money. 

Jefferson  despatched  a  squadron  to  blockade  Tripoli ;  the 
vessels  drew  too  much  water  to  be  very  effective,  but  Rodgers, 
Decatur,  and  Hull  made  themselves  a  memorable  record.  When 
the  squadron  was  reinforced  with  lighter  vessels,  Commodore 
Preble  (1805)  speedily  compelled  the  Pasha  to  drop  his  demands 
and  beg  for  peace  ;  a  final  treaty,  however,  was  not  made  with 
the  Barbary  States  until  a  number  of  years  later  (1814). 

The  Pope  was  especially  pleased  at  the  chastisement  which 
Preble  had  inflicted  on  the  Mohammedan  corsairs,  and  declared 
that  the  American  officer  had  done  more  to  humble  those  inso 
lent  barbarians  than  all  the  Christian  nations  of  Europe  had 
ever  accomplished.669 

But  the  most  important  result  of  the  war  with  the  pirates  of 
the  Mediterranean  was  that  it  served  as  a  training-school  to 
our  victorious  naval  commanders  for  the  War  of  i8i2.6ro 

286.  The  first  steamboat  on  the  Hudson  (1807)  and  in 
the  West  (1811). — We  have  seen  (§§  258,  278)  that  one  of 
the  most  perplexing  questions  in  the  growth  of  the  United 
States  was  how  to  secure  cheap  and  rapid  communication  and 
transportation  between  the  East  and  West.  The  political  unity 
of  the  nation  seemed  to  depend  on  the  successful  solution  of 
this  difficult  problem.  It  had  taken  Lewis  and  Clark  (§  283) 


254  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.        [JSOT-ISH. 

a  full  year  to  cross  the  national  territory  west  of  the  Mississippi. 
There  was  something  disheartening  in  the  thought  of  endeavor 
ing  to  bring  such  an  unbounded  wilderness  under  the  control 
of  a  Government  which  had  its  capital  on  the  Atlantic  slope, 
thousands  of  miles  away.  Few  men  of  that  time  seriously 
believed  that  a  Union  so  vast  could  be  permanently  main 
tained;671  certainly  Jefferson  did  not,  for  one  (§  278). 

Meanwhile  an  inventor  was  devising  the  first  successful 
means  for  navigating  the  great  rivers  and  inland  waters  of  the 
United  States.  His  work  would  go  far  toward  making  it  pos 
sible  to  unite  the  two  sides  of  the  continent. 

Many  experiments  had  already  been  made  in  propelling  boats 
by  steam.  At  one  time  John  Fitch  and  Oliver  Evans  seemed 
likely  to  accomplish  it,  but  they  were  doomed  to  disappoint 
ment.  Latrobe,  the  most  eminent  engineer  in  the  country, 
reported  as  late  as  1803  that  nothing  had  been  done  which 
promised  practical  success.672  Fitch  came  nearest  to  it;  but 
lack  of  capital  forced  him  to  abandon  the  field,  and  in  despair 
he  took  his  own  life.  He  left  this  prophecy:  "The  day  will 
come  when  some  more  powerful  man  will  get  fame  and  riches 
by  my  invention."  Robert  Fulton  was  that  "more  powerful 
man."  Aided  by  Chancellor  Livingston's  purse,  he  built  and 
launched  the  "Clermont"  at  New  York.  The  vessel  was  a 
side-wheel  steamboat  equipped  with  an  engine  imported  from 
England.  Late  in  the  summer  of  1807  Fulton  made  his  first 
voyage  up  the  Hudson  to  Albany. 

Sailing  vessels  usually  took  three  days  to  reach  that  point; 
Fulton  accomplished  the  journey  in  thirty-two  hours.  The 
problem  was  solved  —  a  vessel  had  at  last  been  constructed 
that  would  push  its  way  against  wind,  tide,  and  current.  The 
steamboat  soon  began  making  regular  trips  on  the  Hudson,  and 
Fulton  and  Livingston  secured  the  monopoly  of  steam  naviga 
tion  in  New  York  State  for  twenty  years. 

In  1811  Fulton  launched  a  steamboat  at  Pittsburg  which 
made  the  voyage  to  New  Orleans.  Within  seven  years  from 


1804-1806.]         THE    UNION,   NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  255 

that  date  steamboats  were  carrying  passengers  and  freight  not 
only  on  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries,  but  on  the  Great 
Lakes.  Fulton  said  with  truth  that  he  had  given  the  country 
"the  most  efficient  instrument  yet  conceived  for  developing  the 
West";673  or,  as  he  might  have  added,  for  maintaining  the 
stability  of  the  Union. 

287.  The  Burr  conspiracy.  —  Singularly  enough,  while 
Fulton  was  occupied  in  perfecting  the  material  means  for 
binding  the  country  together,  a  formidable  plot  against  the 
nation's  life  was  discovered.  Aaron  Burr,  while  Vice-President 
of  the  United  States  (§  274),  challenged  Hamilton,  his  political 
opponent  and  personal  enemy,  and  killed  him  in  a  duel  (1804). 
Burr  was  indicted  for  murder  and  fled  South  to  escape  arrest. 
His  prospects  were  ruined,  and  he  became  desperate.  Miranda, 
a  citizen  of  one  of  the  Spanish  provinces  in  South  America,  was 
then  concocting  a  scheme  for  overthrowing  the  power  of  Spain 
on  the  American  continent.674  Miranda's  expedition  may  have 
suggested  the  project  which  Burr  conceived.  His  plan  was 
to  raise  an  armed  force  in  the  Southwest,  drive  out  the 
Spaniards  from  Mexico,  and  establish  a  great  Southern  Con 
federacy  composed  of  the  States  and  territories  west  of  the 
Alleghanies,  united  with  the  Mexican  possessions.  He  hoped 
to  get  the  aid  of  Great  Britain  in  carrying  out  this  gigantic 
plot,  and  endeavored  to  persuade  James  Wilkinson,  general- 
in-chief  of  the  United  States  army,  to  join  him.675  Burr  had 
made  the  acquaintance  of  an  Irish  gentleman  named  Blen- 
nerhasset  who  resided  on  Blennerhasset  Island  in  the  Ohio, 
some  distance  southwest  of  Marietta.  The  smooth-tongued 
conspirator  easily  induced  the  latter  to  mortgage  his  estate 
to  raise  money  for  carrying  out  the  scheme.  By  this  means 
Burr  obtained  boats  and  arms,  and  recruited  about  a  hundred 
men. 

General  Wilkinson,  who  was  then  at  New  Orleans,  sent 
information  of  the  plot  to  the  President.676  Jefferson  issued 
a  proclamation  (1806)  ordering  the  arrest  of  the  expedition. 


256  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

Burr  hastily  disbanded  his  men  at  Natchez,  and  took  to  the 
woods.  He  was  speedily  apprehended,  and  was  tried  (1807) 
for  treason  before  Chief-Justice  Marshall.  Marshall  ruled 
that  no  satisfactory  evidence  of  overt  treason  had  been  offered, 
and  the  jury  brought  in  a  verdict  of  "not  guilty."677  Burr  soon 
afterward  disappeared  from  public  life,  and  died  in  obscurity 
in  New  York  many  years  later. 

288.  The  French  and  English  war  vs.  American  com 
merce.  —  After  a  brief  peace  (§  280)  Bonaparte  and  George 
III.  had  resumed  hostilities  (1803).  Fleets  of  English  cruisers 
swept  the  French  merchantmen  from  the  seas,  and  thus  threw 
all  trade  between  France  and  her  colonies  into  the  hands  of 
American  shipowners.  In  order  to  prevent  France  from  getting 
the  relief  given  by  our  merchant  vessels,  England  revived  the 
"  Rule  of  1756."  That  rule  declared  that  no  European  nation 
which  shut  its  colonial  ports  against  freedom  of  trade  in  time 
of  peace  (as  France  did  in  common  with  other  mother-countries) 
should  be  permitted  to  open  its  ports  to  direct  neutral  trade  in 
time  of  war.678  By  enforcing  that  regulation  England  hoped  to 
destroy  all  commercial  communication  between  France  and  her 
foreign  possessions,  and  so  cripple  her  enemy's  resources  for 
carrying  on  the  war.  This  measure,  however,  proved  ineffec 
tive,  and  indeed,  so  far  as  America  was  concerned,  it  actually 
increased  our  commerce.  For  though  our  merchantmen  could 
no  longer  act  as  direct  carriers  between  France  and  her  colo 
nies,  nothing  prohibited  us  from  bringing  the  products  of  the 
French  West  Indies  to  the  United  States  and  then  shipping 
them  to  France  as  American  exports.  By  taking  that  course 
we  easily  evaded  the  "Rule  of  1756,"  and  obtained  double 
freights  on  our  own  terms.679 

Later,  when  Spain  and  Holland  became  involved  in  the 
European  conflict,  the  neutral  ships  of  the  United  States  secured 
a  practical  monopoly  of  the  carrying-trade  of  the  world.680  Sir 
James  Stephen  denounced  this  indirect  commerce  carried  on 
by  American  shipowners  as  a  fraud  committed  under  the  pro- 


1806-1807.]         THE    UNION,   NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT. 

tection  of  a  neutral  flag  and  as  a  species  of  "war  in  disguise."681 
England  then  (1805)  declared  this  trade  an  evasion  of  the  spirit 
of  the  "  Rule  of  1756,"  and  ordered  her  cruisers  to  put  a  stop 
to  it.682  This  decision  virtually  restricted  American  commerce 
to  American  productions.683 

289.  British  " Orders  in  Council"  vs.  Napoleon's  Decrees; 
the  <  «  Leopard' '  and  the  < « Chesapeake. "—  The  next  year  ( 1 8 06) 
Great  Britain  issued  an  "  Order  in  Council,"  which  declared 
the  coast  of  Europe  from  Brest  to  the  Elbe  in  blockade.  Napo 
leon  retorted  with  his  "  Berlin  Decree"  (1806),  proclaiming  the 
blockade  of  the  British  Isles.  England  retaliated  by  a  new 
"Order  in  Council"  (1807)  which  forbade  Americans  or  other 
neutrals  carrying  any  products  to  France  or  her  allies  except 
on  two  conditions.  These  were  that  such  vessels  should 
undergo  search  by  English  authorities  for  goods  "  contraband 
of  war,"  or  that  they  should  enter  an  English  port  and  pay 
duties  on  their  cargoes. 

Napoleon  at  once  issued  (1807)  his  "  Milan  Decree."  It 
prohibited  all  trade  with  Great  Britain  or  her  colonies,  and 
ordered  the  seizure  of  any  vessel  which  should  submit  to 
search  by  England  or  should  pay  any  duties  to  the  English 
Government.  The  Emperor's  threat,  however,  did  not  prove 
very  serious,  for  the  battle  of  Trafalgar  (1805)  had  so  crippled 
the  French  navy  that  they  could  not  enforce  his  decree  on 
the  Atlantic. 

Meanwhile  English  men-of-war  blockaded  our  ports,  searched 
every  out-going  vessel,  and  impressed  great  numbers  of  Ameri 
can  seamen  (§  264).  Congress  remonstrated,  and  put  in  force 
(1807)  a  Non-Importation  Act  which  shut  out  English  goods  from 
American  markets;  but  search  and  impressment  continued  to 
go  on  as  before.  As  a  matter  of  fact  many  sailors  deserted 
English  men-of-war  when  in  our  ports,  and  openly  entered  the 
American  service.  England  was  determined  to  recover  her  own 
seamen,  but  stated  that  she  had  no  intention  of  seizing  ours. 
On  the  other  hand,  we  declared  that  we  had  no  desire  to  harbor 


258  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [iso?-. 

or  employ  her  runaway  men;  but  notwithstanding  these  avowals, 
neither  government  found  an  effective  remedy  for  the  grievance 
of  which  it  complained. 

Finally  matters  reached  a  climax.  Vice-Admiral  Berkeley  of 
the  British  service,  having  lost  a  number  of  his  seamen  by  deser 
tion,  issued  orders  to  stop  the  American  frigate  "  Chesapeake  " 
and  search  for  the  missing  sailors.  In  taking  this  action,  he 
declared  that  he  recognized  our  right  to  pursue  the  same 
course  toward  any  English  man-of-war.684  Under  these  instruc 
tions  His  Majesty's  frigate  "Leopard"  (1807)  overhauled  the 
"  Chesapeake "  and  forcibly  removed  four  seamen,  one  of 
whom  was  hanged  at  Halifax  as  a  deserter.  This  outrage, 
said  Jefferson,  roused  the  United  States  to  a  pitch  of  excite 
ment  not  equalled  "  since  the  battle  of  Lexington."685 

The  President  at  once  issued  a  proclamation  (1807)  ordering 
all  British-armed  vessels  to  leave  our  waters ;  and  Congress 
demanded  reparation  for  the  insult  to  our  flag.  Eventually  the 
English  Government  restored  (1811)  the  three  surviving  sailors 
to  the  decks  of  the  "  Chesapeake."  686 

290.  The  Embargo  Act  (1807);  opposition  to  the  act  in 
New  England.  —  It  now  seemed  probable  that  both  England 
and  France  would  impose  new  and  more  stringent  restrictions 
on  American  trade  with  Europe.  In  such  a  crisis  war  was 
imminent.  Jefferson,  therefore,  resolved  to  try  the  effect  of 
what  he  called  "peaceable  coercion."  Before  news  of  the 
Milan  Decree  was  received  (§  289)  he  recommended  Congress 
to  pass  an  unlimited  Embargo  Act.  Such  a  measure  by  detain 
ing  our  vessels  in  port  would  save  them  and  their  crews  from 
capture  ;  next  it  would,  it  was  hoped,  cut  off  large  supplies  of 
food  from  both  combatants  and  perhaps  starve  them  into  making 
terms  with  us.  Congress  passed  the  act  late  in  1807,  and  sub 
sequently  strengthened  it  by  additional  legislation  (1808-1809). 
The  embargo  entirely  closed  our  ports  to  all  trade  with  foreign 
countries.  American  merchantmen  were  forbidden  to  sail. 
Coasting  and  fishing-craft  were  permitted  to  go  out,  but  only 


1807-1809.]        THE    UNION,   NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  259 

on  condition  that  their  owners  gave  bonds  in  double  the  value 
of  vessel  and  cargo  that  they  would  not  land  goods  or  produce 
outside  of  the  United  States.687 

The  opposition  party  denounced  the  suppression  of  commerce 
as  suicidal.  They  declared  that  it  would  be  far  better  to  risk 
vessels  and  crew  in  foreign  trade  than  to  give  up  that  trade 
altogether.  They  spelt  the  hated  word  "embargo  "  backward  and 
so  formed  it  into  the  "  O-grab-me  Act."  They  called  it  the 
boa-constrictor  which  was  crushing  the  life  out  of  every  Ameri 
can  industry ;  and  the  youthful  Bryant  wrote  a  satirical  poem 
on  it,  for  which  there  was  a  great  demand.  Prices  dropped 
ruinously ;  the  farmer  could  not  sell  his  wheat,  the  planter 
found  no  market  for  his  cotton,  rice,  or  tobacco.  But  the 
heaviest  loss  fell  on  New  England,  where  capital  was  most 
largely  invested  in  commercial  pursuits.  The  once  busy  ports 
seemed  smitten  with  a  pestilence ;  dismantled  ships  rotted  in 
the  docks,  merchants  became  bankrupt,  and  thousands  of 
sailors  were  reduced  to  beggary.  In  a  single  year  our 
exports  fell  off  from  $49,000,000  to  $9,ooo,ooo.688  The 
custom-houses  were  closed,  and  the  Government  ceased  to 
draw  any  revenue  from  commerce.  Smuggling  soon  sprang 
up  on  an  extensive  scale  on  the  Canada  and  the  Florida 
borders. 

291.  The  "  Force  Act";  Napoleon  and  the  embargo.  —  To 
stop  evasion  of  the  embargo,  Congress  passed  the  "  Force  Act" 
(1809).  It  prohibited  the  loading  of  any  boat  or  vessel  except 
by  permit  from  the  collector  of  the  port,  and  under  the  eye  of 
a  revenue  officer.689  Furthermore,  the  collector  had  orders  to 
seize  produce  or  goods  found  in  any  wagons  or  other  vehicles 
going  toward  the  seacoast  or  toward  the  boundary  line,  and 
hold  them  until  the  owner  gave  bonds  that  they  should  not  be 
taken  out  of  the  country.690  To  prevent  resistance  the  act 
authorized  the  President  to  employ  the  land  and  the  naval 
forces  of  the  United  States  and  the  State  militia  in  carrying 
out  the  law. 


260  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [ieo9. 

In  New  England  the  "  Force  Act"  was  denounced  as  despotic, 
and  the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts  virtually  nullified  it  by 
declaring  it  "  unconstitutional  and  not  legally  binding." 691  The 
Federalist  newspapers  of  Boston  came  out  in  mourning  :  one 
said,  "Liberty  is  dead";  another  took  for  its  motto,  "Resistance 
to  arbitrary  laws  is  duty  to  God."  Numerous  handbills  were 
distributed,  warning  the  people  that  the  Constitution  and  the 
Union  were  destroyed,  and  that  they  must  now  choose  between 
"civil  war  or  slavery."692  A  hundred  towns  in  Massachusetts 
sent  in  resolutions  to  the  General  Court  condemning  the  Presi 
dent  and  the  embargo.693  In  the  other  New  England  States  the 
same  spirit  manifested  itself.694 

Abroad  the  embargo  failed  to  coerce  the  combatants  into 
respect  for  American  rights.  Our  minister  to  Paris  wrote  that 
in  France  it  was  "not  felt,"  and  that  in  England  it  was  "for 
gotten."605  Napoleon  declared  that  he  positively  liked  it,  and 
ironically  added  that  he  would  help  President  Jefferson  enforce 
it.  He  accordingly  ordered  the  confiscation  of  all  American 
vessels  then  found  in  French  ports,  or  that  should  enter  them 
later,696  on  the  ground  that  they  had  violated  the  embargo. 

292.  Results  of  the  embargo;  its  repeal  (1809);  Non- 
Intercourse  Act;  presidential  election.  —  But  at  home  the 
embargo  had  two  advantageous  results :  one  economic,  the 
other  political.  The  shutting  out  of  European  goods  and 
the  prohibition  of  commercial  intercourse  forced  the  capital 
and  industry  of  New  England  to  establish  home  manufactures. 
The  looms  of  the  farmers'  wives  were  soon  able  to  supply  "two- 
thirds  of  the  clothing  and  house-linen  of  the  United  States  out 
side  of  the  cities,"  while  in  less  than  two  years,  the  number  of 
spindles  in  the  cotton-mills  increased  from  "eight  thousand  to 
eighty  thousand."  Shoe,,  hat,  and  other  factories  prospered ; 
Massachusetts  sent  nails,  and  Connecticut  tinware  and  clocks, 
to  all  parts  of  the  country.697  Furthermore,  many  new  and 
important  industries  sprang  up  not  only  in  New  England,  but 
in  other  States. 


1809.]  THE    UNION,   NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  26 1 

Politically  the  embargo  postponed  war  for  a  number  of  years. 
But  whatever  advantages  were  reaped  from  Jefferson's  "  peace 
able  coercion,"  it  created  dangerous  irritation  in  the  Northeast. 
John  Quincy  Adams  at  length  (1809)  told  the  President  that 
the  embargo  could  no  longer  be  safely  enforced  in  that  quarter. 
He  stated  that  he  had  good  reason  to  believe  that  some  leading 
New  England  Federalists  had  formed  a  plot  to  detach  the 
Northeastern  States  and  to  enter  into  an  alliance  with  England. 
The  men  who  were  accused  of  being  engaged  in  this  plot  indig 
nantly  denied  it ;  **  but  the  pressure  on  the  Government  for 
the  removal  of  the  embargo  became  irresistible.  Jefferson  said 
a  majority  in  Congress  were  convinced  that  they  must  choose 
between  repeal  or  civil  war.699  The  result  was  that  the  law  was 
repealed  early  in  1809.  Congress  then  (1809)  passed  a  Non- 
Intercourse  Act,  or  partial  embargo,  which  opened  our  ports  to 
all  nations  except  England  and  France.700 

Meanwhile  the  presidential  election  had  taken  place.  The 
chief  candidates  were  James  Madison,  Democratic-Republican, 
and  C.  C.  Pinckney,  Federalist.  Madison  was  elected,  with 
George  Clinton  as  Vice-President ;  the  electoral  vote  stood 
122  to  47. 

Jefferson  had  lost  his  popularity,  and  was  anxious  to  retire 
to  "the  shades  of  Monticello."  "  Never,"  said  he,  "  did  a  pris 
oner  released  from  his  chains"  "feel  such  relief  as  I  shall  on 
shaking  off  the  shackles  of  power." 701 

293.  Summary.  —  Jefferson's  administration  began,  as  he 
believed,  a  "  political  revolution."  By  his  election  the  Repub 
lican  or  Democratic  Party  came  into  power,  and  continued  to 
hold  it  without  a  break  for  nearly  forty  years.  Under  Jefferson 
the  United  States  effected  the  purchase  of  Louisiana,  by  which 
the  area  of  the  Republic  was  more  than  doubled,  and  the  ques 
tion  of  slavery  extension  west  of  the  Mississippi  was  opened. 
Soon  afterward  the  Lewis  and  Clark  expedition  explored  the 
far  West  and  helped  to  confirm  our  title  to  the  Oregon  country. 
Fulton's  steamboat  made  rapid  communication  with  the  greater 


262  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [ISOQ-. 

part  of  the  country  possible,  and  so  materially  strengthened 
the  bonds  of  Union  which  the  Burr  conspiracy  attempted  to 
break.  Abroad  the  insolence  of  the  Barbary  pirates  was  hum 
bled.  Later,  the  interference  of  England  and  France  with  our 
foreign  trade  joined  to  impressment  disputes  led  to  an  embargo 
which  produced  important  economic  and  political  effects  ;  when 
the  Embargo  Act  was  repealed,  it  was  succeeded  by  the  Non- 
Intercourse,  or  partial  embargo,  Act. 


JAMES    MADISON   (DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN),   TWO    TERMS, 
1809-1817. 

294.  Temporary  renewal  of  trade  with  Great  Britain.  — 

Not  long  after  Madison's  inauguration  (§  292)  Erskine,  the 
English  Minister  at  Washington,  announced  himself  "  author 
ized  fo  declare"  that  the  British  "  Orders  in  Council "  (§  289) 
would  be  withdrawn  on  the  tenth  of  June.  Madison  at  once 
issued  a  proclamation  which  suspended  the  Non-Intercourse 
Act  (§  292)  and  renewed  friendly  relations  with  England. 
Great  were  the  rejoicings  among  shipowners  and  sailors. 
Hundreds  of  vessels  were  quickly  made  ready  for  sea,  and  in 
a  few  weeks  upwards  of  a  thousand  American  merchantmen 
had  left  our  ports  laden  with  "  the  accumulation  of  nearly  two 
years'  produce."702 

Three  months  later,  despatches  came  from  England  stating 
that  Erskine  had  not  followed  his  official  instructions,  and  that 
the  "  Orders  in  Council "  still  remained  in  force.  President 
Madison,  angry  and  perplexed,  found  himself  "under  the  mortify 
ing  necessity"  of  issuing  a  new  proclamation  (1809)  reviving 
the  Non-Intercourse  Act  (§  292)  against  Great  Britain.703 

295.  The  Macon  Act;  Napoleon's  policy.  —  The  next  spring 
(1810)  Congress  passed  the  Macon  Act.    It  took  off  restrictions 
on  commerce,  but  so  far  as  England  or  France  was  concerned, 
it  forbade  intercourse  with  the  nation  that  continued  to  maintain 
measures  hostile  to  our  trade.704 


1810-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  263 

Napoleon,  by  his  Rambouillet  Decree  (1810),  had  ordered  the 
sale  of  American  ships  and  cargoes  to  the  value  of  $10,000,000, 
and  had  thrown  several  hundred  American  sailors  into  prison.705 
While  the  Emperor  was  making  ready  to  sweep  this  goodly  sum 
into  his  "  strong  box,"  he  received  a  copy  of  the  Macon  Act. 
He  immediately  assured  our  Government  that  he  loved  the 
Americans,  and  he  pledged  himself  to  revoke  or  suspend  all  of 
his  decrees  (§  289)  against  our  commerce,  provided  Great  Brit 
ain  would  withdraw  her  "  Orders  in  Council  "  (§  289),  or  that 
the  United  States  would  cause  its  "  rights  to  be  respected  by 
the  English." 706  President  Madison  was  so  moved  by  the 
Emperor's  assurance  that  he  issued  a  proclamation  declaring 
all  trade  restrictions  against  France  revoked.  Later,  when  it 
was  found  that  Great  Britain  had  no  intention  of  withdrawing 
her  "Orders  in  Council,"  Congress  reaffirmed  non-intercourse 
with  that  country.  Napoleon  had  won  his  game.  First,  he 
had  embroiled  us  anew  with  England;  secondly,  by  his  pre 
tended  good  will,  he  had  drawn  more  of  our  ships  into  the  trap 
set  to  catch  them  when  they  should  arrive  in  French  ports; 
finally,  he  kept  his  cruisers  busy  burning  or  plundering  our 
vessels  on  the  ocean. 

296.  Tecumseh  and  the  "  Prophet. "  — While  our  relations 
with  England  and  France  were  becoming  strained  almost  to  the 
war-point,  a  decisive  battle  with  the  Indians  was  fought  in  the 
West.  It  was  perhaps  inevitable  that  conflicts  should  spring 
up  between  the  Western  settlers  and  the  aborigines.  The 
interests  of  the  two  races  clashed  (§  31).  The  whites  were 
eager  to  get  possession  of  the  Indian  hunting-grounds,  and 
many  of  the  Red  Men,  debased  by  drink  and  harassed  with  debt, 
were  ready  to  sell  their  lands  for  the  first  offer.  The  better 
class  of  Indians  saw  clearly  that  unless  this  process  could  be 
checked,  the  tribes  must  soon  choose  between  starvation  and 
emigration.  Tecumseh  and  his  brother,  the  "Prophet,"  two 
Indians  of  the  Wabash  Valley,  were  the  leaders  in  a  great  move 
ment  of  reform  and  reorganization.707  Their  object  was  to  sup- 


264  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [isn-. 

press  the  use  of  liquor  among  their  people  and  to  create  a  league 
of  all  the  Northern  and  Southern  tribes.  In  this  proposed  Indian 
republic  a  congress  of  warriors  was  to  have  absolute  control 
over  all  lands,  so  that  none  could  be  sold  without  their  consent. 
As  a  center  for  this  movement,  Tecumseh  and  the  "  Prophet" 
founded  a  village  in  the  Territory  of  Indiana  at  the  mouth  of 
Tippecanoe  Creek,  a  tributary  of  the  Wabash. 

297.  Harrison  and  Tecumseh;  Tippecanoe. — William  Henry 
Harrison,  the  military  Governor  of  the  Territory,  had  recently 
(1809)  purchased  for  the  United  States  an  immense  tract  of 
land  from  remnants  of  tribes  in  the  Wabash  Valley.    Tecumseh 
believed  that  this  purchase  had  not  been  fairly  made.     He  said 
to  Governor  Harrison:   "You  are  continually  driving  the  red 
people;  at  last  you  will  drive  them  into  the  Great  Lake."708 
He  insisted  that  the  recent  land  cession  should  be  annulled ; 
in  that  case  he  pledged  himself  to  be  our  faithful  ally;  otherwise 
he  threatened  to  make  war.     Believing  that  war  was  inevitable, 
General  Harrison,  late  in  the  autumn  of  181 1,  advanced  toward 
Tippecanoe  village  with  a  force  of  about  a  thousand  men.    The 
Indians  attempted  to  surprise  him  ;  a  battle  ensued,  in  which 
the  attacking  party  was  decisively  defeated.      Harrison  then 
advanced  and  burned  the  deserted  Indian  village.     At  the  time 
of  the  battle  Tecumseh  was  absent  in  the  South;  when  the  War 
of  1812  began,  he  joined  the  English  forces  in  Canada.     The 
victory  of  Tippecanoe  was   important,   because  it  effectually 
checked   Tecumseh's   project  of  establishing  a  powerful  and 
perhaps  hostile  Indian  confederation. 

298.  The  "Little  Belt ";  the  war  party;  the  Henry  letters. 
—  Meanwhile  (1811)  the  English  sloop-of-war  "Little  Belt"  had 
attacked,  either  purposely  or  by  mistake,  the  American  frigate 
"  President."    The  "Little  Belt  "  got  the  worst  of  the  battle  and 
barely  escaped  destruction.709    Our  grievances  against  England 
were  great.     Aside  from  her  exercise  of  search  (§  289)  and  her 
impressment  of  from  six  to  ten  thousand  of  our  sailors,  she  had 
captured  since  1803  71°  more  than  nine  hundred  of  our  vessels. 


1812-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  265 

On  the  other  hand,  France  had  confiscated  or  destroyed 
American  property  worth  many  millions,  and  cast  hundreds  of 
our  sailors  into  prison;  when  we  asked  for  redress,  Napoleon 
deliberately  deceived  and  insulted  us  (§  295). 

A  strong  war  party,  led  by  Henry  Clay  and  John  C.  Calhoun, 
was  growing  up  in  the  South.  They  held,  with  Madison,  that 
"the  original  sin  against  neutrals"  lay  with  Great  Britain.711 
The  "war  hawks,"  as  the  Federalists  nicknamed  them,  called 
on  the  country  to  rise  in  arms  against  the  King  our  fathers 
fought.  We  had  gained  our  independence  on  land;  they  declared 
that  the  time  had  now  come  to  gain  it  on  the  sea. 

The  President  was  reluctant  to  draw  the  sword,  but  he  at 
length  yielded  to  pressure.712  In  the  spring  of  1812  he  sent  to 
Congress  a  number  of  letters  which  he  had  bought  for  $50,000 
from  John  Henry.  Henry  was  an  Irish  adventurer  who  asserted 
that  Governor  Craig  of  Canada  sent  him  (1809)  as  an  emissary 
to  New  England  at  the  time  of  Jefferson's  embargo  (§  290). 
His  mission  then  was  to  find  out  whether  the  Federalists  favored 
secession  from  the  Union. 

His  letters  were  copies,  and  not  "honest  copies,"  of  the 
original  correspondence  with  Governor  Craig.713  They  contained 
nothing  which  "compromised  any  one  except  Henry  himself."714 
But  they  served  to  excite  the  war  party  in  Congress  to  still 
greater  exasperation  against  the  policy  of  England,715  and  an 
embargo  of  ninety  days  was  declared  as  a  preliminary  to 
hostilities. 

299.  Madison's  "  war  message  ";  war  declared  (1812).  - 
Less  than  three  months  later  the  President  sent  his  "  war  mes 
sage  "  to  Congress,  in  which  he  virtually  recommended  an 
appeal  to  arms.  The  three  chief  grievances  cited  were:  (i)  the 
impressment  of  American  citizens  into  the  English  navy  (§§ 
264,  289);  (2)  the  British  Orders  in  Council  (§  289),  and  the 
establishment  of  "  pretended  blockades  "  by  which  "  our  com 
merce"  had  been  "plundered  in  every  sea";  (3)  the  belief 
that  "  British  traders  and  garrisons "  on  the  Canadian  fron- 


266  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

tier  had  encouraged  the  recent  Indian  outbreak  (§  297)  in 
the  West.716 

When  the  question  came  up  for  debate  in  the  House,  the 
Eastern  and  Middle  States,  with  the  three  exceptions  of  New 
Hampshire,  Vermont,  and  Pennsylvania,  voted  against  the  war 
on  the  ground  that  we  were  unprepared  for  it,  and  that  it  would 
be  disastrous  to  the  best  interests  of  the  country.  All  the 
Southern  and  Western  States,  which  were  mainly  agricultural 
and  had  comparatively  small  commercial  interests  at  stake, 
voted  for  it.  Thirty-four  members  of  the  opposition  joined  in 
an  address  to  their  constituents  in  which  they  stated  in  sub 
stance  that  the  United  States  was  composed  of  eighteen  inde 
pendent  sovereignties  united  by  bonds  of  moral  obligation  only, 
and  that  if  we  entered  upon  the  contest  with  England  we  did 
so  "as  a  divided  people."717  But  on  June  18,  1812,  Congress 
declared  the  "  second  war  of  independence "  against  Great 
Britain.  Before  the  declaration  reached  London,  English  trade 
interests  had  forced  Parliament  to  revoke  the  obnoxious  "Orders 
in  Council"  (§  289).  The  war,  therefore,  was  practically  to  be 
fought  on  the  impressment  grievance  alone,  which  England 
refused  to  discontinue.718 

300.  The  American  army  and  navy ;  Clay  and  the  invasion 
of  Canada;  the  war  loan. —  Our  regular  army  numbered  less 
than  seven  thousand  men.  The  officers  of  this  small  force  were 
mainly  "decaying  veterans"  who  had  been  appointed  not  for 
their  military  ability,  but  for  political  reasons.719  Among  the 
younger  men,  Harrison  had  his  Tippecanoe  fame  (§  297),  and 
Winfield  Scott  and  Andrew  Jackson  were  only  waiting  for  an 
opportunity  to  make  a  brilliant  record.  The  country  had  to 
depend  for  soldiers  mainly  on  the  State  militia  and  on  volun 
teers.  The  Governors  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  refused 
to  furnish  their  quota  of  militia,  but  New  England  contributed 
a  very  large  number  of  volunteers. 

The  navy  consisted  of  six  frigates  and  about  a  dozen  smaller 
vessels;  but  some  of  these  were  the  "best  of  their  class  in  the 


1812-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  26? 

world."  England,  on  the  other  hand,  had  nearly  a  thousand 
war-ships.  The  chief  officers  of  our  little  navy  were  all  young 
men,  and  Hull,  Decatur,  Rodgers,  Bainbridge,  and  Porter  had 
shown  in  the  wars  with  the  Barbary  pirates  (§§  249,  285)  that 
they  knew  how  to  give  and  take  hard  knocks.  But  Clay,  and 
the  war  party  generally,  placed  their  main  reliance  not  on 
battles  at  sea,  but  on  an  invasion  of  Canada.  They  believed 
that  a  majority  of  the  Canadians  would  flock  to  our  standard, 
and  that  we  should  speedily  dictate  "peace  at  Quebec  or 
Halifax."720 

The  war  would  demand  a  liberal  supply  of  money;  but  when 
the  Government  called  for  a  loan  of  $25,000,000,  it  could  not 
obtain  half  that  sum.721  Later,  the  United  States  Treasury  con 
fessed  itself  unable  to  meet  the  interest  due  on  the  national 
debt;  and  had  not  John  Jacob  Astor  and  Stephen  Girard  come 
to  the  rescue,  the  Government  would  have  been  unable  to  pay 
the  wages  of  its  soldiers  and  sailors.722 

301.  Hull's  campaign  and  surrender.  —  The  campaign  was 
opened  in  the  summer  of  1812  by  General  William  Hull.  He 
was  a  Revolutionary  veteran  whom  Washington  had  commended 
as  **  an  officer  of  great  merit."  Hull  advanced  with  a  force  of 
about  two  thousand  men,  and  crossing  the  Detroit  River  into 
Canada,  issued  a  proclamation  declaring  that  he  had  come  to 
restore  the  people  of  that  province  "  to  the  dignified  station  of 
freemen."723  Practically  the  proclamation  had  no  effect  on  the 
Canadians.  After  some  skirmishes  with  the  Indians,  Hull  fell 
back  to  Detroit  His  effective  force  was  soon  reduced  to  about 
a  thousand  men,  and  he  received  no  proper  support  from  the 
Government.  General  Brock,  aided  by  Tecumseh  (§  296)  with 
a  body  of  Indians,  marched  on  Detroit  and  demanded  its  sur 
render.  Brock  had  a  somewhat  larger  force  than  Hull ;  but  the 
American  General  was  behind  his  works,  and  his  men  stood 
ready  to  defend  them.  Hull,  without  firing  a  single  gun  or 
consulting  his  officers,  gave  up  the  fort.  His  object,  he  said, 
was  to  save  the  women  and  children  of  Detroit  from  the  scalp- 


268  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [isia. 

ing-knives  of  the  savages.  Hull  had  not  only  failed  in  his 
expedition  against  Canada,  but  he  had  lost  the  whole  territory 
of  Michigan,  and  Fort  Dearborn  (Chicago)  besides.  He  was 
tried  by  court-martial,  found  guilty  of  cowardice  and  neglect  of 
duty,  and  sentenced  to  be  shot ;  but  the  President  pardoned 
him  on  account  of  his  age  and  his  honorable  Revolutionary 
record.724 

In  the  autumn  (1812)  a  second  attempt  was  made  to  invade 
Canada;  but  the  expedition,  which  was  made  up  chiefly  of  raw 
militia,  was  badly  managed,  and  was  defeated  and  driven  back. 

302.  The  "  Constitution "  vs.  the  "Guerriere";  other 
American  naval  victories.  —  A  few  days  after  Hull  sur 
rendered  at  Detroit  (§  301)  his  nephew,  Captain  Isaac  Hull, 
commander  of  the  frigate  "  Constitution,"  44  guns,  fought 
(August  19,  1812)  the  British  frigate  "Guerriere,"  38  guns,  off 
the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia.  Admiral  Farragut  said  :  "  Captain 
Hull  was  as  able  a  seaman  as  ever  sailed  a  ship."  In  less 
than  thirty  minutes  after  the  engagement  began,  the  "Guer 
riere  "  struck  her  colors.  She  was  so  terribly  cut  to  pieces 
that  Hull  could  not  tow  his  prize  into  port,  so  he  set  her  on 
fire  and  blew  her  up.  The  "Constitution,"  henceforth  popularly 
known  as  "Old  Ironsides,"  came  off  without  serious  damage. 
Before  the  close  of  1812  we  had  gained  three  more  memorable 
victories  at  sea,  —  the  "  Wasp  "  had  captured  the  "  Frolic "; 
the  "United  States"  had  taken  the  "Macedonian";  and  the 
"  Constitution,"  the  "  Java." 

Speaking  of  the  surrender  of  the  "  Guerriere,"  the  "  London 
Times,"  forgetful  of  Paul  Jones's  exploit  (§  224),  said:  "Never 
before  in  the  history  of  the  world  did  an  English  frigate  strike 
to  an  American." .  Before  the  contest  ended  the  same  journal 
had  to  confess :  "  Scarcely  is  there  an  American  ship-of-war 
which  has  not  to  boast  a  victory  over  the  British  flag."  725  In 
fact,  out  of  eighteen  naval  engagements  between  single  vessels, 
we  gained  no  less  than  fifteen.726  In  most  cases  our  ships  were 
larger  than  those  we  fought;  furthermore  they  generally  had 


1812.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  269 

more  men,  and  often  threw  heavier  broadsides;  out  after  all, 
the  real  secret  of  our  remarkable  victories  lay  in  the  fact  that 
we  handled  our  ships  and  guns  far  better  than  our  opponents 
did  theirs.727  Success  in  the  past  had  made  the  English  care 
less;  they  aimed  their  shot  badly,  while  our  sailors  not  only  hit 
the  mark,  but  hit  to  kill.  In  these  battles  the  enemy  lost,  on 
the  average,  about  five  men  to  our  one.728 

The  English  declared  that  the  crews  of  the  American  vessels 
were  made  up  largely  of  deserters  from  the  Royal  Navy,  and 
that  their  ships  had  been  beaten  by  their  own  countrymen  fight 
ing  under  the  "  stars  and  stripes."  The  log-books,  however, 
show  that  nearly  all  of  our  officers  were  born  in  America,  and 
that  not  more  than  one  man  in  twenty  of  our  crews  was  a 
native  of  Great  Britain.  In  the  end  English  naval  writers 
admitted  that  the  American  people,  "rod  in  hand,"  had  taught 
them  their  "  first  lesson  "  in  the  art  of  gunnery.729 

303.  The  "Essex"  in  the  Pacific;  American  privateers; 
the  British  blockade;  the  presidential  election;  the  " Chesa 
peake  "  and  the  "  Shannon. "  —  While  we  were  gaining  this 
series  of  successes  on  the  Atlantic,  Captain  Porter  of  the 
"  Essex  "  was  destroying  British  whalers  by  wholesale  in  the 
Pacific.  American  privateers  beset  the  coast  of  England  to 
such  an  extent  that  English  merchantmen  did  not  dare  leave 
port  except  under  the  protection  of  a  man-of-war.  Within  two 
years  we  had  captured  more  than  eight  hundred  vessels,  and 
before  the  close  of  the  war  the  total  number  of  our  prizes 
reached  twenty-five  hundred.730 

On  the  other  hand,  the  British  not  only  captured  hundreds 
of  our  merchantmen,  but  they  kept  up  a  strict  blockade  along 
the  coast  of  the  United  States.  If  one  of  our  war-ships  left 
port  it  ran  the  risk  of  being  taken  by  a  superior  force,  and  "  the 
American  flag  ceased  for  a  time  to  wave  on  the  ocean  from 
any  national  vessel."  731 

Meanwhile  the  presidential  election  had  occurred  (1812),  and 
notwithstanding  the  efforts  of  the  peace  party,  Madison  received 


270  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

128  electoral  votes  to  89  cast  for  DeWitt  Clinton,  his  opponent. 
Elbridge  Gerry  was  elected  Vice-President. 

The  first  decided  American  defeat  at  sea  occurred  in  the 
summer  of  1813.  Captain  Broke  of  the  "Shannon,"  cruising 
off  Boston,  challenged  Captain  Lawrence  of  the  "  Chesapeake" 
to  fight  him.  Lawrence's  crew  was  larger  than  Broke's,  but  it 
consisted  mainly  of  raw  men,  and  some  of  these  were  mutinous. 
Broke  declared  that  he  had  long  been  drilling  his  crew  into  a 
state  of  "  perfect  discipline  "  with  reference  to  such  a  contest.732 
In  the  course  of  the  action  a  large  number  of  the  officers  of  the 
"  Chesapeake  "  were  struck  down,  and  Lawrence  himself  fell 
mortally  wounded.  His  dying  order  was  :  "  Don't  give  up  the 
ship !  "  The  command  came  too  late,  for  the  enemy  leaping 
on  board  the  "  Chesapeake  "  captured  the  vessel  (June  i,  1813) 
and  ran  up  the  English  colors  in  triumph.  This  engagement 
was  the  last  important  battle  of  the  war  between  single 
ships.783 

304.  Perry's  victory  on  Lake  Erie.  —  While  these  events 
were  taking  place  on  the  Atlantic,  Oliver  Hazard  Perry,  a  young 
man  of  twenty-seven,  was  busy  preparing  for  the  defence  of 
Lake  Erie,  then  held  by  the  enemy's  ships.  Perry  captured  a 
British  brig,  bought  three  small  American  schooners,  and  then, 
by  almost  incredible  labor,  completed  the  construction  of  five 
more  vessels  from  green  timber  which  he  cut  on  the  western 
shore  of  the  lake.  With  this  fleet  of  nine  vessels,  of  which  two, 
as  Perry  said,  "  were  growing  in  the  woods  last  spring,"  the 
young  commander  attacked  the  British  squadron.  Perry  had 
certain  advantages  in  the  engagement.  He  had  three  more 
ships  than  the  enemy;  he  probably  had  more  men  fit  for  duty, 
and  his  guns,  though  fewer  in  number  than  those  of  the  English, 
could  throw  far  heavier  broadsides.734  The  battle  (September 
10,  1813)  was  fought  with  indomitable  courage  on  both  sides. 

In  memory  of  the  lamented  commander  of  the  "Chesapeake," 
Perry  had  named  his  vessel  the  "  Lawrence  "  and  had  hoisted 
a  flag  bearing  Lawrence's  last  words :  "  Don't  give  up  the  ship! " 


fcgUPERTO 


T  A  R  I  0 


M 


G    U   L 


WAR  OF  1812. 


1813-1814.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  2/1 

(§  3°3)-  The  British  made  this  vessel  the  target  of  their  fire; 
Perry  fought  until  nearly  every  one  of  his  men  had  fallen.  He 
saw  that  it  would  be  madness  to  remain  longer  in  his  shattered 
ship.  The  enemy  had  literally  "hammered  him  out  of  it." 
Leaping  into  a  row  boat  with  his  brother,  a  boy  of  twelve,  he 
pulled  with  splintered  oars  amid  a  storm  of  flying  shot  for  the 
"  Niagara."  Having  reached  her,  he  again  hoisted  the  famous 
flag  he  had  brought  with  him  from  the  "  Lawrence,"  and  bore 
down  on  the  enemy's  fleet.  The  fight  was  renewed  more 
furiously  than  ever,  with  the  result  that  at  length  the  British 
commander  was  forced  to  strike  his  colors.  Perry  then  taking 
a  pencil  wrote  on  the  back  of  an  old  letter  this  laconic  despatch 
to  General  Harrison,  commander  of  the  Army  of  the  West :  "  We 
have  met  the  enemy  and  they  are  ours."736 

It  was  the  first  entire  squadron  that  Great  Britain  had  ever 
surrendered,736  and  she  had  surrendered  this  to  Americans.  The 
victory  gave  us  the  absolute  control  of  Lake  Erie.  Perry  trans 
ported  Harrison's  army,  3500  strong,  across  to  Canada.  The 
British,  who  had  only  about  700  men,  were  compelled  to  abandon 
Detroit,  and  retreat  up  the  Thames.  Tecumseh  (§  297)  with 
about  a  thousand  Indians  joined  them  on  that  river.  Harrison 
completely  routed  the  enemy,  and  Tecumseh  was  killed.  We 
recovered  Detroit  (§  301),  and  the  British  never  again  got  a 
foothold  on  the  Territory  of  Michigan.  In  consequence  of  the 
death  of  Tecumseh  most  of  the  Indian  tribes  in  the  Northwest 
now  made  haste  to  declare  their  submission  to  the  United 
States.737 

305.  Macdonough's  victory  (1814).  —  Meanwhile  the  Brit 
ish,  having  captured  Oswego,  had  despatched  a  force  of  about 
twelve  thousand  men  from  Canada  down  the  western  shore  of 
Lake  Champlain.  This  movement  was  supported  by  a  British 
fleet  on  the  lake.  To  oppose  this  advance  we  had  a  small  force 
at  Plattsburg,  and  a  few  war-vessels  stationed  on  the  lake.  The 
American  squadron  was  commanded  by  Captain  Macdonough, 
a  young  man  about  Perry's  age  (§  304).  In  this  instance  the 


272  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

British  had  more  ships,  more  men,  and  more  guns.  The  weight 
of  metal  which  each  side  could  throw  was  equal  almost  to  a 
pound,  but  the  enemy  was  far  superior  in  the  important  matter 
of  long-range  guns.738 

Macdonough  got  his  ships  into  an  advantageous  position  for 
the  fight,  and  then  handled  them  so  admirably  that  in  less  than 
three  hours  (September  u,  1814)  he  had  won  the  day.  The 
British  army  retreated  to  Canada  and  made  no  further  attempts 
to  penetrate  the  State  of  New  York. 

306.  The  campaign  in  Canada;  the  "Bladensburg  races"; 
capture  of  Washington;  the  "  Star  Spangled  Banner. "- 
Meanwhile  there  had  been  a  movement  on  Montreal,  and  fight 
ing  had  occurred  (November  n,  1813)  at  Chrysler's  Farm;  there 
had  also  been  sharp  engagements  at  Chippewa  and  Lundy's 
Lane  (July  5  and  25,  1814).  In  the  first  instance  we  came  off 
second  best;  in  the  last  two  battles  General  Brown  and  Win- 
field  Scott  drove  the  enemy  off  the  field;  but  our  forces  were 
too  small  to  maintain  a  foothold  on  Canadian  soil. 

Late  in  the  summer  of  1814  Admiral  Cockburn  and  General 
Ross  landed  about  five  thousand  men  —  mostly  sailors  and 
marines  —  on  the  banks  of  the  Patuxent  and  marched  on 
Washington.  General  Winder  with  a  force  of  six  thousand 
men  met  the  enemy  at  Bladensburg  within  sight  of  the  national 
capital.  Five  hundred  of  Winder's  army  were  sailors;  most  of 
the  rest  were  raw  militia.  The  sailors  made  a  brave  stand,  but 
the  militia  ran,  and  Madison,  who  was  with  the  troops,  was 
swept  along  with  them,  in  what  the  newspapers  called  the 
"  Bladensburg  races." 

Later,  the  President  fled  to  the  Virginia  woods  for  safety. 
The  enemy  entered  Washington  in  triumph  (August  24,  1814); 
their  first  act  was  to  burn  the  capitol.  They  next  entered  the 
Executive  Mansion,  and,  according  to  their  own  account,  drank 
the  King's  health  in  the  President's  wine,  and  then  set  fire 
to  the  house.  They  then  proceeded  to  destroy  the  Treasury, 
and  most  of  the  other  government  buildings.739  The  English 


T^ 


^2t£— ~?. 


1814.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  2/3 

declared  that  they  perpetrated  this  act  of  vandalism  in  retalia 
tion  for  our  having  burned  the  Parliament  House  at  York  (now 
Toronto).740 

The  British  fleet  next  (September  12,  1814)  moved  on  Fort 
McHenry,  the  chief  defence  of  Baltimore.  The  fort  held  out 
valiantly  against  the  furious  bombardment;  if  it  fell,  the  chief 
city  of  Maryland  must  fall  with  it.  Among  those  who  anxiously 
watched  the  attack  was  Francis  S.  Key,  a  young  Baltimorean, 
detained  as  a  temporary  prisoner  by  the  British.  When  the 
sun  rose  on  the  second  morning  he  saw  with  delight  that  the 
fort  held  out  and  that  "  our  flag  was  still  there."  The  enemy 
had  ceased  firing  and  were  preparing  to  withdraw.  Taking  an 
old  letter  from  his  pocket,  Key  hastily  wrote  on  the  back  of  it 
the  first  draft  of  the  national  song  of  the  "  Star  Spangled  Ban 
ner";  the  whole  country  was  soon  ringing  with  its  patriotic 
strains. 

307.  Fort  Mims;  Jackson  at  Tohopeka  and  Pensacola.  - 
Meanwhile  important  events  were  happening  in  the  Southwest. 
The  powerful  Indian  tribe  of  the  Creeks  in  the  Alabama  coun 
try  had  risen  against  the  settlers  in  that  section.  In  the  sum 
mer  of  1813  they  attacked  Fort  Mims  near  Mobile,  and  massacred 
more  than  five  hundred  men,  women,  and  children  who  had 
gathered  there  for  safety.  General  Andrew  Jackson  of  Ten 
nessee  marched  against  the  Indians  and  completely  routed  them 
(March  14, 1814)  at  Tohopeka,  or  Horseshoe  Bend,  on  a  branch 
of  the  Alabama  River. 

The  Spanish  authorities  had  perfidiously  permitted  the  Eng 
lish  forces  to  land  at  Pensacola,  Florida,  and  make  it  a  base 
of  operations  for  attacking  Louisiana.  Jackson  repulsed  a 
movement  of  the  enemy  against  Mobile ;  then,  without  wait 
ing  for  orders  from  Washington,  he  pushed  forward  to  Pensa 
cola,  took  the  place  by  storm  (November  7,  1814),  and  drove 
out  the  British.  This  success  left  "  Old  Hickory,"  as  his  men 
called  him,  free  to  go  to  the  defence  of  New  Orleans,  which  was 
the  real  point  at  which  the  enemy  was  aiming. 


274  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

308.  New  England's  opposition  to  the  war.  —  While  Jack 
son  was  throwing  up  entrenchments  at  New  Orleans  a  move 
ment  was  in  progress  in  New  England  which  many  believed 
threatened  a  dissolution  of  the  Union.  The  New  England 
States  had  suffered  heavily  by  the  war,  and  the  commercial 
distress  of  that  section  could  hardly  be  overestimated. 

A  strong  party  opposed  the  further  prosecution  of  the  con 
test.  They  denied  that  we  had  made  any  real  progress.  Our 
invasion  of  Canada  (§§  301,  306),  said  they,  has  ended  in  fail 
ure;  our  national  capital  has  been  captured  and  burned,  and 
our  coast  is  strictly  blockaded;  the  enemy  has  secured  pos 
session  of  the  seaboard  of  the  District  of  Maine,  and  threatens 
to  advance  farther  south. 

They  admitted  that  we  had  gained  remarkable  victories  on 
the  ocean ;  but  they  called  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  fall  of 
Napoleon  now  left  England  free  to  employ  an  overwhelming 
naval  force  against  us,  and  that  a  powerful  British  fleet  carry 
ing  a  thousand  guns  was  at  that  very  time  moving  on  New 
Orleans. 

Again,  the  opposition  declared  that  the  war  had  already  cost 
the  Government  more  than  $100,000,000  ;  that  the  National 
Treasury  was  empty;  and  that  the  financial  condition  of  the 
country  seemed  to  forebode  a  general  crash.  Many  banks  had 
suspended  payment,  and  it  was  feared  that  sooner  or  later  all 
must  close  their  doors.741 

Now  that  the  first  enthusiasm  had  spent  itself,  it  had  become 
difficult  to  secure  recruits.  Outside  of  New  York,  Tennessee, 
Kentucky,  and  perhaps  Ohio,  very  few  States  gave  to  the  war 
the  earnest  support  which  it  demanded.  Volunteering  had 
practically  ceased,  and  the  Secretary  of  War  proposed  a  draft, 
and  suggested  that  minors  over  eighteen  should  be  enlisted 
"  without  the  consent  of  their  parents."  In  the  navy  the 
lack  of  men  was  so  serious  that  the  Secretary  of  that  depart 
ment  urged  the  Government  to  adopt  the  British  expedient 
of  impressment  of  seamen.742 


1813-1814.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  2/5 

309.  Call  for  the  Hartford  Convention;  the  " Richmond 
Enquirer  "  on  secession.  —  The  Senate  of  Massachusetts  had 
already   (June   15,    1813)   resolved  that  the  war  was  "  waged 
without    justifiable    cause,"    and    had    solemnly   remonstrated 
against  its  continuance.743     A  few  months  later  the  Legislature 
issued  a   call   for  a  convention  at  Hartford,  and  invited  the 
other  New  England  States  to  send  delegates  "  to  confer  upon 
the  subject  of  their  public  grievances."     But  in  issuing  this 
call  the   Legislature  explicitly  limited  the   action  of  the  pro 
posed  convention  to  matters  "  not  repugnant  to  their  obliga 
tion    as    members    of    the    Union."       The    Legislatures    of 
Connecticut   and   Rhode   Island  —  the  only  remaining  States 
which  chose  delegates  —  imposed  a  similar  restriction.744     Not 
withstanding  the  above   proviso,   the  report  got  abroad  that 
the    real    object    of    the    convention   was    nothing    less    than 
secession.     The   President  was  greatly  alarmed  and  "looked 
heart-broken." 

The  "  Richmond  Enquirer "  condemned  the  meeting  in 
advance.  It  declared  that:  "No  State,  or  set  of  States,  has 
a  right  to  withdraw  itself  from  the  Union  of  its  own  account." 
It  added:  "The  majority  of  the  States  which  formed  the  Union 
must  consent  to  the  withdrawal  of  any  branch  of  it.  Until  that 
consent  has  been  obtained,  any  attempt  to  dissolve  the  Union 
...  is  treason"  745 

310.  The  Hartford  Convention  and  its  work.  —  The  Con 
vention  met  at  Hartford  (December  15,  1814),  and  by  unani 
mous  vote  chose  George  Cabot  of  Boston  chairman.  It  continued 
in  secret  session  for  three  weeks.    The  report  of  the  Convention 
recommended  seven  amendments  to  the  Constitution.     One  of 
these  proposed  amendments,  which  was  styled  "  indispensable," 
demanded  that  the  power  of  Congress  to  admit  new  States,  as 
in  the  recent  case  of  Louisiana  (§  282),  should  be  restricted; 
the  next  most  important  of  the  proposed  amendments  demanded 
the  limitation  of  the  authority  of  the  Government  to  declare 
"  offensive  war."  746 


276  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [isu-isis. 

The  Convention  furthermore  recommended  the  Legislatures 
of  the  three  States  represented  to  protect  their  citizens  against 
forcible  drafts  or  impressments  (§  308)  not  authorized  by  the 
Constitution.  It  also  advised  these  States  to  ask  permission  of 
the  national  Government  to  use  a  part  of  the  federal  taxes  for 
defending  their  territory  against  British  attack.747  In  case  the 
Government  refused  to  grant  such  permission  or  neglected  to 
.take  measures  for  the  protection  of  New  England,  and  insisted 
on  prosecuting  the  war,  the  Convention  recommended  that 
another  convention  should  be  called  to  act  as  "  a  crisis  so 
momentous  may  require." 748  Several  delegates  had  been 
strongly  urged  to  advocate  secession,  but  declined  to  do  so.749 
They  declared,  however,  that  "if  the  Union  be  destined  to 
dissolution  by  reason  of  the  multiplied  abuses  of  bad  adminis 
tration,  it  should,  if  possible,  be  the  work  of  peaceable  times 
and  deliberate  consent."  75° 

The  Hartford  Convention  gave  the  finishing  stroke  to  the 
Federalist  Party  (§  275).  Its  enemies  accused  its  delegates  of 
having  committed  "  moral  treason."  The  fact  that  it  repre 
sented  only  the  extreme  Federalists  had  no  weight  with  those 
who  violently  denounced  all  who  belonged  to  that  party. 

311.  The  battle  of  New  Orleans  (1815).  — Three  days 
after  the  Hartford  Convention  closed  its  session,  General 
Jackson  won  the  ever-memorable  battle  of  New  Orleans.  The 
British  army  of  ten  thousand  men  was  largely  composed  of 
veterans  who  had  fought  under  Wellington.  They  were  com 
manded  by  Sir  Edward  Pakenham,  brother-in-law  of  the  "  Iron 
Duke  "  and  one  of  his  bravest  officers.  Their  object  was  to 
take  New  Orleans  and  thereby  get  control  of  Louisiana  and  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  Jackson  had  only  about  half  as  many 
men  as  Pakenham,  and  less  than  one-fifth  of  these  were  "  regu 
lars."  The  remainder  were  made  up  of  Louisiana  militia, 
Lafitte's  pirates,  free  negroes,  and  volunteers  from  Tennessee 
and  Kentucky.  The  latter  were  all  "  dead  shots "  with  the 
rifle. 


1814-1815.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  277 

Jackson's  main  line  of  defence  consisted  of  a  canal,  or  broad 
ditch,  backed  by  a  rampart  of  muddy  earth  which  extended 
eastward  from  the  Mississippi  to  an  impassable  cypress  swamp. 
On  this  rampart  he  had  mounted  thirteen  cannon.  Fighting 
began  on  the  last  of  December  (1814),  but  the  great  attack  and 
final  assault  by  the  British  came  at  daylight  on  Sunday  morning, 
January  8,  1815.  The  artillery  men  and  the  sharpshooters 
mowed  down  the  enemy  as  they  advanced  against  our  works, 
while  Jackson  ran  along  the  line  crying  to  his  men,  "Give  it  to 
them,  my  boys,  let's  finish  the  business  to-day  !  " 751  They  did 
"  finish  "  it.  The  assaulting  party  was  driven  back  with  ter 
rible  loss.  They  died  as  brave  men  die,  falling  with  their  faces 
toward  our  guns.  The  British  rallied  again  and  again,  but  it 
was  useless;  they  could  not  scale  our  entrenchments,  and  at 
length,  after  three  hours  of  desperate  fighting,  they  turned 
and  fled  in  confusion.  In  that  short  time  the  enemy  had  lost 
more  than  twenty-five  hundred  men,  including  Pakenham,  their 
leader;  Jackson  reported  our  loss  at  "only  seven  killed  and  six 
wounded."  752  It  is  probable  that  this  decisive  victory  would 
in  itself  have  put  an  end  to  the  war,  and  the  moral  effect  of  it 
would  certainly  have  saved  the  Union  had  it  stood  in  any  real 
danger  of  disruption. 

312.  The  treaty  of  Ghent.  —  After  the  first  overthrow  of 
Napoleon,  England  fell  back  exhausted  by  the  tremendous 
struggle  in  which  she  had  been  engaged  on  the  continent.  Her 
people,  crushed  by  debt  and  taxes,  were  eager  to  make  peace 
with  the  United  States,  and  thereby  reopen  their  American 
trade.  Our  commissioners  —  Gallatin,  Bayard,  and  J.  Q.  Adams 
—  met  the  English  commissioners  at  Ghent  in  the  summer  of 
1813;  the  negotiations  dragged  on  for  a  year  and  a  half.  A 
short  time  before  Jackson  fought  the  battle  of  New  Orleans, 
the  treaty  was  signed  at  Ghent  (December  24,  1814);  but  in 
those  days  of  slow-sailing  ships,  the  news  did  not  reach  us  in 
season  to  prevent  the  last  great  conflict  of  the  war. 

We  had  entered  upon  the  contest  of  1812   with  the  cry  of 


278  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

"  Free  Trade  and  Sailors'  Rights."  Our  chief  object  was  to 
compel  England  to  renounce  the  impressment  of  American  sea 
men  (§  264).  The  treaty  of  Ghent,  however,  did  not  mention 
impressment  at  all  nor  did  it  protect  the  rights  of  neutrals. 
Hence  it  wholly  failed  to  secure  either  of  the  objects  for  which 
we  took  up  arms.  But  the  progress  of  events  gained  both  these 
points  without  a  treaty.  When  England  exiled  Napoleon  to 
St.  Helena  all  questions  about  neutral  ships,  free  goods,  and 
impressment  were  dropped,  and  so  far  as  the  United  States 
was  concerned,  were  never  again  revived  in  a  threatening  form.* 

With  regard  to  territory  the  treaty  stipulated  that  England 
should  restore  the  seizures  she  had  made,  —  these  were  parts  of 
Maine  and  the  trading-post  at  Astoria,  Oregon;  provision  was 
also  made  for  the  settlement  of  the  dispute  respecting  the 
boundary  line  between  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

However  unsatisfactory  the  treaty  was  on  the  leading  points 
in  discussion,  the  fact  that  it  brought  peace  caused  it  to  be 
hailed  with  delight.  Federalists  and  Republicans  were  wild 
with  joy.  Party  hatred  was  forgotten,  and  old  political  enemies 
rushed  into  each  other's  arms  and  "  kissed  each  other  like 
women."  753 

313.  Political  results  of  the  War  of  1812.  —The  War  of 
1812,  though  disappointing  in  some  of  its  results  (§  312),  was, 
nevertheless,  our  "  second  war  of  independence."  The  splendid 
victories  which  we  gained  on  the  sea  and  on  the  lakes  won  for 
us  the  respect  of  foreign  nations,  and  henceforth  Great  Britain 
and  all  other  European  powers  silently  conceded  our  rights 
on  the  ocean. 

Next,  the  war  emancipated  us  from  the  belief  that  we  stood 
in  need  of  European  alliances.  Nothing  more  was  heard  of  a 
French  or  of  an  English  party  (§  261);  America  felt  able  to 

*  NOTE.  —  In  1856  the  chief  commercial  nations  of  Europe  adopted  the 
Declaration  of  Paris  which  abolished  privateering,  and  made  the  neutral 
flag  cover  all  goods  not  contraband  of  war  ;  the  United  States  declined  to 
accede  to  this  Declaration.  See  "  Lalor's  Cyclopaedia,"  "  Alabama  Claims." 


1815-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  2/9 

go  forward  in  her  own  chosen  path  without  leaning  on  any 
foreign  power  or  asking  for  any  foreign  approval.  Finally  the 
war  strengthened  the  bond  of  Union  which  it  had  at  one  time 
threatened  to  break.  We  heard  no  more  expressions  of  New 
England  discontent,  and  no  more  hints  of  possible  secession 
in  that  quarter.  Jackson's  notable  victory  at  New  Orleans 
came  to  complement  and  round  out  the  naval  successes  of 
Hull,  Decatur,  Porter,  Perry,  and  Macdonough.  It  sent  a 
thrill  of  pride  through  the  whole  nation,  and  made  North  and 
South  feel  that  they  were  one  people. 

314.  Economic  results  of  the  war ;  Second  United  States 
Bank;  tariff;  emigration;  "  internal  improvements  "  ;  new 
States ;  presidential  election.  —  The  charter  of  the  "  Bank  of 
the  United  States"  (§  255)  expired  (1811)  just  before  the  out 
break  of  hostilities  with  England.  An  attempt  to  renew  it  failed 
by  a  single  vote  ;  at  the  close  of  the  war  the  suspension  of  specie 
payment  by  State  banks  encouraged  the  friends  of  a  national 
bank  to  propose  the  reestablishment  of  such  an  institution. 
They  were  successful,  and  the  second  "  Bank  of  the  United 
States,"  one  of  the  first  results  of  the  war,  was  chartered  (1816) 
for  twenty  years.  Its  capital  was  fixed  at  $35,000,000,  of  which 
one-fifth  was  to  be  subscribed  by  the  Federal  Government. 
Like  its  predecessor,  it  had  its  headquarters  in  Philadelphia 
with  numerous  branches  throughout  the  country.754 

A  second  result  of  the  war,  considered  in  connection  with  the 
preceding  embargo  (§  290),  was  the  encouragement  it  gave  to 
manufacturing,  especially  in  New  England  and  New  York.  In 
1814  Francis  C.  Lowell,  with  others,  introduced  the  power- 
loom  from  England,  and  opened  at  Waltham,  Massachusetts, 
the  first  completely  equipped  cotton  mill  in  the  world.  It  was 
followed  by  the  establishment  of  the  colossal  factory  systems  of 
Lowell,  Fall  River,  and  Lawrence.  At  the  close  of  hostilities 
fleets  of  English  merchantmen  laden  with  English  goods  began 
to  arrive  at  our  ports.  The  cotton  mills  of  New  England, 
claiming  to  represent  a  capital  of  $40,000,000,  demanded  legis- 


280  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

lation  which  should  check  this  deluge  of  cotton  cloths  pouring 
in  from  abroad.  Woollens  were  likewise  in  danger  from  the 
same  source.  They  were  said  to  employ  a  capital  of  about 

$12,000,000. 

A  third  result  of  the  war  was  that  Henry  Clay  came  for 
ward  as  the  champion  of  the  protection  of  home  industry  against 
foreign  competition.  He  urged  the  adoption  of  a  tariff  which 
should  lay  a  heavy  duty  on  the  class  of  imported  goods  which 
our  manufacturers  could  produce.  His  arguments  were  warmly 
supported  by  Calhoun  and  other  Southern  members  interested 
in  cotton-raising  for  the  home  market.  Daniel  Webster  repre 
sented  New  England  commercial  interests.  He  declared  him 
self  friendly  to  such  manufactures  as  we  then  possessed,  but 
he  strongly  opposed  any  action  on  the  part  of  the  Government 
which  should  tend  to  stimulate  their  artificial  increase.765 
Eventually  a  tariff  with  protective  features  in  favor  of  cotton, 
woollen,  iron,  and  sugar  was  established  (1816);  it  imposed 
duties  of  from  twenty  to  thirty-five  per  cent.756 

A  fourth  result  of  the  war  was  that  a  great  impulse  was  given 
to  emigration,  especially  toward  the  South  and  West  which  did 
not  suffer  from  the  depression  felt  in  the  New  England  States. 
In  the  six  years  following  the  treaty  of  peace  (1816-1821)  the 
territorial  population  increased  so  rapidly  that  a  new  State  was 
admitted  each  year. 

A  fifth  important  economic  result  of  the  war  was  that  it 
showed  the  military  as  well  as  the  political  weakness  of  a  vast 
domain  destitute  of  lines  of  connecting  roads  and  canals.  This 
fact  moved  a  powerful  party  in  Congress  to  advocate  a  compre 
hensive  system  of  "  internal  improvements "  (§  285)  which 
would  facilitate  means  of  communication  and  transportation 
between  the  States.  One  object  of  the  increased  tariff  rates, 
was  to  obtain  a  revenue  that  would  justify  larger  expenditures 
in  this  direction.  Hence  the  general  political  result  of  the 
war  was  to  strengthen  the  "  broad-construction  "  theory  of  the 
Constitution  (§  256). 


1817-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  28 1 

During  Madison's  first  administration  the  State  of  Louis 
iana  (§  282)  entered  the  Union  (1812),  and  near  the  close  of 
his  second  administration  (1816)  Indiana  was  admitted,  making 
the  whole  number  of  States  nineteen. 

The  presidential  election  (1816)  was  a  complete  triumph  for 
the  Republicans.  James  Monroe,  who  was  Secretary  of  State 
under  Madison  and,  in  the  language  of  that  day,  "  heir  appar 
ent "  to  the  presidency,  was  chosen  to  succeed  Madison,  with 
Daniel  D.  Tompkins  as  Vice-President.  Monroe's  opponent  was 
Rufus  King,  Federalist.  The  electoral  vote  stood  183  to  34. 

315.  Summary.  —  The   principal   event  of  Madison's  two 
administrations  was  the  War  of   1812 — commonly  known  as 
"  the  second  war  of  independence."     The  contest  made  our 
power  respected  on  the  ocean;  it  ended  by  strengthening  the 
Union  and  rendering  it  self-reliant.     It  encouraged  the  "broad- 
construction  "   policy  which    called   the   second    Bank  of  the 
United  States  into  existence,  established  a  tariff  with  protective 
features,  and  gave  a  new  impulse  to  measures  favoring  the 
building  of  roads,  canals,  and  other  "internal  improvements" 
by  the  national  Government. 

JAMES  MONROE  (DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN),  TWO  TERMS,  1817-1825. 

316.  The  "Era  of  Good  Feeling. "  —  Congress  had  made 
large  appropriations  for  strengthening  the  coast  defences  of  the 
United  States.     The  President  (§  314)  thought  it  his  first  duty 
to  visit  and  personally  inspect  all  the  military  posts  on  the  fron 
tier.     Starting  from  Washington  he  took  the  steamboat  to  Bal 
timore,  and  thence  passed  along  the  seaboard  of  the  Middle  and 
Eastern  States  as  far  as  Portland.     Then  turning  westward  he 
journeyed  to  Detroit,  and  after  a  tour  of  more  than  three  months 
(1817),  returned  through  Ohio  to  occupy  the  unfinished  "White 
House "   at  the   national  capital.     In   the  West  much  of  the 
country  through  which  he  travelled  was  still  covered  by  the 
primeval  forest,  broken  here  and  there  by  Indian  villages  or 


282  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [isn-isis. 

scattered  white  settlements.  Later  (1819),  Monroe  made  a 
similar  journey  through  the  South. 

No  President  since  Washington  had  made  such  a  journey, 
and  Monroe  was  everywhere  welcomed  with  enthusiasm. 
Dressed  in  the  handsome  blue  and  buff  uniform  of  an  officer 
of  the  Revolution,  the  President  recalled  the  stirring  days  of 
'76,  when  American  patriots  fought  for  the  liberty  they  now 
enjoyed.  The  bitter  sectional  feelings  roused  by  the  late  war 
had  subsided,  and  no  sharp  political  issues  had  since  arisen. 
Federalists  and  Republicans  seemed  to  forget  their  old  preju 
dices  and  animosities.  They  declared  that  all  things  now  made 
for  peace,  and  that  the  "  Era  of  Good  Feeling  "  had  begun.757 

317.  The  first  Seminole  War,  1817-1818.  —  Many  Indians 
of  the  Creek  nation  had  emigrated  to  Florida  where  they  had 
united  with  native  tribes  of  that  section.  The  Creeks  called 
these  emigrants  "  Seminoles,"  or  "  Wanderers."  After  Gen 
eral  Jackson  had  subdued  the  Creeks  (§  307)  and  forced  them 
to  give  up  a  large  tract  of  their  country,  many  of  the  defeated 
and  angry  savages  crossed  the  border  and  joined  the  Semi 
noles.  Led  by  their  chief,  "  Billy  Bowlegs,"  they  declared 
implacable  hatred  to  the  United  States.  They  made  a  treaty 
with  Colonel  Nicholls,  commander  of  a  British  force,  who  en 
couraged  them  in  their  determination  to  compel  the  federal 
Government  to  restore  their  lands  in  Georgia  and  Alabama. 

Runaway  slaves  from  Georgia  uniting  with  bands  of  Semi 
noles  seized  an  empty  stronghold  which  Nicholls  had  built ; 
henceforth  it  was  known  as  the  "Negro  Fort."  The  occupants 
of  that  fort  made  raids  across  the  border  and  plundered  the 
Georgia  settlers,  driving  off  cattle  and  enticing  slaves  to  join 
them.  General  Gaines  despatched  an  expedition  against  the 
negro  stronghold,  and  a  well-directed,  red-hot  ball  passing 
through  the  powder  magazine  blew  the  fort  and  its  defenders 
to  fragments  (1816). 

This  effectually  destroyed  the  negro  settlement,  but  as  the 
Seminoles  remained  unsubdued,  General  Jackson  was  ordered 


1818-1819.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  283 

to  move  against  them.  Jackson  made  short  work  with  the 
Indians  he  encountered.  Believing  that  the  Spanish  garrison 
at  St.  Marks  secretly  encouraged  the  hostile  Seminoles,  he 
compelled  the  commander  to  surrender  that  post  (1818). 

A  little  later  he  seized  Arbuthnot  and  Ambrister,  two  British 
subjects  who  were  engaged  in  trade  with  the  Indians,  and 
accused  them  of  stirring  up  the  savages  to  make  war  against 
the  United  States.  The  men  were  convicted  by  court-martial 
and  hanged.  Jackson  then  marched  on  the  Spanish  post  of 
Pensacola  and  seized  it  (1818),  on  the  ground  that  the  Governor 
encouraged  the  Indians  to  make  raids  into  Alabama. 

318.  Jackson  and  Florida;  purchase  of  Florida. — Jackson 
thus  ended  the  first  Seminole  War.  In  doing  this  he  prac 
tically  conquered  Florida,  for  whose  purchase  we  were  then 
negotiating  with  Spain.  The  Government  had  strictly  pro 
hibited  his  seizing  any  Spanish  post  unless  expressly  ordered 
to  do  so.  Spain  protested  against  this  armed  invasion  of  her 
territory ;  Jackson  justified  his  action  by  appealing  to  the  neces 
sity  of  self-defence.  He  declared  that  if  the  Spanish  authorities 
could  not  or  would  not  restrain  the  Seminoles  from  committing 
outrages  on  American  citizens,  he  had  the  military  right  to 
seize  such  fortified  points  as  would  effectually  secure  our 
frontier.  The  administration,  however,  took  a  different  view 
of  the  matter.  The  President  promptly  disavowed  Jackson's 
capture  of  St.  Mark's  and  Pensacola,  and  restored  the  posts  to 
the  Spanish  authorities  (i8i8).758 

Spain  now  thought  it  expedient  to  dispose  of  a  province, 
which  on  account  of  its  situation  was  likely  to  breed  more  wars 
with  the  United  States.  John  Quincy  Adams  negotiated  a 
treaty  of  purchase  (1819)  —  ratified  in  1821.  By  its  terms 
Spain  ceded  to  us  the  whole  territory  of  East  and  West  Florida 
for  the  sum  of  $5,000,000,  and  at  the  same  time  renounced  her 
claim  to  any  part  of  the  Pacific  coast  north  of  the  forty-second 
parallel.  This  act  helped  to  confirm  our  title  to  the  Oregon 
country  (§258).  On  the  other  hand,  we  gave  up  whatever 


284 


THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [ISIS-ISIQ. 


territorial  right  we  had  obtained  to  Texas  through  our  purchase 
of  the  province  of  Louisiana  (§  280). 

319.  Business  crash  and  panic ;  separation  of  Church  and 
State;  the  steamship  "  Savannah.*1  —  Meanwhile  the  coun 
try  was  suffering  from  "hard  times,"  and  the  outlook  was  most 
discouraging.  The  introduction  of  the  steamboat  into  western 
waters  (§  286)  had  greatly  stimulated  emigration,  and  this,  in 


The  United  States  after  the  Purchase  of  Florida  in    1819. 

(From  1818  to  1846  the  "Oregon  Country"  was  held  jointly  with  Great  Britain;  Spain 
gave  up  all  claim  to  Oregon  in  1819;  all  the  territory  east  of  the  Upper  Mississippi 
had  been  organized  (1805,  1818)  as  "  Michigan  Territory.") 

turn,  had  encouraged  widespread  and  reckless  land  specula 
tion.  To  accommodate  borrowers,  banks  sprang  up  by  scores, 
so  that  before  the  close  of  1818  nearly  four  hundred  such  insti 
tutions  were  doing  business  in  twenty-three  States  and  Terri 
tories.  Most  of  these  banks  had  no  adequate  capital,  and 
many  of  them  were  guilty  of  gross  fraud,  and  recklessly  issued 
"  five  times  as  much  paper  as  they  could  ever  redeem."  m  The 
"Bank  of  the  United  States"  (§314)  resolved  to  force  these 
worthless  State  banks  to  redeem  the  notes  with  which  they 


1818-1833.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  285 

had  flooded  the  country.  This  action  hastened  the  inevitable 
crash  (iSig).760  Business  came  to  a  standstill,  laborers  were 
thrown  out  of  employment,  and  the  jails  were  crowded  with 
penniless  debtors. 

While  these  dismal  events  occupied  the  public  mind,  a  great 
political  movement  was  in  progress  in  New  England,  which 
resulted  in  the  final  separation  of  Church  and  State  (§  179). 
This  change  began  in  the  adoption  of  a  new  constitution  by 
Connecticut  (1818).  It  extended  to  New  Hampshire  (1819), 
then  to  Maine  (1821),  and  finally  (1833)  to  Massachusetts. 
It  granted  the  right  of  suffrage  to  all  tax-payers,  and  released 
them  from  the  compulsory  support  of  any  form  of  religious 
worship.761 

Meanwhile  another  and  very  different  revolution  was  fore 
shadowed.  In  the  spring  of  1819  the  "Savannah,"  an  Amer 
ican-built  sailing-vessel,  provided  with  paddle-wheels  which 
could  be  moved  by  steam,  crossed  from  New  York  to  Liver 
pool.  She  was  the  first  rude  attempt  at  an  ocean  steamer. 
She  made  the  passage  in  twenty-six  days.  There  were  packet- 
ships  then  that  could  easily  beat  that  record ;  but  the  "  Savan 
nah"  appears  to  have  suggested  the  first  permanent  line  of 
steamships.  These  vessels  were  launched  in  England  in  1840, 
and  were  the  forerunners  of  our  modern  "greyhounds  of  the 
sea."762 

320.  The  question  of  slavery  extension ;  alternate  admis 
sion  of  free  and  slave  States.  —  For  many  years  there  had 
been  no  serious  discussion  of  slavery  in  Congress ;  apparently, 
that  question  had  been  put  to  final  rest  (§  257).  Now  it  sud 
denly  sprang  to  life  in  a  more  dangerous  form  than  ever. 

We  have  seen  (§  176)  that  Washington,  Franklin,  and 
Jefferson  believed  and  hoped  that  slavery  would  die  a  natural 
death.  But  the  occurrence  of  two  events  rendered  their  labors 
in  the  cause  of  emancipation  useless.  These  were  Whitney's 
invention  of  the  cotton-gin  (1793)  (§  259),  and  the  purchase  of 
the  Territory  of  Louisiana  (1803)  (§  280).  The  first  made 


286  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [ms~. 

slave  labor  enormously  profitable  at  the  South  ;  the  second 
secured  its  extension  west  of  the  Mississippi  River.  Thus 
at  the  very  time  when  the  Northern  States  were  passing  acts 
of  gradual  or  immediate  emancipation,  negro  bondage  was 
strengthened  at  the  South,  and  was  gaining  the  support  of 
much  Northern  manufacturing  and  commercial  capital. 

Congress  had  prohibited  the  foreign  slave-trade  (§  257), 
but  it  still  flourished;  and  Judge  Story  declared  (1819)  that 
American  citizens  were  "steeped  up  to  their  very  mouths 
in  this  stream  of  iniquity."  m  Unexpectedly  the  question  of 
the  maintenance  of  slavery  had  risen  to  be  the  chief  economic, 
political,  and  moral  factor  in  the  history  of  the  United  States. 

From  this  period  the  Republic  became  "a  house  divided 
against  itself."  Every  year  made  it  more  and  more  difficult 
for  the  federal  Government  to  legislate  satisfactorily  for  the 
two  sections  with  their  antagonistic  tendencies  and  systems  of 
labor.  In  order  to  secure  an  even  division  of  political  power, 
Congress  had  adopted  the  policy  of  admitting  new  States  by 
alternation,  so  that  a  free  State  should  balance  a  slave,  or  a 
slave  a  free  (§  267).  Thus  Vermont  was  followed  by  Kentucky, 
Tennessee  by  Ohio,  Louisiana  by  Indiana,  Mississippi  by  Illi 
nois.  After  the  admission  of  Illinois  (1818)  there  were  eleven 
free  to  ten  slave  states  in  the  Union.  The  expected  speedy 
admission  of  Alabama  —  which  in  fact  soon  occurred  —  would 
restore  the  political  equipoise  and  make  the  Union  half  slave 
and  half  free. 

321.  Missouri  applies  for  admission  as  a  slave  State; 
Tallmadge's  amendment.  —  At  this  juncture  the  Legislature 
of  Missouri  Territory  petitioned  Congress  (1818)  for  permis 
sion  to  form  a  State  government.  At  St.  Louis  and  elsewhere 
about  ten  thousand  negroes  were  held  in  bondage  under  terri 
torial  laws  (§  280),  and  no  one  doubted  that  the  people  of 
Missouri  intended  to  make  it  a  slave  State.  The  petition  was 
referred  to  a  committee  which  brought  in  a  favorable  bill. 
This  action  was  a  surprise  to  the  North ;  for  since  the  admis- 


1819-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  287 

sion  of  the  State  of  Louisiana  (1812)  the  people  opposed  to 
slavery  had  taken  it  for  granted  that  no  further  attempts  would 
be  made  to  extend  it  west  of  the  Mississippi. 

When  the  Missouri  bill  came  up  in  the  House,  Tallmadge, 
of  New  York,  moved  an  amendment  (February  13,  1819)  pro 
hibiting  "  the  further  introduction  of  slavery "  into  Missouri, 
and  requiring  that  "all  children  born  within  the  said  State, 
after  the  admission  thereof  into  the  Union,  shall  be  free  at  the 
age  of  twenty-five."  764 

322.  Debate  on  Tallmadge' s  amendment.  —  This  proposi 
tion  roused  a  fierce  and  prolonged  debate,  in  which  Southern 
threats  of  secession  were  met  by  cool  defiance/65  While  the 
question  was  before  the  House,  a  bill  was  introduced  to  provide 
a  territorial  government  for  the  Arkansas  country  where,  as  in 
the  Missouri  country,  slavery  already  existed.  Following  the 
example  of  Tallmadge,  Taylor,  of  New  York,  moved  that 
slavery  should  be  prohibited  in  the  new  Territory.  After  a 
sharp  contest  his  motion  was  lost,  and  Arkansas  was  organ 
ized  (March  2,  1819)  without  the  proposed  restriction. 

This  act  seemed  to  foreshadow  the  extension  of  negro 
bondage  and  greatly  excited  the  North.  But  the  discussion 
of  the  Missouri  question  far  outranked  that  of  the  Territory 
of  Arkansas,  and  it  roused  passions  which  shook  the  founda 
tions  of  the  Republic.  Jefferson  said  that  the  angry  debate 
startled  him  "like  a  fire  bell  in  the  night,"  and  seemed  "the 
knell  of  the  Union."766 

Henry  Clay  led  the  opponents  of  Tallmadge's  motion.  He 
argued  that  it  would  be  inhuman  to  coop  up  the  slaves  on  the 
exhausted  soil  of  plantations  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  he 
implored  Congress  to  throw  open  Missouri  and  let  the  poor 
negroes  "share  the  fat  plenty  of  the  new  West." 

He  and  his  followers  denied  that  Congress  had  the  consti 
tutional  power  to  impose  Tallmadge's  restriction  (Appendix, 
p.  xiv,  Sect.  3).  They  furthermore  declared  that  the  purchase 
treaty  of  1803  (§  280)  guaranteed  to  the  white  inhabitants  of 


288  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

the  entire  Louisiana  country  the  right  to  hold  slaves.  Finally, 
they  contended  that  Congress  could  not  prevent  emigrants 
from  the  Southern  States  going  to  Missouri  and  taking  with 
them  their  negroes  —  which  in  law  were  as  truly  their  property 
as  their  horses  and  cattle  were.  The  Northern  members  replied 
that  Congress,  under  the  Confederation,  had  shut  slavery  out 
of  the  entire  Northwest  Territory  by  the  Ordinance  of  1787 
(§  237),  and  had  done  it  by  means  of  Southern  votes.  If  that 
celebrated  act  was  constitutional,  —  and  no  one  denied  it, — so, 
too,  they  argued,  was  the  measure  now  proposed,  since  it  simply 
applied  to  the  region  beyond  the  Mississippi,  a  rule  which  had 
been  successfully  applied  east  of  that  river. 

Slavery,  said  they,  is  not  national,  but  local  and  accidental; 
it  is  contrary  to  the  real  spirit  of  American  institutions.  To 
extend  it  would  be  to  deliberately  propagate  a  system  which 
leading  Southern  men  have  always  admitted  to  be  a  moral  and 
political  evil.767 

Thus  supported,  Tallmadge's  amendment  passed  the  House 
by  a  vote  of  97  to  56,  but  it  was  rejected  by  the  Senate.  The 
House  stood  firm,  and  Cobb,  of  Georgia,  declared  that  the 
Northern  members  "  were  kindling  a  fire  "  which  nothing  but 
blood  could  extinguish.  Later,  Senator  Barbour,  of  Virginia, 
proposed  calling  a  convention  to  dissolve  the  Union.768 

323.  The  people  discuss  the  Missouri  question ;  action  of 
Congress  on  Maine  and  Missouri.  —  After  the  adjournment  of 
Congress  in  the  spring  of  1819,  the  people  of  both  sections 
took  up  the  Missouri  question.  Public  meetings  in  Boston, 
New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  even  in  Baltimore,  demanded 
that  Congress  should  put  a  stop  to  the  spread  of  slavery 
beyond  the  Mississippi.  The  Legislatures  of  Pennsylvania, 
Ohio,  and  Indiana  warmly  seconded  this  demand. 

The  South  generally  took  the  opposite  stand.  Virginia  and 
Kentucky  called  for  the  admission  of  Missouri  without  condi 
tions,  declaring  that  the  attempt  to  restrict  slavery  was  a  direct 
attack  on  State-rights.769 


1819-1829.]        THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT. 


289 


A  new  Congress  met  in  December,  1819,  and  Missouri  again 
petitioned  for  admission.  The  discussion  of  the  question  of 
restriction  was  then  taken  up  in  the  Senate  and  very  ably 
argued.  Rufus  King,  of  New  York,  was  the  champion  of  free 
soil,  and  William  Pinkney,  the  brilliant  Maryland  lawyer, 
defended  the  cause  of  slavery.770  Missouri  had  no  sooner 
presented  her  petition  in  the  House  than  the  District  of 
Maine,  recently  separated  from  Massachusetts  (§  105),  asked 


Map  illustrating  the  Missouri  Compromise  Act  of  1820. 

(The  Act  did  not  mention  the  territory  south  of  36°  30',  but  the  understanding  was  that 
it  was  to  be  opened  to  slavery.) 

permission  to  enter  the  Union.  The  House,  by  a  sectional 
vote,  granted  Maine  her  prayer;  after  a  long  debate  the 
Senate  did  the  same,  but  added  a  "  rider  "  to  the  bill  which 
provided  that  Missouri  should  be  admitted  without  restriction 
of  slavery.  As  neither  branch  of  Congress  would  yield,  legis 
lation  on  this  point  came  to  a  standstill. 

324.   The  Missouri  Compromise  proposed  and  passed  (1820). 
— Senator  Thomas,  of  Illinois,  broke  the  deadlock.     He  had 


290  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [isao-isai. 

already  proposed  the  famous  measure  which  got  the  name  of 
the  Missouri  Compromise.  He  now  presented  the  bill  again 
(February  17,  1820).  It  provided  that  the  State  of  Missouri 
should  be  admitted  with  slavery,  but  that  in  all  the  remaining 
territory  west  of  the  Mississippi,  north  of  the  line  36°  30',  —  or 
the  southern  boundary  of  Missouri,  —  slavery  should  be  "  for 
ever  prohibited." m  It  was  understood  that  if  the  North 
accepted  this  proposition  no  further  opposition  would  be  made 
on  the  part  of  the  South  to  the  admission  of  Maine.  The 
Senate  voted  in  favor  of  the  Missouri  Compromise;  when  it 
came  to  the  House  it  was  carried  (March  2,  1820)  by  the  help 
of  eighteen  Northern  members. 

Benton  spoke  of  it  later  as  "an. immense  concession"  by 
the  South  to  the  non-slave-holding  States ;  but  the  friends  of 
free  soil  looked  upon  it  as  a  defeat.  John  Randolph,  of  Vir 
ginia,  stigmatized  the  Compromise  as  a  "dirty  bargain,"  and 
nicknamed  the  Northern  men  who  had  voted  for  it  "  Dough 
faces";  only  three  of  these  men  were  reflected  to  Congress.772 

Before  signing  the  Missouri  Compromise  Bill,  President 
Monroe  asked  his  Cabinet,  "  Has  Congress  the  constitutional 
right  to  prohibit  slavery  in  a  Territory  ?  "  All  of  his  Cabinet, 
including  Calhoun,  replied,  "Yes."  The  President  then  signed 
the  bill.773 

The  entrance  of  the  two  States  of  Maine  and  Missouri 
(1820,  1821)  made  the  whole  number  twenty-four  —  twelve 
slave  and  twelve  free. 

325.  What  Jefferson  and  John  Quincy  Adams  thought  of 
the  Compromise.  —  Thus  peace  was  obtained;  but  Jefferson 
declared  that  an  irritating  geographical  line  had  been  estab 
lished,  and  he  feared  that  the  question  of  the  further  extension 
of  slavery  would  eventually  make  "separation  preferable  to 
eternal  discord."  "We  have  the  wolf  by  the  ears,"  said  he, 
"and  we  can  neither  hold  him  nor  safely  let  him  go."774  But 
notwithstanding  Randolph's  sneer,  there  were  Northern  men 
who  had  no  "  dough "  either  in  face  or  character  who  had 


1820-1821.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT. 

given  the  measure  their  support.  John  Quincy  Adams,  Secre 
tary  of  State,  the  "first  leader  in  the  long  crusade  against 
slavery,"  was  one.  He  said,  "  I  have  favored  the  Missouri 
Compromise,  believing  it  all  that  could  be  effected  under  the 
present  Constitution,  and  from  extreme  unwillingness  to  put 
the  Union  to  hazard.  If  the  Union  must  be  dissolved,  slavery 
is  precisely  the  question  on  which  it  ought  to  break.  For  the 
present,  however,  this  contest  is  laid  asleep."775  The  phrase 
"  laid  asleep "  was  wisely  chosen,  for  the  terrible  question 
gained  new  strength  through  repose;  when  it  awoke  many 
years  later,  it  showed  itself,  as  Jefferson  predicted  it  would, 
more  irrepressible  and  more  formidable  than  ever. 

326.  The  second  Missouri  Compromise ;  admission  of  the 
State  (1821).  —  When  Missouri  formed  her  State  constitution 
she   forbade   the   entrance    of   free  negroes.     This   provision 
raised  another  storm.     The  great  majority  of  Northern  mem 
bers  in  the  House  voted  against  admitting  the  State  unless  this 
article  should  be  dropped.     Henry  Clay  effected  a  compromise 
by  which  the  Missouri  Legislature  pledged  the  State  not  to  shut 
out  any  colored  person  who  was  a  citizen  of  another  State;776 
Missouri  was  then  admitted  (1821).    Fifteen  years  later  (1836) 
the  Missouri  Compromise  was  practically  violated  by  an  act  of 
Congress  which  extended  the  area  of  the  State  on  the  northwest. 
The  portion  added  was  as  large  as  Rhode  Island ;  the  Com 
promise  of  1820  had  included  it  in  territory  which  was  to  be 
free  soil  "forever,"  but  this  act  made  it  part  of  a  slave  State. 

327.  The  Crawford  Act;  "  machine  politics  ";  the  presi 
dential  election.  —  Meanwhile  important  political  changes  had 
been  taking  place.     Throughout  the  States  it  had  now  become 
the  practice  on  the  incoming  of  a  new  Governor  to  remove  officers 
who  did  not  agree  with  him  in  politics.     The  tendency  was  to 
nationalize  this  system  by  applying  it  to  federal  officers. 

William  H.  Crawford,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  an  aspirant 
for  the  presidency,  procured  the  passage  of  an  act  (1820) 
which  greatly  increased  the  power  of  Federal  patronage. 


292  THE    STUDENT'S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.          [1820-1825. 

Hitherto  it  had  been  the  custom  to  continue  the  subordinate 
officers  of  the  Treasury  Department  in  service  during  good 
behavior.  The  Crawford  Tenure  of  Office  Act  now  limited 
their  term  to  four  years.777  This  was  the  commencement  of 
that  regular  system  of  rotation  in  office  and  of  "  political 
rewards  "  which  continued  until  overturned  by  the  Civil  Ser 
vice  Reform  movement,  more  than  half  a  century  later  (1872). 

Less  than  ten  years  after  the  passage  of  the  Crawford  Act, 
party  leaders,  since  known  as  "  bosses,"  began  to  manage 
presidential  nominations  and  elections  by  means  of  methods 
nicknamed  "machine  politics."  The  so-called  "gerrymander," 
—  a  political  trick  for  securing  elections  by  unfairly  redistrict- 
ing  a  State,  —  had  come  into  use  since  1811.  At  the  presi 
dential  election  (1820)  there  was  no  division  of  parties,  and 
Monroe  obtained  every  electoral  vote  but  one. 

328.  The  Cumberland  Road  veto ;  Texas —  The  Cumber 
land  Road  (§  285),  the  first  great  national  undertaking  of  the 
kind, — projected  in  1806, — had  been  completed  across  the 
mountains.  It  extended  to  Wheeling,  on  the  Ohio,  and 
the  entire  work  had  cost  about  $1,700,000. 778  Congress  now 
passed  a  bill  appropriating  $9000  for  the  repair  of  the  road  ; 
Monroe,  who  was  a  "  strict  constructionist  "  (§  256),  vetoed  it, 
on  the  ground  that  the  Constitution  gave  Congress  no  power 
to  make  this  class  of  "internal  improvements."779  Later,  he 
reconsidered  his  objections,  and  on  the  last  day  of  his  adminis 
tration  (1825)  signed  a  bill  for  extending  this  important  road  to 
Zanesville,  Ohio.780  Eventually  this  broad,  straight,  well-built 
national  highway  was  pushed  through  nearly  to  the  Missis 
sippi.  The  whole  question  of  the  constitutionality  of  "internal 
improvements"  continued  to  excite  sharp  debate  until  the 
advent  of  railroads  (1830),  built  by  stock  companies,  put  an 
end  to  the  discussion,  except  in  the  case  of  the  great  trans 
continental  undertakings  of  recent  times. 

We  have  seen  (§318)  that  when  we  purchased  Florida 
(1819)  we  renounced  all  claim  to  Texas  ;  but  this  renunciation 


THE    CUMBERLAND    OR    NATIONAL    ROAD. 

Through  the  influence  of  Henry  Clay,  who  was  called  "the  Father  of  the  National 
Road,"  this  work  was  begun  in  1811  at  Fort  Cumberland,  Maryland.  It  was  completed 
to  Wheeling,  1820;  to  Zanesville,  1830;  to  Vandalia,  1836.  The  proposed  extension  to 
Jefferson  City,  Missouri,  was  never  carried  out,  since  after  1836  the  public  interest  began 
to  center  in  the  building  of  railways. 


THE    MISSOURI    COMPROMISE   ACT  (1820). 


1820-1836.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  2Q3 

did  not  prevent  filibustering  expeditions  (1819-1821)  from 
some  of  the  Southern  States.  Many  people  in  that  section 
believed  that  the  President  had  exceeded  his  powers  in  giving 
up  our  claim  to  Texas.  They  resolved  to  make  efforts  to 
obtain  re-possession  of  that  province.  All  those  who  sought 
to  extend  the  area  of  slavery,  either  for  political  reasons  or  in 
order  to  raise  the  market  price  of  negroes  in  the  East,  encour 
aged  those  efforts.781 

329.  Emigration  to  Texas.  —  Stephen  F.  Austin,  of  Mis 
souri,  obtained  a  large  grant  of  land  in  Texas,  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  Brazos  and  Colorado  Rivers,  from  the  Mexican  Govern 
ment  ;  and  many  emigrants  from  the  Southwestern  States  went 
out  to  settle  on  it.    The  Texan  Government  (1827)  had  emanci 
pated  all  slaves,  and  enacted  a  law  forbidding  their  importa 
tion,  though  it  permitted  peonage,  a  form  of  bondage,  worse  in 
some  respects  than  negro  servitude.     The  American  colonists 
in  Texas  paid  no  attention  to  this  law ;  they  continued  to  hold 
negroes  in  servitude,  and  to  bring  them  into  the  province  from 
the  States.     Under  the  leadership  of  General  Sam  Houston, 
of  Tennessee,  these  colonists  (1836)  declared  themselves  inde 
pendent  of    Mexican    rule,  and  after  the  successful  battle  of 
San  Jacinto,  they  raised  the  flag  of  the  "  Lone  Star  State  "  at 
Austin,  the  capital.     From  that  time  onward  a  strong  party  in  the 
South  made  incessant  efforts  to  secure  the  annexation  of  Texas 
as  a  slave  State.     We  shall  see  that,  in  spite  of  powerful  oppo 
sition,  they  at  length  (1845)  succeeded. 

330.  The  " Holy  Alliance ";  Russian  America;  suggestion 
of   the   "  Monroe  Doctrine." — After  the  final  overthrow  of 
Napoleon,  Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria  formed  the  "  Holy  Alli 
ance."     Its  object  was  to  restore  absolute  monarchical  power 
in  Europe  and  in  European  dependencies.782 

The  Alliance  encouraged  Spain  to  prepare  to  subjugate  her 
revolted  and  independent  South  American  colonies ;  at  the 
same  time  the  Czar  thought  it  a  favorable  moment  to  make 
an  attempt  to  extend  the  area  of  the  province  of  Russian 


294  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

America  (now  Alaska)  on  the  Pacific  coast.  John  Quincy 
Adams,  Secretary  of  State,  opposed  the  plans  of  Russia.  He 
declared  that  it  was  a  "law  of  nature  "  that  we  should  eventu 
ally  make  the  whole  of  North  America  our  own.  He  told  the 
Russian  Minister  (1823)  that  "we  should  contest  the  rights  of 
Russia  to  any  territorial  establishment  on  this  continent,"  and 
that  we  should  assume  "  that  the  American  continents  are  no 
longer  subjects  for  any  new  European  establishments."  783 

A  few  months  later  Mr.  Canning,  a  member  of  the  English 
cabinet,  proposed  that  the  United  States  should  cooperate  with 
Great  Britain  in  protecting  the  Spanish  American  Republics 
against  the  designs  of  Spain  and  the  "  Holy  Alliance."  m  Presi 
dent  Monroe  consulted  Jefferson  in  regard  to  the  matter.  Jeffer 
son  said  :  "  Our  first  and  fundamental  maxim  should  be  never  to 
entangle  ourselves  in  the  broils  of  Europe ;  our  second,  never 
to  suffer  Europe  to  intermeddle  with  cis-Atlantic  affairs." 784 
After  discussion  at  a  cabinet  meeting,  it  was  thought  best  to 
respectfully  decline  Canning's  invitation  of  cooperation. 

331.  The  President  promulgates  the  "  Monroe  Doctrine. " 
-In  his  annual  message  (December  2,  1823)  the  President 
called  the  attention  of  Congress  to  the  schemes  of  the  Czar  and 
of  the  "  Holy  Alliance."  Speaking  of  Russia,  he  said:  "The 
American  continents,  by  the  free  and  independent  condition 
which  they  have  assumed  and  maintain,  are  henceforth  not  to 
be  considered  as  subjects  for  colonization  by  any  European 
powers." 

Passing  next  to  the  projects  of  Spain  and  the  "  Holy  Alli 
ance"  with  respect  to  the  colonies  which  had  declared  their 
independence,  he  said:  "We  should  consider  any  attempt  on 
the  part  of  the  allied  powers  to  extend  their  system  to  any 
portion  of  this  hemisphere  as  dangerous  to  our  peace  and  safety." 
He  added  that  should  Europe  make  such  an  attempt  we  could 
not  view  it  "in  any  other  light  than  the  manifestation  of  an 
unfriendly  disposition  toward  the  United  States."  786  This  mem 
orable  declaration  obtained  the  name  of  the  "  Monroe  Doctrine." 


1823-1896.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT. 

332.  Application  of  the  "Monroe  Doctrine.*' — The  "Mon 
roe  Doctrine "  received  the  commendation  of  Webster  and 
other  eminent  statesmen.  It  has  been  popularly  understood 
to  mean  that  we  claim  "America  for  Americans  "  —or  that,  in 
other  words,  we  say  to  the  European  powers,  "  since  we  do  not 
meddle  with  your  continent,  you  must  keep  your  hands  off 
ours."  Practically,  however,  the  "  Monroe  Doctrine "  at  the 
time  it  was  promulgated  was  not  held  to  commit  us  to  anything 
more  belligerent  than  what  John  Quincy  Adams  called  "  the 
mild  compulsion  of  reason."  787 

In  the  next  administration  (1826)  the  question  came  up 
whether  the  United  States  should  undertake  the  defence  of 
the  Spanish  American  Republics  (including  Mexico)  by  armed 
force.  President  Adams  and  the  House  of  Representatives 
both  declared  that  we  were  under  no  such  obligations.788 

As  it  now  appears  to  be  understood,  the  Monroe  Doctrine 
expresses  the  determination  on  our  part  not  to  interfere  with  the 
existing  American  colonies  or  possessions  of  any  European 
power ;  secondly,  to  resist  by  formal  protest,  or  by  such  means 
as  we  may  deem  most  expedient,  the  interference  of  any  nation 
of  Europe  with  the  affairs  of  either  of  the  American  continents; 
and,  finally,  to  endeavor  to  secure  the  settlement  of  such  ques 
tions —  as  in  the  case  of  Venezuela  (1896)  —  by  international 
arbitration.789 

After  the  enunciation  of  this  principle,  Russia  made  a  treaty 
with  the  United  States.  The  Czar  gave  up  all  claims  on  the 
Pacific  coast  of  America  south  of  54°  40',  —  or  the  present 
southern  boundary  of  Alaska,  —  and  granted  to  American 
citizens  the  right  to  trade  on  the  coast  north  of  that  parallel 
and  to  fish  in  its  waters.790 

The  "  Holy  Alliance  "  ceased  to  encourage  projects  for  the 
overthrow  of  the  Spanish  Republics.  This  change  was  due 
partly  to  the  decided  language  we  had  used  in  the  Monroe 
Doctrine,  and  partly  to  the  fact  that  England,  following  our 
example,  had  recognized  the  independence  of  those  Republics. 


296  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

333.  The  tariff  of  1824.  —  The  tariff  of   1816  (§314)  was 
decidedly  protective  with  regard  to  cotton  and  woollen  goods, 
but  not  conspicuously  so  with  respect  to  other  articles.     The 
Middle  and  Western  States,  with  certain  sections  of  New  Eng 
land,  now  demanded  higher  duties  on  wool,  iron,  and  hemp. 
Clay  wished  to  make  the  United  States,  as  far  as  possible^ 
independent  of  the  industries  of  Europe.     With  this  aim  he 
came  forward  as   the  great  champion  of  what  he  called   "  a 
genuine  American  policy."     He  carried  through  a  bill  (1824) 
in  favor  of  "  protection  for  the  sake  of  protection."     Webster 
spoke  against  it,  and  the  South,  which  had  changed  its  atti 
tude  (§  314),  was  almost  solidly  opposed  to  such  a  measure. 
That  section  now  had  a  constantly  increasing  foreign  demand 
for  their  cotton,  and  found  it  for  their  interest  to  purchase 
English  goods  in  exchange.     The  new  tariff  enacted  by  Con 
gress  (1824)  fixed  the  average  scale  of  duties  at  thirty-three 
and  a  third  per  cent.791     The  South  denounced  the  measure  as 
"sectional,  unconstitutional,  and  unjust."792     Later,  this  denun 
ciation  culminated,  as  we  shall  see,  in  open  nullification  and 
threats  of  secession. 

334.  Lafayette's  visit.  —  In  1824  Congress  invited  Lafay 
ette  to  visit  the  United  States  as  the  "nation's  guest."     He 
reached  New  York  in  the  summer  of  that  year,  after  more  than 
forty  years'  absence.     He  came,  as  he  said,  to  see  the  "beloved 
land  "  of  which  it  had  been  his  "  happy  lot  to  become  an  early 
soldier  and  an  adopted  son." 793 

In  the  dark  days  of  the  Revolution  he  had  generously  opened 
his  purse  and  risked  his  life  in  our  cause.  He  was  now  old 
and  poor  ;  but  America  convinced  him  that  he  was  not  for 
gotten.  He  spent  more  than  a  year  (1824-1825)  in  travelling 
through  the  country,  and  visited  every  State  in  the  Union.  It 
has  been  said  that  "  Only  Washington  himself,  had  he  risen 
from  the  grave,  could  have  called  forth  deeper  feelings  of 
reverence  and  affection."  794  Clay  welcomed  him  in  an  eloquent 
address  made  in  behalf  of  the  nation,  and  with  his  own  hands 


1824-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT. 

Lafayette  laid  the  corner-stone  of  Bunker  Hill  Monument. 
Congress  voted  him  the  sum  of  $200,000  and  a  township  of 
land  in  Florida,  and  he  returned  to  France  in  the  new  frigate 
"Brandywine"  (§  215),  named  in  honor  of  his  services  in  that 
battle.795 

335.  The  presidential  election (1824) ;  charge  of  "a  cor 
rupt  bargain. "  —  The  four  leading  candidates  for  the  Presi 
dency  were  John  Quincy  Adams,  who,  as  Secretary  of  State 
under  Monroe,  was  "heir  apparent"  (§  314),  Henry  Clay, 
W.  H.  Crawford  (§  327),  and  Andrew  Jackson,  who  was  wholly 
unknown  in  politics.  As  three  of  them  had  never  before  tried 
their  powers  in  such  a  contest,  the  campaign  was  called  "  the 
scrub  race  for  the  presidency."  All  four  were  nominally  mem 
bers  of  the  Democratic-Republican  Party  —  the  only  national 
party  then  in  existence.  Adams  and  Clay  were  "  broad  con- 
structionists  "  (§  256)  who  strongly  favored  the  expenditure  of 
a  part  of  the  public  money  for  the  building  of  roads,  canals, 
and  other  "  internal  improvements."  Crawford  and  Jackson, 
on  the  contrary,  held  "strict-construction"  views  (§  256)  on 
this  point,  and  believed  such  "improvements"  should  be  made 
by  the  States  themselves  at  their  own  expense.  Again,  Adams 
and  Clay  both  favored  "  protection,"  while  Crawford  declared 
himself  for  a  revenue  tariff  only.  Jackson's  views  on  this  ques 
tion  were  unknown,  but  he  was  supposed  to  incline  toward 
"protection."796 

In  the  end  the  contest  narrowed  itself  down  to  the  choice  of 
either  Jackson  or  Adams.  Previous  to  this  time  the  presidential 
electors  had  generally  been  chosen  by  the  State  Legislatures, 
but  in  1824  they  were  chosen,  in  eighteen  States  out  of  twenty- 
four,  by  the  people.797  It  was  estimated  that  the  Jackson  elec 
tors  received  upwards  of  50,000  more  votes  than  the  Adams 
electors.798  Hence,  so  far  as  the  direct  voice  of  the  people 
could  decide  it,  Jackson  was  successful.  None  of  the  presi 
dential  candidates,  however,  obtained  a  clear  majority  of  the 
electoral  votes;  the  Constitution,  therefore,  required  the  House 


298  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1824-1825. 

of  Representatives  to  "choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for 
President "  (Appendix,  p.  xvii). 

In  the  House  Clay's  friends  united  with  those  of  Adams 
and  chose  the  latter,  John  C.  Calhoun  having  been  elected 
Vice-President.  The  excitement  over  this  announcement  was 
intense.  The  House  of  Representatives  had  followed  strictly 
constitutional  methods;  but  Jackson's  friends  did  not  hesitate 
to  declare  that  he  was  entitled  to  the  presidency  since,  of  the 
two  chief  candidates,  he  had  received  a  majority  of  the  popular 
vote.799  They  denounced  the  coalition  of  Clay's  and  Adams's 
supporters  as  a  "  corrupt  bargain,"  asserting  that  Clay  had  sold 
himself  to  Adams  in  return  for  the  promise  of  the  appointment 
of  Secretary  of  State  in  the  latter's  Cabinet.  Clay  indignantly 
denied  this  report ;  but  as  Adams  made  him  Secretary  of  State, 
his  denial  went  for  nothing.  Jackson  himself  was  hot  against 
Clay,  and  privately  declared  that  this  "  Judas  of  the  West "  had 
deliberately  betrayed  him.800 

336.  Summary. — Following  the  chronological  order,  the 
most  important  events  in  Monroe's  administrations  were:  (i) 
the  purchase  of  Florida;  (2)  the  Missouri  Compromise,  whereby 
slavery  was  admitted  to  that  State,  but  "  forever  "  prohibited 
from  all  other  parts  of  the  Louisiana  Territory  north  of  the 
parallel  of  36°  30';  (3)  the  enunciation  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine, 
which  denied  the  right  of  European  powers  to  interfere  with 
affairs  in  either  of  the  American  continents. 


JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS  (DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN),  ONE  TERM, 

1825-1829. 

337.  Inaugural  address ;  " internal  improvements." — The 

keynote  of  the  President's  (§  335)  inaugural  address  was  his 
urgent  recommendation  that  the  national  Government  should 
encourage  a  great  system  of  roads,  canals,  and  other  public 
works.  Monroe  strongly  favored  such  a  policy,  but  thought 
that  it  required  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution  to  authorize 


1825-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  2QQ 

it.  Mr.  Adams  did  not  think  such  an  amendment  necessary. 
As  a  "broad  constructionist  "  (§  256)  he  was  positive  that  the 
Constitution  did  sanction  works  which  "  would  bind  the  Union 
more  closely  together."  801  But  Mr.  Adams  went  further:  fol 
lowing  the  suggestions  of  Washington  he  earnestly  recommended 
the  establishment  of  a  national  university  and  a  naval  school. 
The  latter  he  considered  a  necessary  complement  to  the  United 
States  Military  Academy  founded  (1802)  at  West  Point. 

Congress  was  ready  to  grant  appropriations  to  facilitate  com 
munication  which  would  render  every  part  of  the  country  "more 
accessible  to,  and  dependent  on,  the  other."  The  Cumberland, 
or  National  Road  (§  328),  was  pushed  westward  from  Zanesville, 
Ohio,  toward  the  Mississippi;  extensive  coast  and  river  surveys 
were  made,  and  the  construction  of  important  canals  under 
taken.  The  activity  of  the  Government  was  so  great  that  this 
has  been  called  "  the  epoch  of  internal  improvements."  In  the 
course  of  Mr.  Adams's  administration  nearly  $14,000,000  was 
spent  on  works  of  "  permanent  benefit  to  the  country."  Of  this 
sum  more  than  $4,000,000  was  laid  out  on  roads  and  canals. 
This  amount  exceeded  the  total  expenditure  for  such  purposes 
of  all  Mr.  Adams's  predecessors.  The  President  congratulated 
the  nation  that  these  public  enterprises  had  been  carried  out 
"  without  adding  a  dollar  to  the  taxes  or  debts  of  the  com 
munity."  m  Later,  he  had  an  unexpected  opportunity  to  show 
his  faith  by  his  works.  He  was  to  throw  the  first  shovelful  of 
earth  at  the  opening  of  a  new  canal  between  the  East  and  the 
West.  He  chanced  to  meet  with  some  obstacle,  and  he  at 
once  pulled  off  his  coat  and  began  to  handle  his  spade  with 
such  energy  that  the  delighted  multitude  cheered  to  the  echo.803 
It  was  perhaps  the  only  act  of  his  entire  presidential  career 
which  the  people  hailed  with  applause,  for  Mr.  Adams  was  a 
man  whose  virtues  made  few  friends;  he  never  gained  popularity, 
and  he  certainly  never  coveted  it. 

338.  The  Erie  Canal  and  its  results.  —  As  early  as  1808 
Judge  Forman,  of  Onondaga,  New  York,  moved  in  the  Legis- 


3OO  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [isn-isas. 

lature  that  steps  be  taken  toward  connecting  the  waters  of 
the  Hudson  with  those  of  Lake  Erie.  The  motion  was  not 
carried  into  effect  at  the  time,  but  later  James  Geddes  was  com 
missioned  to  make  a  preliminary  survey.  The  War  of  1812 
convinced  the  people  of  New  York  that  the  work  of  construct 
ing  the  proposed  canal  could  not  be  safely  postponed.  The 
cost  of  transportation  from  the  seaboard  to  Detroit  was  fifty 
cents  a  pound  for  ammunition  and  sixty  dollars  a  barrel  for 
flour.804  It  was  evident  that  a  continuous  water-way  between 
New  York  city  and  the  West  would  be  of  incalculable  advantage 
to  both  sections.  On  the  one  hand,  it  would  open  a  market  to 
the  Western  farmer  for  his  produce;  on  the  other,  it  would  fur 
nish  an  outlet  for  Eastern  goods  and  imports.  Governor  Clin 
ton  urged  the  Legislature  to  begin  the  important  work  without 
further  delay.  Finally  his  zeal  overcame  all  opposition,  and  in 
the  summer  of  1817  a  gang  of  laborers  began  to  excavate  the 
trench  which  opponents  ridiculed  as  "  Clinton's  Big  Ditch." 

The  entire  canal  was  completed  in  the  autumn  of  1825.  It 
extended  from  Albany  to  Buffalo,  a  distance  of  363  miles,  and 
tapped  Lake  Erie  at  a  height  of  several  hundred  feet  above 
tide-water.  The  average  cost  was  nearly  $14,000  a  mile,  and  it 
was  built  by  the  State  when  its  population  hardly  exceeded  a 
million,  and  when  it  had  no  surplus  revenue  to  spare.  The 
work  was  substantially  done,  with  "  immense  embankments, 
noble  aqueducts,  and  massive  locks." 

When  (October  26,  1825)  the  waters  of  Lake  Erie  were  let 
into  the  great  trench,  Governor  Clinton,  attended  by  many  dis 
tinguished  men,  made  the  journey  from  Buffalo  to  Albany,  and 
thence  to  New  York  city  in  a  fleet  of  gaily  decorated  canal 
boats.  Fieldpieces  had  been  placed  along  the  entire  route,  at 
intervals  of  about  five  miles ;  and  when  the  canal  was  opened 
this  cannon-telegraph  flashed  the  news  from  Buffalo  to  New 
York  in  ninety  minutes.  Kegs  of  water  from  Lake  Erie  were 
carried  on  the  boats  from  Buffalo  to  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson. 
The  Governor  completed  the  celebration  by  emptying  the  con- 


1825-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  30 1 

tents  of  one  of  the  kegs  into  the  salt  water.  By  this  act  he 
commemorated,  as  he  declared,  "  the  navigable  communication 
accomplished  between  our  mediterranean  seas  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean."805 

The  canal  shortened  the  time  from  Albany  to  Buffalo  one- 
half;  reduced  rates  on  freight  from  $100  a  ton  to  $10,  later  to 
$3 ;  and  greatly  facilitated  the  movement  of  emigration  to  the 
West.806  Furthermore,  it  stimulated  settlements  all  along  the 
line.  These  have  since  grown  into  prosperous  towns  and 
wealthy  cities.  Finally  the  canal  helped  to  make  the  city  of 
New  York  "  the  great  distributing  center  of  the  North."807 

339.  "The  great  Western  march."  —  On  the  day  of  Mr. 
Adams's  inauguration  the  greater  part  of  Ohio  was  still  cov 
ered  with  forests,  and  most  of  Illinois  was  a  prairie  wilderness.808 
But  on  the  Erie  Canal  and  the  National  Road  (§§  337,  338) 
a  procession  of  boats  and  wagons  crowded  with  emigrants  from 
the  East  was  steadily  moving  toward  the  Mississippi.  The 
Ohio,  from  Pittsburg,  was  alive  with  barges  moving  down  the 
river  and  carrying  whole  households,  with  their  cattle,  hogs, 
horses,  and  sheep.  A  number  of  steamboats  were  regularly 
running,  not  only  on  the  rivers  of  the  West,  but  on  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  they  contributed  their  part  toward  aiding  the 
emigration. 

In  the  decade  between  1820  and  1830,  Michigan  Territory 
gained  260  per  cent  in  the  number  of  its  inhabitants;  Illinois, 
180;  Arkansas  Territory,  142;  Indiana,  133 ; 809  and  Ohio 
increased  from  a  population  of  about  576,000  to  nearly  a 
million. 

The  United  States  offered  land  at  two  dollars  an  acre,  and 
gave  the  settler  ample  time  to  pay  for  it.  Eventually  the  farmer 
could  get  a  quarter-section,  or  160  acres,  for  about  $26,  so  that 
practically  he  received  his  homestead  as  a  gift  from  the  Gov 
ernment.  In  every  township  one  section,  or  a  thirty-sixth  of  the 
public  lands,  was  set  apart  to  maintain  free  schools.810  Cheap 
land  and  free  education  both  stimulated  the  emigrant's  "  great 


3O2  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

Western  march  "  to  that  land  of  promise  destined  to  become 
the  center  of  population  and  of  political  power. 

No  official  record  of  immigration  from  abroad  was  begun 
until  1820,  but  between  1820  and  1830  about  150,000  foreigners 
settled  in  the  United  States.  A  large  proportion  of  them  made 
their  homes  in  the  West.  More  than  one-half  of  these  new 
comers  were  from  the  British  Isles.811  The  great  tide  of  immi 
gration,  however,  did  not  begin  until  many  years  later  (1847). 

340.  Dispute  with  Georgia  concerning  Indian  land  ces 
sions.  —  By  a  treaty  made  with  the  chief  of  the  Creek  Indians, 
all  lands  owned  by  that  tribe  in  Georgia  were  ceded  (1825)  to 
the  United  States.  The  Creeks  protested  against  this  cession, 
declaring  that  it  had  been  made  by  certain  Indians  without 
the  sanction  of  the  tribe.  President  Adams  ordered  the  enforce 
ment  of  the  treaty  to  be  suspended  until  General  Gaines  could 
confer  with  the  Creek  nation.  Governor  Troup,  of  Georgia, 
determined  to  have  the  ceded  lands  surveyed  at  once,  as  a  step 
toward  the  expulsion  of  the  Indians.  He  threatened  to  call  out 
the  military  force  of  the  State  to  resist  General  Gaines  and  his 
body  of  federal  troops.  The  Creeks  at  length  (1826)  signed  a 
new  treaty  by  which  they  bound  themselves  to  give  up  all  their 
lands  in  Georgia  and  to  emigrate  across  the  Mississippi.812 

Before  the  transfer  was  completed  a  serious  dispute  arose 
between  the  Governor  of  Georgia  and  the  President  of  the 
United  States  respecting  the  survey  of  a  part  of  the  Creek 
country.  At  one  time  it  seemed  as  if  the  controversy  must  be 
settled  by  the  sword,  but  happily  a  way  was  found  to  compro 
mise  the  difficulty. 

Later  (1828),  Georgia  assumed  jurisdiction  over  the  lands  of 
the  Cherokee  reservation  held  by  that  semi-civilized  tribe  under 
treaty  with  the  federal  Government.  The  President  protested, 
but  the  House  justified  the  action  of  the  State.818  Practically, 
Georgia  nullified  the  Cherokee  treaty,  and  afterward  (1831) 
refused  to  obey  a  decision  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court 
which  virtually  sustained  the  rights  claimed  by  the  Indians.814 


1825-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  303 

341.  The  Panama  Congress;  new  political  parties;  the 
Temperance  movement.  —  Meanwhile  the  Spanish- American 
Republics  had  invited  the  United  States  to  send  delegates  to  a 
Congress  at  Panama  to  discuss  what  action  should  be  taken 
respecting  European  interference  or  colonization  (§  332).  Con 
gress  accepted  the  invitation,  but  passed  an  informal  resolution 
declining  to  take  any  definite  joint  action  with  the  Spanish- 
American  Governments.  The  Panama  Congress  met,  but  dis 
solved  before  our  delegates  arrived,  and  nothing  more  was  done. 

Shortly  after  Mr.  Adams  entered  office,  his  friends  and  Clay's 
united  in  forming  a  new  party  which  took  the  name  of  National 
Republicans,  and  later  that  of  Whigs.  They  stood  on  the  plat 
form  of  "broad  construction"  (§  256);  they  advocated  a  pro 
tective  tariff  and  demanded  "  internal  improvements  "  (§  337) 
by  the  national  Government.  The  regular  Democratic-Repub 
licans,  under  the  lead  of  the  Jackson  men,  soon  became  known 
as  Democrats ;  generally  speaking,  they  favored  the  "  strict- 
construction  "  (§  256)  interpretation  of  the  Constitution,  and 
the  Southern  portion  of  the  party  laid  stress  on  State-rights. 

Meanwhile  a  third  political  party  had  come  into  existence. 
A  man  named  Morgan  had  published  a  book  claiming  to  reveal 
the  secrets  of  Free  Masonry.  Morgan  suddenly  disappeared, 
and  many  persons  believed  that  the  Masons  had  made  away 
with  him.  The  excitement  caused  the  organization  of  an  Anti- 
Masonic  Party  in  western  New  York,  which  bound  itself  to 
oppose  the  election  of  any  member  of  the  Masonic  Order  to 
public  office.  The  new  party  generally  voted  with  the  National 
Republicans;  it  exercised  considerable  influence  for  several 
years,  but  then  lost  power. 

When  Mr.  Adams  entered  office,  liquor  was  freely  used  by 
all  classes  of  society.  The  mechanic,  the  farm-laborer,  and  the 
merchant  all  thought  that  they  must  have  it ;  it  was  bountifully 
supplied  at  weddings,  funerals,  college  commencements,  and 
ministerial  ordinations ;  and  children  used  to  buy  it  by  the 
cent's  worth  at  the  corner  groceries. 


304  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [is 

Dr.  Lyman  Beecher  of  Connecticut  appears  to  have  led  the 
movement  of  reform  (1811).  The  result  of  his  work  was  the 
establishment  of  the  "  Massachusetts  Society  for  the  Suppres 
sion  of  Intemperance  "  (1813),  followed  in  1826  by  the 
organization  of  the  "American  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Temperance,"  which  ten  years  later  (1836)  took  its  stand  on 
the  platform  of  total  abstinence.  Four  years  afterward  (1840), 
the  Washingtonian  Temperance  Society  was  formed  at  Balti 
more  to  reclaim  habitual  drunkards.  Eventually,  the  Total 
Abstinence  movement  began  to  demand  the  entire  suppression 
of  liquor-selling,  and  in  1851  Maine  passed  the  first  prohibitory 
law.  Later,  a  number  of  other  States  made  experiments  in  the 
same  direction,  and  decided  against  prohibition,  but  five  — 
Vermont,  New  Hampshire,  Kansas,  and  North  and  South 
Dakota  —  joined  with  Maine  in  absolutely  forbidding  the  sale 
of  all  intoxicating  drink  as  a  beverage.  The  law,  however, 
has  encountered  many  serious  obstacles  which  have  generally 
checked  its  rigid  enforcement  in  the  large  towns. 

In  1872  apolitical  party  entered  the  national  field  pledged 
by  its  platform  to  add  a  prohibitory  amendment  to  the  Consti 
tution  of  the  United  States. 

342.  Commercial  treaties ;  West  India  trade ;  the  Harris- 
burg  Convention.  —  The  President  negotiated  a  great  number 
of  commercial  treaties  which  secured  a  large  and  prosperous 
trade  with  the  Spanish-American  Republics  and  with  other 
powers.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  the  English  Government  cut 
us  off  (1826)  from  the  very  lucrative  direct  trade  we  enjoyed 
with  the  British  West  Indies.  Mr.  Adams  made  energetic 
attempts  to  induce  England  to  reopen  those  ports  to  us,  but 
failed  to  accomplish  anything.  Finally,  by  virtue  of  a  law 
passed  under  the  preceding  administration,  he  issued  a  procla 
mation  (1827)  of  retaliation,  and  declared  that  all  commercial 
intercourse  with  those  ports  was  prohibited.815 

In  the  summer  of  1827  a  National  Convention  of  Protection 
ists  met  at  Harrisburg,  Pennsylvania.  They  were  dissatisfied 


1827-1828.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  305 

with  the  tariff  of  1824  (§  333),  and  demanded  that  higher 
duties  should  be  levied  on  woollens,  iron,  hemp,  and  other 
products.  The  object  of  the  Convention  was  twofold:  first,  to 
protect  home  industries;  and  secondly,  to  retaliate  on  Great 
Britain  for  her  exclusion  of  these  articles.816 

343.  The  so-called  "  tariff  of  abominations."  —  At  the  next 
session  of  Congress  (1827)  a  tariff  bill  embodying  the  measures 
of  the  Protectionists  was  brought  in.     The  division  on  it  was 
almost  purely  sectional:    the  North   and  West  advocated  it, 
while  the  South  opposed  it.     In  the  case  of  the  tariff  of  1824 
(§  333),  Daniel  Webster  had  declared  himself  the  champion  of 
a  free-trade  or  revenue  tariff  except  in  the  case  of  manufactures 
already    established,    and    which    seemed    to  require    defence 
against  foreign  competition.     He  now  came  out  strongly  for 
protection.     He  took  the  ground  that  since  New  England  had 
been  forced  by  the  act  of  1824  to  invest  a  large  part  of  her 
capital  in  woollen  manufactures,  it  was  the  duty  of  the  national 
Government  to  guard  that  capital  against  sudden  and  ruinous 
loss.817 

Southern  men  protested  against  this  policy.  Cotton,  rice, 
and  tobacco  then  constituted  the  chief  American  exports,  and 
they  were  exchanged  for  articles  of  European  manufacture  on 
advantageous  terms.  The  South  wished,  therefore,  to  keep  up 
this  trade  as  it  stood,  and  to  purchase  her  goods  where  she 
could  get  them  cheapest. 

A  Senator  from  Maryland  denounced  the  proposed  system  of 
protection  as  a  "tariff  of  abominations,"  818  and  John  Randolph, 
of  Virginia,  said  it  should  be  called  "  a  bill  to  rob  and  plunder 
nearly  one-half  the  Union  for  the  benefit  of  the  residue."819 
Senator  Hayne,  of  South  Carolina,  went  further  and  declared 
that  the  proposed  law  "  was  calculated  to  sever  the  bonds  of 
the  Union."  82° 

344.  Passage  of  the  tariff  bill.  —  After  a  violent  debate  of 
six  weeks  the  new  tariff  bill  was  passed  (1828)  amidst  the  wildest 
excitement.     The  vote  in  the  Senate  stood  26  to  21,  and  in  the 


306  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

House  109  to  91.  The  act  increased  the  duties  from  the  pre 
vious  rate  of  33^  per  cent  to  an  average  of  45  percent.821  The 
rate  on  cottons  was  left  unchanged,  but  that  on  woollens  was 
more  than  double  that  of  the  tariff  of  i824.822  Some  of  the 
most  obnoxious  features  of  the  act  were  incorporated  in  it  by 
its  enemies.  They  hoped,  thereby,  either  to  kill  the  measure, 
or  to  kill  Adams's  chances  for  a  second  presidential  term  if  he 
signed  the  bill. 

345.  Opposition  of   South   Carolina  to  the  tariff.  —  The 
people  of  many  towns  in  South  Carolina  held  mass-meetings  at 
which  they  resolved  to  wear  homespun,  and  to  refuse  to  buy 
any  cloth  made  north  of  the  Potomac.     South  Carolina,  North 
Carolina,   Georgia,   and    Alabama  declared  the    new   tariff   a 
violation  of  the  Constitution.823 

Calhoun  drew  up  an  "  Exposition  and  Protest "  which,  after 
some  changes,  was  adopted  by  the  Legislature  of  South  Caro 
lina.  The  "  Exposition "  denounced  the  tariff  as  an  act  of 
tyranny  on  the  part  of  the  majority,  and  as  directly  contrary  to 
the  plain  spirit  of  the  Constitution.  The  manifesto  further  de 
clared  that,  should  the  federal  Government  persist  in  enforcing 
the  protective  system,  it  would  be  "  the  sacred  duty  "  of  his 
State  "  to  arrest  the  progress  of  a  usurpation  which  must  cor 
rupt  the  public  morals  and  destroy  the  liberty  of  the  country."824 
Webster  considered  the  situation  very  grave.  He  wrote:  "In 
December,  1828,  I  became  thoroughly  convinced  that  the  plan 
of  a  Southern  Confederacy  had  been  received  with  favor  by  a 
great  many  of  the  political  men  of  the  South."  825 

346.  The  presidential  election.  —  At  the  presidential  elec 
tion  (1828)  the  candidates  were  John  Quincy  Adams,  National 
Republican  (§  341),  and  Andrew  Jackson,  Democrat.    Jackson 
easily  carried  the  day,  and   with  John  C.  Calhoun   as  Vice- 
President,  was  elected  by  a  large  majority,  the  electoral  vote 
standing  178  to  83,  and  the  popular  vote  647,231  to  509,097. 

347.  Summary. — The  principal  events  of  President  Adams's 
administration  were:  (i)  the  impetus  given  to  the  making  of 


1829-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  307 

roads,  canals,  and  other  "  internal  improvements "  by  the 
national  Government;  (2)  the  completion  and  opening  of  the 
Erie  Canal  by  the  State  of  New  York;  (3)  the  great  movement 
of  population  westward;  (4)  the  enactment  of  the  high  protec 
tive  tariff  of  1828,  which  excited  the  violent  opposition  of  the 
South. 

ANDREW  JACKSON  (DEMOCRAT),  TWO  TERMS,  1829-1837. 

348.  Jackson's  election  and  inauguration.  —  The  election 
(§  346)  and  inauguration  of  the  new  chief-magistrate  showed 
that  a  political  revolution  had  taken  place.     Every  one  of  the 
seven  preceding   Presidents,   from   Jefferson  to  John   Quincy 
Adams  (1801-1829),  had  filled  the  office  of  Secretary  of  State. 
All  were  of  Eastern  birth  and  had  been  educated  at  college. 
Now,  the  rough,  self-willed,  strong-limbed  pioneers  who  were 
clearing  and  planting  the  wilderness  beyond  the  Alleghanies 
(§  339)  had  resolved  to  put  a  fresh  man  at  the  helm.     They 
felt  that  Jackson  was  one  of  themselves.     He  was  the  son  of  a 
Scotch-Irish  immigrant  (§§  52,  173),  and  was  born  in  a  log- 
cabin  in  the  backwoods.      He  had  never  been   Secretary  of 
State,  but  the  West  believed  him  "heir  apparent"  (§  314)  to 
the  presidency  by  right  of  nature.     They  put  him  forward 
to  break  up  the  routine  of  "  cabinet  succession." 

The  old  and  conservative  sections  of  the  country  had  been 
fully  represented  in  the  Executive;  in  Jackson,  the  Indian 
fighter,  the  "  hero  of  New  Orleans,"  the  new  forces  at  work  in 
America  were  embodied,  and  were  to  come  to  the  front.  Never 
had  such  a  multitude  been  seen  in  Washington  as  on  the  day 
of  his  inauguration.  Men  stood  with  their  muddy  boots  on 
the  satin-covered  chairs  in  the  White  House  to  get  a  sight  at 
the  President  of  their  choice.826  Eastern  men  looked  on  in  dis 
may,  and  Judge  Story  wrote  home  that  "the  reign  of  King 
Mob  seemed  triumphant." 82r 

349.  Removals  from  office. —  More  than  twelve  years  before, 
Jackson  had  written  to  Monroe,  after  the  latter's  election  to  the 


308  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [leas-. 

presidency  (1817),  urging  him  not  to  remove  Government  offi 
cers  for  political  reasons.  He  said  then :  "  Now  is  the  time  to 
exterminate  the  monster  called  party  spirit "  ;8'28  but  since  that 
period  he  had  changed.  He  entered  office  fully  convinced  that 
he  had  once  been  cheated  out  of  the  presidency  by  a  "  corrupt 
bargain  "  (§  335).  He  believed  that  "bargain  "  had  deliberately 
thwarted  the  will  of  the  people.  He  considered  that  the  Gov 
ernment  belonged  to  those  who  had  elected  him.  The  editor 
of  the  "Washington  Telegraph,"  the  organ  of  the  new  adminis 
tration,  declared  that  he  took  it  for  granted  that  Jackson  would 
"  reward  his  friends  and  punish  his  enemies."  829 

Jackson  himself  was  eager  to  begin  what  he  called  "  the  task 
of  reform."  He  was  convinced  that  Adams  and  Clay  had  filled 
the  public  offices  with  "  babbling  politicians  "  who  ought  to  be 
removed  for  the  good  of  the  country;  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
Adams  had  kept  his  political  and  personal  enemies  in  office, 
and  had  refused  to  give  places  to  his  friends  and  supporters.830 

Jackson's  policy  anticipated  Senator  Marcy's  rule:  "To  the 
victors  belong  the  spoils."*  He  made  removals  by  wholesale, 
and  the  working  of  the  Crawford  Act  (§  327)  helped  to  make 
more  vacancies.  At  Washington  the  distress  and  terror  of  the 
"  ins  "  was  only  matched  by  the  rapacity  of  the  "  outs."  In 
the  first  month  of  his  administration  Jackson  dismissed  more 
men  from  office  than  all  the  Presidents  who  had  preceded  him 
(§  279).  Before  the  close  of  the  first  year  not  less  than  two 
thousand  office-holders  had  been  replaced  by  adherents  of  the 
new  Government. 

350.  The  President  declares  the  removals  necessary ;  the 
"  Kitchen  Cabinet ";  foreign  affairs. —  The  President  believed 
that  these  changes  were  in  every  way  an  advantage.  He 
declared  that  unless  such  removals  were  regularly  made,  sub 
ordinate  officials  would  consider  their  positions  "  as  a  species 
of  property,"  and  would  "  acquire  a  habit  of  looking  with  indif 
ference  upon  the  public  interests."  *  Hence  he  earnestly 
advocated  "  rotation,"  and  urged  Congress  to  extend  it.833  Jef- 


1830-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL,    DEVELOPMENT.  309 

ferson  and  Madison  had  already  protested  against  the  introduc 
tion  of  this  system  when  applied  to  clerks  in  departments.834 
Webster,  Calhoim,  Clay,  and  Benton  added  their  remon 
strances,835  but  in  vain,  for  rotation  in  office,  first  systematically 
begun  by  the  Crawford  Act  (§  327),  became  firmly  established. 
Through  it  the  "spoils  system"  held  unbroken  sway  for  more 
than  forty  years. 

Unlike  his  predecessors,  Jackson  did  not  hold  cabinet  coun 
cils,  but  depended  largely  on  the  suggestions  of  a  few  intimate 
friends  who  were  popularly  known  as  the  "  Kitchen  Cabinet." 
Amos  Kendall,  of  Massachusetts,  a  man  of  considerable  ability, 
with  a  "great  talent  for  silence  "  and  for  work,  was  the  leader 
of  this  influential  group. 

In  his  foreign  relations  Jackson  gained  two  signal  triumphs 
early  in  his  administration.  He  succeeded  in  negotiating  a 
treaty  with  Great  Britain  which  granted  us  the  long-coveted, 
unrestricted,  direct  trade  with  the  West  Indies  (§  265);  and  he 
induced  France  to  pay  us  25,000,000  of  francs  to  settle  our 
claims  for  the  spoliations  which  Napoleon  had  committed  on 
our  commerce  (§  295). 

351.  Hayne  vs.  Webster  on  State  vs.  National  sovereignty. 
—  In  the  first  Congress  which  met  under  Jackson,  Senator  Foot, 
of  Connecticut,  proposed  (1830)  making  an  inquiry  respecting 
the  sale  of  Government  lands.  His  resolution  led  unexpectedly 
to  the  "great  debate"  between  Webster  and  Hayne  on  the 
nature  of  the  Union.  This  question  went  to  the  very  founda 
tions  of  the  Government.  It  asked:  Did  the  Constitution  create 
an  indestructible  nation,  or  did  it  simply  establish  a  league 
between  sovereign  States  which  may  be  broken  by  the  action 
of  any  member  of  that  league  ?  Such  a  discussion  necessarily 
involved  an  inquiry  into  the  right  of  nullification  and  disunion. 

Senator  Hayne,  of  South  Carolina,  spoke  in  the  interest  of 
the  league  theory  of  the  Constitution.  Addressing  Mr.  Calhoun, 
the  presiding  officer,  the  Senator  said:  "  Sir,  I  am  one  of  those 
who  believe  that  the  very  life  of  our  system  is  the  independence 


3io  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [isao-. 

of  the  States,  and  that  there  is  no  evil  more  to  be  deprecated 
than  the  consolidation  of  the  Government."836  Webster  replied: 
"Sir,  ...  I  am  a  Unionist.  ...  I  would  strengthen  the  ties 
that  hold  us  together."887 

Hayne  rejoined  by  quoting  Jefferson's  declaration  that  "sub 
mission  to  a  government  of  unlimited  power  "  was  a  greater 
calamity  than  "a  dissolution  of  the  Union."838  He  further 
more  contended  that  both  Jefferson  and  Madison  considered 
the  Constitution  to  be  simply  a  compact  made  between  sover 
eign  States.839  Finally,  referring  to  the  Kentucky  Resolutions 
(§  273),  he  insisted  that  in  case  Congress  violated  the  Consti 
tution,  "nullification"  by  the  sovereign  States  was,  according 
to  Jefferson,  "the  rightful  remedy"  (§  2^\m 

The  next  day  the  Senate  chamber  was  packed  in  anticipation 
of  Webster's  reply.  On  the  morning  of  that  day  a  New  Eng 
land  Senator  said  to  him:  "  It  is  a  critical  moment,  .  .  .  and  it 
is  high  time  that  the  people  of  this  country  should  know  what 
the  Constitution  is."  Webster  answered:  "  By  the  blessing  of 
Heaven  they  shall  learn  this  day,  before  the  sun  goes  down, 
what  I  understand  it  to  be."  M1  In  his  reply  Webster  reached 
the  high-water  mark  of  his  power  as  an  orator.  He  argued 
with  consummate  ability  that  the  Constitution  was  not  a  com 
pact  made  between  sovereign  States,  but  that  it  was  an  indis 
soluble  government  "  made  for  the  people,  made  by  the  people, 
and  answerable  to  the  people."842  The  effect  of  his  speech 
throughout  the  North  was  widespread,  deep,  and  permanent; 
patriotism  had  a  new  birth,  and  thousands  were  made  to  feel 
that  the  American  Republic  rested  on  a  foundation  which  could 
not  be  shaken. 

A  few  months  later,  at  a  public  dinner  given  in  honor  of  Jef 
ferson's  birthday,  the  President  gave  the  significant  toast:  "Our 
federal  Union :  it  must  be  preserved."  Calhoun  responded 
for  the  South  with  the  sentiment:  "  Liberty  dearer  than  Union." 
Shortly  after  this  Jackson  and  Calhoun  ceased  to  hold  friendly 
relations  with  each  other.  They  represented  antagonistic  prin- 


1126-1828.]        THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  3!  I 

ciples ;  the  President  upheld  the  sovereignty  of  the  Nation,  the 
Vice-President  that  of  the  States.  In  1833  Calhoun  offered  a 
set  of  resolutions  on  State-sovereignty  to  which  Webster  replied. 

352.  Rise  of  the  Abolitionists — Congress  had  hoped  that 
the  Missouri  Compromise  (§  324)  would  put  a  stop  to  the 
discussion  of  slavery;  but  John  Randolph,  of  Virginia,  who  was 
himself  a  slave-holder,  declared  it  impossible.  "  You  might  as 
well,"  said  he,  "  try  to  hide  a  volcano  in  full  eruption."843 

Many  leading  Southern  men  deplored  holding  human  beings 
as  property.  Roger  B.  Taney,  of  Maryland,  later  appointed 
Chief-Justice  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,  said  of 
slavery  that  it  was  "  a  blot  on  our  national  character,"  which 
he  hoped  would  in  time  be  "wiped  away."844  By  1826  more 
than  a  hundred  anti-slavery  societies  existed  at  the  South,  or 
nearly  three  times  as  many  as  there  were  in  the  North.  They 
advocated  gradual  emancipation  and  colonization.  In  an 
address  (1827)  before  one  of  these  societies  Henry  Clay 
declared  that  slavery  was  "  the  deepest  stain  upon  the  char 
acter  of  our  country."  He  added  :  "  If  I  could  only  be  instru 
mental  in  ridding  of  this  foul  blot  that  revered  State  which 
gave  me  birth,  or  that  other  not  less-beloved  State  which 
kindly  adopted  me  as  her  son,  I  would  not  exchange  the  proud 
satisfaction  which  I  should  enjoy  for  the  honor  of  all  the  tri 
umphs  ever  decreed  to  the  most  successful  conqueror."845 

But  no  one,  not  even  John  Quincy  Adams,  soon  to  become 
the  great  champion  of  the  anti-slavery  movement  in  Congress, 
could  then  point  out  a  remedy  for  the  evil.  Dr.  Channing  later 
wrote  from  Boston  to  Daniel  Webster  (1828):  "I  know  that 
our  Southern  brethren  interpret  every  word  from  this  region  on 
the  subject  of  slavery  as  an  expression  of  hostility.  ...  It  seems 
to  me  ...  we  ought  to  say  to  them  distinctly:  We  consider 
slavery  as  your  calamity,  not  your  crime,  and  we  will  share  with 
you  the  burden  of  putting  an  end  to  it.  We  will  consent  that 
the  public  lands  shall  be  appropriated  to  this  object,  or  that  the 
general  Government  shall  be  clothed  with  power  to  apply  a 


312  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [isai-isaa. 

portion  of  revenue  to  it.  ...  I  am  the  more  sensitive  on  this 
subject  from  my  increased  solicitude  for  the  preservation  of  the 
Union.  I  know  no  public  interest  so  important  as  this."846 

353.  Garrison's  "  Liberator ";  the  Nat  Turner  insurrec 
tion;  the  American  Anti-Slavery  Society. —  Benjamin  Lundy, 
in  his  paper,  "  The  Genius  of  Universal  Emancipation,"  pub 
lished  at  Baltimore,  asked  that  the  negro  be  gradually  freed 
and  colonized.  On  New  Year's  Day,  1831,  William  Lloyd 
Garrison,  of  Boston,  published  the  first  number  of  the  "  Lib 
erator."  He  demanded  "  immediate  and  unconditional  eman 
cipation."  His  editorial  was  a  war  cry.  "I  am  in  earnest," 
said  he  ;  "I  will  not  equivocate —  I  will  not  excuse —  I  will  not 
retreat  a  single  inch — and  I  will  be  heard"94*  His  words 
opened  thirty  years  of  conflict,  which  were  to  end  in  the  war  of 
secession  and  in  the  downfall  of  slavery.  Garrison  spared 
neither  North  nor  South.  Speaking  of  New  England,  he  said : 
"  I  found  contempt  more  bitter,  opposition  more  active,  detrac 
tion  more  relentless,  prejudice  more  stubborn,  and  apathy  more 
frozen  than  among  slave-owners  themselves."  848  Later,  Dr. 
Channing  came  over  to  Garrison's  position  and  put  emancipa 
tion  before  the  preservation  of  the  Union.849 

That  summer  (1831)  Nat  Turner,  a  Virginia  slave,  headed  a 
negro  insurrection  in  which  more  than  sixty  whites  were  mur 
dered.  The  excitement  over  that  "  Bloody  Monday "  was 
terrible,  and  Garrison  was  accused  of  having  stirred  up  the 
insurrection  by  his  articles  in  the  "  Liberator."  He  denied 
that  he  countenanced  negro  rebellion,  but  the  South  refused  to 
believe  him.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  Garrison  never  condemned 
slavery  in  stronger  terms  than  a  number  of  leading  Virginians  did 
in  discussing  the  Nat  Turner  insurrection  in  the  Legislature,  and 
in  demanding  that  measures  be  taken  for  gradual  emancipation. 

The  next  year  (1832)  the  New  England  Anti-Slavery  Society 
was  organized,  and  the  year  following  (1833)  the  American 
Anti-Slavery  Society  came  into  existence  at  Philadelphia.  It 
declared:  "Slavery  is  a  crime."  It  affirmed  that  all  slaves 


1833-1843.]        THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  313 

"ought  instantly  to  be  set  free";  it,  however,  took  the  ground 
that  Congress  had  no  Constitutional  right  to  interfere  with 
slavery  in  the  Southern  States,  but  demanded  the  suppression 
of  the  domestic  slave-trade,  and  the  abolition  of  negro  bondage 
in  the  Territories.850  Finally  the  Society  declared  that  the 
people  of  the  free  States  were  under  the  highest  obligations 
"  to  remove  slavery  by  moral  and  political  action,  as  prescribed 
in  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States."851  This  declaration 
on  the  part  of  the  Society  marks  an  era  in  American  history. 
Within  less  than  seven  years  from  that  date  the  anti-slavery 
organizations  in  the  free  States  numbered  two  thousand,  with  a 
membership  of  two  hundred  thousand. 

354.  Abolition  publications  destroyed ;  Garrison  mobbed ; 
disunion  agitation.  —  The  excitement  at  the  South  over  North 
ern  anti-slavery  publications  constantly  increased.  At  length 
the  citizens  of  Charleston  (1835)  broke  open  the  post-office, 
and  publicly  burned  all  such  matter  found  in  the  mails.  A  bill 
was  introduced  in  Congress  to  exclude  all  such  inflammatory 
material  in  future.  Calhoun,  then  in  the  Senate,  declared  that 
if  it  should  be  rejected,  he  should  say  to  the  people  of  the  South, 
"  Look  to  yourselves — you  have  nothing  to  hope  from  others."  M2 
The  bill  did  not  pass,  and  the  commotion  in  both  sections  of 
the  country  rose  to  a  still  more  dangerous  pitch.  Garrison 
was  assailed  in  Boston  (1835)  by  a  "  highly  respectable  "  mob. 
Had  not  the  Mayor  ordered  the  police  to  lock  him  up  in  jail 
for  safety,  the  mob  would  probably  have  ducked  him  in  the 
Frog  Pond  on  the  Common,  dyed  his  face  and  hands  an  indel 
ible  black,  and  then  given  him  a  coat  of  tar  and  feathers.853 

A  number  of  years  later  (1843)  the  Massachusetts  Anti- 
Slavery  Society  resolved  that  the  Union  ought  to  be  immediately 
dissolved.854  The  "Liberator"  later  came  out  with  two  stand 
ing  mottoes.  The  first  was:  "No  union  with  slave-holders." 
The  second,  adopting  the  words  of  the  Prophet  Isaiah,  declared: 
"  The  United  States  Constitution  is  a  *  covenant  with  death,' 
and  an  <  agreement  with  hell '  !  "  ^ 


314  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1832-1835. 

Meanwhile  a  number  of  leading  men  at  the  South,  who  had 
formerly  deplored  the  existence  of  African  bondage,  wheeled 
about  in  its  defence.  Clay  (1835)  denounced  the  Abolitionists, 
and  declared  that  "  two  hundred  years  of  legislation  have 
sanctioned  and  sanctified  negro  slaves  as  property." 858  Cal- 
houn  had  once  said  that  slavery  was  a  scaffolding  which  must 
come  down.867  He  now  (1837)  denied  that  it  was  an  evil,  and 
declared  that  it  was  economically,  politically,  and  morally  "  a 
good  —  a  positive  good."  m  "  We  love  and  cherish  the  Union," 
said  he,  "but  we  will  not,  cannot  permit  it  [slavery]  to  be 
destroyed.  .  .  .  Should  it  cost  every  drop  of  blood  and  every 
cent  of  property,  we  must  defend  ourselves."  869 

John  Quincy  Adams  had  written  several  years  before  (1833): 
"  Slavery  is,  in  all  probability,  the  wedge  which  will  ultimately 
split  up  this  Union."  86°  At  the  North  the  men  of  the  Garrison 
school  were  laboring  to  secure  a  separation;  at  the  South  there 
were  politicians  who  eagerly  welcomed  the  Abolition  agitation. 
They  found  in  it  an  effective  means  of  pushing  their  own  sel 
fish  schemes  at  the  risk  of  destroying  the  nation.  Madison 
feared  that  these  men  would  spur  the  South  to  enter  upon  a 
course,  of  which  the  first  step  would  be  "  nullification,  the  next 
secession,  and  the  last,  a  farewell  separation."861  It  was,  as 
Seward  later  declared,  the  beginning  of  an  "  irrepressible  con 
flict  between  opposing  and  enduring  forces."  862  On  the  part 
of  the  North,  Emerson,  who  was  no  fanatic,  did  not  hesitate  to 
say:  "  Slavery  is  not  an  institution,  but  a  destitution";  on  the 
part  of  the  South,  Governor  McDufrle,  of  South  Carolina,  boldly 
proclaimed  slavery  to  be  "  the  corner-stone  of  our  Republican 
edifice."  868 

355.  South  Carolina  nullifies  the  tariff  and  threatens  to 
secede  (1832). — While  this  bitter  discussion  in  regard  to 
slavery  was  going  on,  the  discontent  of  South  Carolina  over 
the  protective  tariff  of  1828  (§  343)  was  increasing.  In  his 
annual  message  of  1831,  the  President  recommended  Con 
gress  to  reduce  the  rate  of  duties.  One  reason  which  he 


1832.]  THE    UNION,   NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  315 

urged  for  adopting  this  policy  was  that  the  Government  would 
soon  have  an  annual  surplus  revenue  of  about  $15,000,000. 
Clay  would  not  listen  to  any  change  in  his  favorite  "  American 
system"  (§§  314,  333),  and  vowed  that  he  would  defend  it  if 
he  had  to  defy  the  President,  the  South,  and  the  Evil  One.864 
Congress,  however,  enacted  a  new  tariff  (1832)  which  reduced 
or  abolished  the  revenue  duties,  but  did  not  materially  alter 
the  protective  duties.865  Calhoun  urged  South  Carolina  to 
refuse  to  obey  the  law.  He  declared  that  peaceable  resis 
tance  was  entirely  "  consistent  with  the  federal  relations  of  the 
State." (  He  argued  that  such  resistance  was  essentially 
different  from  secession,  and  that  instead  of  destroying  the 
Union,  it  would  help  to  preserve  it.867  He  gloried  in  his 
advocacy  of  this  measure,  and  said  :  "If  you  should  ask  me 
the  word  that  I  should  wish  engraven  on  my  tombstone,  it  is 

'  NULLIFICATION.'  "  868 

The  crisis  soon  came.  South  Carolina  held  a  State  Conven 
tion  (1832)  and  adopted  an  ordinance  of  nullification  (§  273). 
It  declared:  (i)  the  tariffs  of  1828  and  1832  "null,  void,  and 
no  law,  nor  binding  upon  this  State,  its  officers,  or  citizens"; 
(2)  it  refused  to  pay  any  duties  enjoined  by  those  tariffs  after 
February  i,  1833  ;  (3)  ^  declared  that,  should  the  United  States 
attempt  to  compel  payment,  "  the  people  of  this  State  will  forth 
with  proceed  to  organize  a  separate  government."  The  Con 
vention  deduced  the  right  to  secede  from  the  nature  of  the 
Constitution,  which  they  asserted  was  a  compact  made  between 
sovereign  States ;  what  they  had  freely  made  they  claimed  the 
power  to  freely  break.  This  action  was  strongly  resisted  by  a 
Union  Convention  of  South  Carolinians,  but  most  of  the  influ 
ential  men  in  the  State  were  on  the  side  of  nullification.869 

Many  years  before,  Jackson  had  declared  that  he  would  "  die 
in  the  last  ditch"  before  he  would  countenance  disunion.870 
He  now  (1832)  issued  a  proclamation  in  which  he  appealed  to 
the  fellow-citizens  of  his  "  native  State "  as  a  father  might 
appeal  to  his  children.  But  he  took  a  decided  stand.  "  The 


316  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

Constitution  of  the  United  States,"  said  he,  "forms  a  Govern 
ment,  not  a  league."  He  added:  "The  laws  of  the  United 
States  must  be  executed  .  .  .  disunion  by  armed  force  is 
treason  ...  to  say  that  any  State  may  at  pleasure  secede  from 
the  Union  is  to  say  that  the  United  States  are  not  a  nation."871 
Jackson's  friends  hailed  him  as  "the  second  Savior  of  his 
country."  872  Congress  passed  a  "  Force  Act "  to  enable  the 
President  to  compel  obedience  to  the  tariff,  and  Jackson  sent  a 
sloop-of-war  to  Charleston,  and  ordered  General  Scott  to  collect 
the  customs,  if  necessary,  by  military  force.873 

Meanwhile  Clay,  alarmed  at  the  outlook,  proposed  a  "  Com 
promise  Tariff,"  which  provided  for  a  gradual  reduction  of 
duties.  In  anticipation  of  the  success  of  this  measure,  South 
Carolina  decided  not  to  resist  payment  of  duties  under  the 
existing  tariff.  The  "Compromise  Tariff"  was  enacted  (1833), 
and  South  Carolina  at  once  repealed  her  ordinance  of  nullifica 
tion.  Jackson  wrote:  "Nullification  is  dead";  but  he  added : 
"  The  tariff  .  .  .  was  a  mere  pretext . .  .  disunion  and  a  Southern 
Confederacy  [was]  the  real  object.  The  next  pretext  will  be 
the  negro  or  the  slavery  agitation." 874 

356.  Opening  of  the  first  American  railroad  (1830) — The 
steamboat  (§  286)  had  revolutionized  travel  and  transportation 
on  the  inland  waters  of  the  United  States,  and  had  greatly 
helped  forward  emigration  to  the  West.  Now  a  far  more 
remarkable  revolution  was  at  hand.  Stephenson,  the  English 
inventor,  had  put  the  first  really  successful  locomotive  on  the 
tracks  of  the  first  railway  opened  in  Great  Britain,  or  in  the 
world.  The  "  steam  wagon  "  promised  to  supersede  the  mail 
coach  and  the  carrier's  cart.  Late  in  the  summer  of  1830, 
fourteen  miles  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railway  were  opened. 
It  was  the  first  road  of  the  kind  in  America  which  was  con 
structed  for  the  express  purpose  of  carrying  passengers  and 
merchandise.  Peter  Cooper,  of  New  York,  built  a  little  engine 
called  the  "  Tom  Thumb,"  which  made  its  trial  trip  from  Balti 
more  to  Ellicott's  Mills.  The  first  American  locomotive  was 


1830-1840.]        THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  3  I/ 

an  improvement  on  Stephenson's  "Rocket,"  since  it  would  go 
safely  over  sharp  curves.  At  that  time,  when  American  com 
panies  had  not  capital  to  tunnel  hills,  but  had  to  go  round  them, 
this  improvement  was  of  much  practical  importance.  It  settled 
the  question  in  favor  of  steam  over  horse  power.875  Before  the 
close  of  that  year  (1830),  ground  had  been  broken  for  the 
"  South  Carolina  Railroad  "  from  Charleston  to  Augusta,  a  dis 
tance  of  135  miles.  It  was  opened  for  traffic  three  years  later. 
It  was  the  longest  continuous  line  of  railroad  in  the  world,  and 
was  the  first  to  carry  the  United  States  mails. 

Meanwhile  a  part  of  the  "  New  York  Central  Railroad  "  was 
opened  (1831),  and  was  followed  by  similar  roads  in  Pennsyl 
vania  and  Massachusetts.  But  the  progress  of  these  undertak 
ings  was  slow.  The  first  puff  of  the  locomotive  was  not  heard 
in  Ohio  or  on  the  prairies  of  Illinois  until  1838  ;  and  in  1840 
the  total  number  of  miles  of  railroad  in  the  United  States  was 
less  than  three  thousand.876 

The  railroad  may  be  said  to  have  solved  the  problem  of  the 
unity  of  the  States,  so  far  as  that  could  be  accomplished  by 
material  means.  It  clamped  the  Republic  together  with  iron 
bands,  and  in  time  made  every  part  quickly  and  cheaply  acces 
sible  to  every  other.  From  an  economic  point  of  view,  it  was 
no  less  important.  It  ultimately  reduced  the  expense  of  travel 
to  one-fifth  that  by  stage  coach,  and  it  cut  down  the  cost  of 
transportation  by  wagons  from  an  average  of  twenty  cents  a 
ton  per  mile  to  less  than  one  cent.  The  freight  traffic  of  the 
United  States  if  moved  by  horses  would  cost,  it  is  estimated, 
more  in  a  single  year  than  all  the  railroads  of  the  country 
have  required  for  their  construction.877 

Finally,  the  railroad  opened  new  lands  to  the  emigrant  and 
new  markets  for  his  produce.  It  built  up  thriving  inland  cities 
and  towns  at  points  inaccessible  by  water;  and  it  greatly  facili 
tated  the  territorial  division  of  labor.  This  made  it  possible 
for  each  section  of  the  country  to  devote  its  energies  to  the 
industry  it  found  most  profitable,  —  coal,  cotton,  cattle,  wheat, 


318  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1816-1347. 

mining  for  metals,  or  manufacturing.878  In  1901  the  total 
length  of  railroads  in  the  United  States  was  more  than  190,000 
miles,  and  the  total  capital  invested  exceeded  $12,000,000,000. 

357.  Rise  of  modern  American  literature ;  cheap  news 
papers;  the  steam  press. —  The  two  pioneers  of  American 
prose  and  poetry,  Irving  and  Bryant,  had  made  themselves  a 
name  before  Jackson  entered  office.  Bryant's  "  Thanatopsis," 
published  (1816)  in  the  "  North  American  Review,"  then  in  the 
second  year  of  its  existence,  so  delighted  Wordsworth  that  he 
learned  it  by  heart.  Sir  Walter  Scott  was  equally  pleased  with 
the  originality  and  humor  of  Irving's  writings,  and  offered  him 
a  handsome  salary  to  undertake  the  editorship  of  a  magazine 
in  Edinburgh. 

Cooper,  the  first  American  novelist  who  found  readers 
abroad,  began  to  bring  out  his  stories  a  little  later,  while 
Simms  was  working  in  like  manner  at  the  South.  Webster 
published  the  first  edition  of  his  American  dictionary  (1828) 
just  before  Jackson's  election ;  and  Whittier  began  to  write  his 
New  England  ballads  shortly  after  Jackson  entered  office.  He 
was  followed  by  Longfellow,  Bancroft,  Holmes,  Poe,  Hawthorne, 
and  Prescott;  Lowell  was  soon  to  make  his  appearance  in  the 
same  field.  The  last  year  of  Jackson's  second  administration 
(1837)  was  rendered  memorable  in  literature  by  Emerson's 
"  Phi  Beta  Kappa "  address  on  the  "  American  Scholar." 
Holmes  hailed  it  as  our  "  intellectual  Declaration  of  Indepen 
dence." 

A  little  earlier  (1833),  the  "New  York  Sun,"  the  first  perma 
nent  cheap  daily  paper,  appeared.  The  price  was  one  cent. 
That  meant  that  for  the  first  time  since  the  invention  of  print 
ing,  the  poorest  laborer  could  afford  to  carry  home  the  news  of 
the  world  in  his  pocket. 

Later  (1847),  Hoe's  steam  cylinder  press  made  cheap  news 
papers  a  success  by  reducing  the  cost  of  publication,  and  by 
rendering  it  possible  to  issue  enormous  editions  in  a  very  short 
space  of  time.  A  roll  of  paper  five  miles  in  length  can  now 


RAIL-ROAD  ROUTE        I84S, 


DB  BBHBMB  IP  •  11 10.  m 

Hose -who  pay  Grot^A  "between  Albany  and  JJuHalo,  •  $  1 0.  in  the  best  caw, 

**    ^A^W^^ra^cushloBed^A^01^^*-* 
Those  who  pay  Orouyh  between  Albany  &  Rochester,  $8.  in  the  l>cst  CAI* 
*>• ^o- do.  6  SOinaccomodatlonjegrA 

im 


GOING  "WEST. 

GOING  EAST. 

in  Train,  id  Train  3rf  Train. 
Leave  Albany.  6A,M.  I;P.M.  71P.M. 
Pau  Sehenectadjr,  T,  A.  M.  3  P.  M.  9  P.  M. 
Pa»»  Utica.  l;P.M.  9P.M.  4A.M. 

ixlnb  Hlnh.  Mfnte. 
re«v»  BuMo.  4A.M.  9A.M.  4P.M. 
Pass  Bochestfr.  Si  A.  M.  3  P.M.  10  P.  M. 
Pass  Auburn,  3j  P.  M.  9  P.  M.  4A.M. 

Pa»»  Syracuse.  5;  P.M.  2A.M.  «A.M. 
Paas  Ankara.  7  P.  M.  4  A.  M.  10  A.  M. 
Ptt«  Rcelieiur,  2  A.  M.  10  A.  M,  4  P.  M. 
ArrtvettBuffalo.  7  A.  M.  3  P.M.  9  P.  M, 

Pass  Syracuse*  $P.  M.  11  P.  M.  6  A.M. 
Pass  V'.ica,  91  P.  M.  4i  A.  M.  10  A.  M. 
Pau  Scheneeta4r.  \  A.  M.  JO  A.  M.  3  P.  M. 
Arr>e  at  Albany,  S  A.  M.  11  A.  M.  *i  P.  M. 

EBSfiRAMTS  ML  BE  8flHR31S  OHLT  Hf  9BUL  SiSITMST. 


Passengers  will  wocure  tickets  at  the  offices  at  Albany.  BuffiJo  or  Rochester; 

through,  to  bo  entitled  to  seats  at  the  reduced  rates. 

Fare  *rill  be  received  at  each  of  the  above  places  to  any  other  places 
named  on  the  route. 


By  permission  of  the  Superintendent  of  the  "  A .  B.  C.  Pathfinder  Railway  Guide." 

The  above  Time-table  shows  that  the  rate  of  travel  by  express  trains  from  Albany  to 
Buffalo  in  1843  was  less  than  thirteen  miles  an  hour. 

The  total  length  of  railway  operated  in  the  United  States  in  1843  was  but  a  little  over 
4000  miles. 

Up  to  1850  no  line  of  railway  had  been  built  as  far  west  as  the  Mississippi  River. 

The  180,000  miles  of  railway  now  in  operation  in  the  United  States  employ  an  army  of 
about  600,000  men  ;  financially  they  constitute  "  the  largest  single  interest  in  the  country." 


1829-1832.]        THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  319 

be   printed  on    both    sides    in    a    little   more   than    thirty-two 
minutes.879 

358.  The  Black  Hawk  War  ;  growth  of  the  West.  —  In 
the  summer  of  1832,  an  Indian  insurrection,  led  by  "Black 
Hawk,"  broke  out  in  Illinois,  and  extended  to  parts  of  the  ter 
ritory  now  comprised  in  Wisconsin  and   Iowa.     The  govern 
ment  troops  gained  an  easy  victory,   and  the   Indians  ceded 
large  tracts  of  land  to  secure  peace.     These  cessions  opened 
new  fields  for  settlement  in  the  rapidly  growing  West. 

Cincinnati  now  had  a  population  of  more  than  30,000,  and 
Buffalo  and  Detroit  gave  promise  of  becoming  important  cities. 
Chicago  was  a  pushing  little  trading  village  gathered  under 
the  protecting  guns  of  Fort  Dearborn  (§  278).  St.  Louis  was  a 
frontier  settlement  which  carried  on  a  large  traffic  with  the  Mis 
souri  Indians;  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  New  Orleans 
was  making  ready  to  contest  the  commercial  supremacy  of  the 
great  Atlantic  ports. 

359.  Beginning  of  the  war  against  the  United  States 
Bank ;  Jackson's  message.  —  When  Jackson  entered  office, 
the  Bank  of  the  United  States  (§  314)  seemed  almost  as  solidly 
established  as  the  Government  itself.    It  had  a  capital  of  about 
$35,000,000;  its  assets  were  fully  equal  to  its  liabilities;  it  held 
more  than  $13,000,000  of  deposits;  and  it  issued  notes  to  the 
amount  of  over  $27,000,000,  which  were  considered  as  good  as 
gold,  not  only  throughout  the  United  States,  but  in  "Europe.880 
The  headquarters  of  the  bank  were  at  Philadelphia,  under  the 
management  of  Nicholas  Biddle,  president  of  the  institution, 
and  it  had  twenty-five  branches  in  different  States. 

But  some  months  after  Jackson's  inauguration,  two  of  his 
most  zealous  supporters,  both  New  Hampshire  men,  made  a 
complaint  against  the  bank.  They  stated  that  the  Portsmouth, 
New  Hampshire,  branch  was  mismanaged.  Jeremiah  Mason, 
the  head  of  that  branch,  was  an  opponent  of  the  administration; 
he  was  accused  of  political  favoritism  in  his  dealings  with 
applicants  at  the  bank,  and  Secretary  Ingham,  of  the  United 


320  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

States  Treasury,  wrote  Nicholas  Biddle,  telling  him  of  these 
complaints.  Biddle,  after  investigating  the  matter,  replied  that 
the  charges  were  groundless.  He  said  he  considered  the  bank 
accountable  to  Congress,  but  to  Congress  only.  "  The  board 
of  directors,"  said  he,  "acknowledge  not  the  slightest  respon 
sibility  of  any  description  whatsoever  to  the  Secretary  of  the 
Treasury  touching  the  political  opinions  and  conduct  of  their 
officers." 881  This  sharp  retort  provoked  retaliation. 

The  charter  of  the  bank  would  not  expire  until  1836,  or  three 
years  after  the  term  for  which  Jackson  had  been  elected.  But 
in  his  first  annual  message  (1829)  the  President  said:  "  Both 
the  constitutionality  and  the  expediency  of  the  law  creating 
this  bank  are  well  questioned  by  a  large  portion  of  our  fellow- 
citizens  "  (§  255).  He  next  charged  the  bank  with  having 
"  failed  in  the  great  end  of  establishing  a  uniform  and  sound 
currency." 882  He  suggested  that  when  the  charter  should 
expire  it  might  be  thought  expedient  to  establish  a  new  national 
bank  "founded  upon  the  credit  of  the  Government."883 

360.  Congressional  reports  on  the  bank. — A  Congressional 
committee  reported  (1830)  that  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  had  (McCulloch  vs.  Maryland,  i8ig]  recognized 
the  constitutionality  of  the  bank,  and  that  it  had  proved  itself  a 
useful  institution.  Concerning  the  currency  of  the  bank,  the 
committee  reported  that  "  no  country  in  the  world  has  a  circulat 
ing  medium  of  greater  uniformity  than  the  United  States."884 

Jackson  in  his  next  two  annual  messages  (1830,  1831)  again 
attacked  the  bank.  The  following  year  (1832)  a  new  Congres 
sional  committee  examined  the  condition  of  the  institution. 
The  majority  reported  against  its  methods  of  transacting  busi 
ness;  the  minority  defended  it.  John  Quincy  Adams,  who  was 
one  of  the  committee,  made  an  independent  report.  He  criti 
cized  some  of  the  bank's  financial  methods,  but  declared  that, 
all  things  considered,  it  had  managed  its  affairs  "  with  as  near 
an  approach  to  perfect  wisdom  as  the  imperfection  of  human 
nature  permitted."  885 


1832.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  $21 

361.  Jackson  vetoes  the  bill  to  recharter  the  bank — In 
the  summer  of  1832,  Congress  passed  a  bill  to  recharter  the 
bank.     The  President  promptly  vetoed  it,  on  the  ground  that 
some  of  the  powers  of  the  institution  were  "  unauthorized  by 
the  Constitution,  subversive  of  the  rights  of  the  States,  and 
dangerous  to  the  liberties  of  the  people."  ^     He  furthermore 
denounced  the  bank  as  a  "monopoly,"  whose  stock  was  held 
by  a  few  hundred  rich  men  here  and  a  number  of  capitalists 
abroad.     The  existence  of  such  a  colossal  money  power,  with 
its  enormous   political  influence,  "might,"  he  said,  "make  us 
tremble  for  the  purity  of  our  elections  in  peace,  and  for  the 
independence  of  our  country  in  war."     If  we  must  have  such 
a  bank,  said  he,  "  it  should  be  purely  American."  887     With 
respect  to  the  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court  recognizing  the 
bank  as  constitutional  (§  360),  Jackson  said:  "  The  opinion  of 
the   judges   has   no   more  authority  over  Congress  than  the 
opinion  of  Congress  has  over  the  judges;  and  on  that  point  the 
President  is  independent  of  both."  888 

Webster  declared  that  if  the  veto  stood,  "  the  Constitution 
had  received  its  death-blow."889  Clay  said  that  if  the  bank 
was  compelled  to  call  in  its  loans  and  wind  up  its  business,  the 
result  would  be  "  widespread  ruin."  J  On  the  other  hand, 
Benton  said:  "  If  the  bank  gains  the  day,  there  is  an  end  of  the 
Republic";  in  that  case,  he  added,  "the  president  of  the  bank 
and  the  President  of  the  United  States  will  elect  each  other."891 
The  veto  triumphed,  and  Jackson's  supporters  were  jubilant. 
They  declared  that,  now  that  "  Nick  Biddle's  bloated  corpora 
tion  "  had  received  its  finishing  stroke,  the  people  would  get 
plenty  of  "  yellow  boys  "  in  place  of  "  Old  Nick's  money  "  and 
"Clay's  rags."892 

362.  The  presidential  election.  —  The  issue  at  the  election 
(1832)  was  the  question  whether  the  bank  should  or  should 
not  be  re-chartered.     Jackson  denounced  the  institution  as  a 
dangerous  political  machine  which  was  ready  to  use  its  power 
to  set  up  or  cast  down  presidents.     Biddle  and  the  Clay  party 


322  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1333-. 

retorted  that  Jackson  had  determined  to  make  himself  "  lord 
and  master  of  the  United  States,"  and  that  the  safety  of  the 
country  demanded  his  defeat  at  the  polls.893 

The  chief  candidates,  Clay  and  Jackson,  were  nominated  (for 
the  first  time)  by  national  convention  instead  of  by  Congres 
sional  caucus,  the  former  by  the  National  Republicans  (§  341), 
the  latter  by  the  Democrats  (§  341).  Jackson  was  elected, 
with  Martin  Van  Buren  as  Vice-President.  The  electoral  vote 
stood  219  to  49,  and  the  popular  vote  687,502  to  530,189. 

363.  The  President  withdraws  the  deposits.  —  Jackson 
began  his  second  administration  (1833)  fully  resolved  to  destroy 
the  power  of  the  United  States  Bank.     He  believed  that  it  had 
used  its  funds  to  prevent  his  election,  that  it  was  "financially 
rotten,"  and  that  the  government  deposits  in  it  were  no  longer 
safe.     The  House  voted  that  the  deposits  were  safe,  but  the 
President  proceeded  (1833)  "on  his  own  responsibility"  to 
remove  the  government  money  amounting  to  nearly  $10,000,000. 
The  greater  part  of  this  sum  was  withdrawn  in  the  course  of 
four  months.     Jackson  deposited  most  of  it  in  about  fifty  State 
banks, — henceforth  known  as  the  "  pet  banks."     The  Senate 
voted  that  the  President  had  violated  the  Constitution;   but 
before  Jackson  left  office   Benton  succeeded  in  getting   the 
record  of  the  vote  expunged. 

The  removal  of  the  deposits  compelled  the  Bank  of  the 
United  States  to  contract  its  loans.  This  caused  "tight  money"; 
many  failures  resulted,  and  "  distress  delegations "  implored 
the  President  for  relief.  The  great  New  York  fire  (1835)  made 
the  situation  worse  by  destroying  property  worth  $20,000,000. 

364.  Increase  of  State  banks ;  an  epidemic  of  speculation ; 
the  "  specie  circular";  distribution  of  the  "  surplus.  "- 
State  banks  now  began  to  increase  at  a  rapid  rate.     Many  of 
these  institutions  had  little  or  no  capital,  and  they  issued  floods 
of  worthless  paper.     Plenty  of  cheap  money  stimulated  specu 
lation.     In  the  course  of  two  years  enormous  tracts  of  public 
lands  were  purchased;  there  were  "booms"  in  cotton,  in  tim- 


1834-1837.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  323 

ber,  in  real  estate  in  Eastern  and  Southern  cities,  and  in 
projected  Western  towns. 

Between  1834  and  1836  the  government  land  sales  rose  from 
less  than  $5,000,000  to  nearly  $25,ooo,ooo.894  Everybody 
seemed  to  be  getting  rich  at  railroad  speed.895  In  New  York 
City  the  assessed  valuation  rose  in  two  years  from  $104,000,000 
to  $253,000,000,  while  in  Mobile  the  craze  of  speculation  was  so 
furious  that  property  estimated  to  be  worth  $1,294,000  in  1831 
was  six  years  later  rated  at  $27,48o,ooo.896 

The  President  became  alarmed  at  these  heavy  sales  of  gov 
ernment  land  for  doubtful  paper.  He  accordingly  issued 
(1836)  the  famous  "specie  circular,"  which  required  purchasers 
to  make  their  payments  in  gold  and  silver.  Speculators  were 
aghast  at  the  prospect.897  The  financial  sky  grew  black  with 
the  gathering  storm.  The  banks  held  less  than  $38,000,000  in 
specie,  against  an  issue  of  $525,000,000  in  notes.  Very  few  of 
them  could  redeem  their  bills  in  coin.  The  result  was  suspen 
sion  of  payment  and  great  distress.  There  were  bread  riots  in 
New  York,  and  threats  of  mob  violence  on  a  wide  scale;  but 
the  tempest  did  not  strike  the  country  in  its  full  violence  until 
after  Jackson  had  retired  from  office. 

Meanwhile  the  United  States  had  not  only  paid  off  every 
dollar  of  the  public  debt,  but  had  actually  accumulated  a  large 
surplus  in  the  Treasury.  At  the  recommendation  of  the  Presi 
dent,  Congress  passed  an  act  (1836)  ordering  that  the  surplus 
which  should  be  on  hand  at  the  beginning  of  1837  should  be 
distributed  among  the  States.  Accordingly  the  Government 
paid  out  over  $28,000,000  (January  to  July,  1837),  anc^  tnen 
stopped  because  its  funds  were  exhausted.  Some  States 
divided  their  share  of  the  money  among  the  whole  popula 
tion,  each  person  getting  a  few  shillings;  others  used  the 
money  to  begin  great  systems  of  roads,  canals,  and  similar 
public  improvements.  These  works  were  seldom  carried  to 
completion,  and  generally  ended  by  piling  up  a  heavy  State 
debt.898 


324  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1834-. 

365.  "  Pocket  vetoes ";  anti-slavery  petitions;  the  " gag- 
rule.  "  —  During  this  period  the  President  refused  to  sign  the 
Maysville    Turnpike    Bill,   with    several    others   for   "  internal 
improvements "   (§   337).     He  believed  that  these  measures 
were  unconstitutional,  and  that  they  tended  to  produce  political 
corruption.899     Some  of  these  bills  were  sent  to  him  within  ten 
days  of  the  adjournment  of  Congress;  the  Constitution  (Appen 
dix,  p.  ix,  Sect.  7)  gave  him  the  right  to  retain  them  until  the 
session  closed,  and  so  defeat  them.     He  did  retain  them,  and 
thus,  by  what  was  called  a  "pocket  veto,"  effectually  checked 
this  kind  of  legislation  for  the  time.900 

Later,  many  persons  at  the  North  petitioned  Congress  to 
abolish  slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia.  On  motion  of 
JohnC.  Calhoun,  the  House  (1836)  passed  the  first  "  gag-rule," 
which  laid  petitions  on  the  subject  of  slavery  on  the  table  — 
thus  preventing  discussion.  John  Quincy  Adams  vehemently 
protested,  declaring  that  this  rule  violated  the  first  amendment 
of  the  Constitution  (Appendix,  p.  xvi). 

366.  Important  inventions;  the  presidential  election;  new 
States.  —  Shortly  after  Jackson's  administration  began,  McCor- 
mick's  patent  reaper  and  mower  (1834)  put  a  new  power  in  the 
hands  of  the  agriculturist,   and  greatly   stimulated  the  rapid 
development  of  the  West.    Colt's  revolver  followed,  and  (1835) 
introduced  a  most  effective  military  weapon,  which  made  itself 
felt  in  the  Seminole  and  the  Mexican  Wars.     Gas  (1825)  had 
been  in  use  for  some  years,  and  the  friction  match  (1829)  now 
generally  superseded  the  bungling  flint  and  steel  (§  182). 

Ericsson's  screw  propeller  (1836)  was  destined  to  have  an 
immense  influence  on  ocean  navigation,  and  Nasmyth's  steam 
hammer  (1838)  gave  a  decided  impetus  to  the  iron  mills  of  both 
England  and  America.  Goodyear  was  experimenting  on  vul 
canized  rubber,  and  was  soon  (1839)  to  take  out  his  patent 
leading  to  the  manufacture  of  waterproof  clothing.  Two  years 
later  (1841)  the  first  steam  fire-engine  made  its  appearance  in 
New  York;  but  it  did  not  come  into  use  until  long  afterward. 


1835-1837.]        THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  325 

By  1835  tne  National  Republicans  (§§  341,  362)  had  taken 
the  name  of  Whigs.  The  Democrats  were  for  a  time  divided 
into  two  factions, —  the  regular  party  and  the  "  Locofocos,"  or 
"  Reform  Democrats."  At  the  presidential  election  the  two 
chief  candidates  were  Martin  Van  Buren,  who  had  been  Secre 
tary  of  State  under  Jackson,  and  General  Harrison  (§  297)  ; 
the  former  was  nominated  by  the  Democrats,  the  latter  by  the 
Whigs.  Van  Buren  (Richard  M.  Johnson,  Vice-President)  was 
elected.  The  electoral  vote  stood  170  to  73  (beside  51  scatter 
ing  votes);  and  the  popular  vote  stood  761,549  to  a  total  (for 
all  Whig  candidates)  of  736,656. 

The  admission  of  the  two  new  States  of  Arkansas  (1836)  and 
Michigan  (early  in  1837)  raised  the  whole  number  to  twenty- 
six. 

367.  Summary.  —  The  chief  political  events  of  Jackson's 
administration  were:  (i)  the  establishment  of  rotation  in  office 
and  the  "spoils  system"  on  a  national  scale;  (2)  the  negotiation 
of  treaties  securing  unrestricted  direct  trade  with  the  West  Indies, 
and  the  payment  of  the  French  spoliation  claims  ;  (3)  the  Web 
ster  and  Hayne  debate  on  the  Constitution;  (4)  the  rise  of  the 
Abolitionists;  (5)  the  nullification  movement  in  South  Carolina; 
(6)  the  overthrow  of  the  Bank  of  the  United  States. 

This  period  was  memorable,  too,  for  the  opening  of  the  first 
American  railroad ;  for  the  introduction  of  a  number  of  important 
inventions  ;  for  the  development  of  American  literature,  and  the 
publication  of  the  first  cheap  newspaper. 


MARTIN  VAN  BUREN  (DEMOCRAT),  ONE  TERM,  1837-1841. 

368.  Van  Buren 's  inaugural  and  slavery ;  financial  crash 
and  panic  (1837).  —  All  preceding  presidents  had  carefully 
avoided  the  exciting  subject  of  slavery  in  their  inaugurals,  but 
Van  Buren  (§  366)  spoke  directly  on  that  topic.  He  said:  "  I 
must  go  into  the  presidential  chair  the  inflexible  and  uncom 
promising  opponent  of  every  attempt  on  the  part  of  Congress 


326  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

to  abolish  slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia  (§  365)  against 
the  wishes  of  the  slave-holding  States;  and  also  with  a  determi 
nation  to  resist  the  slightest  interference  with  it  in  the  States 
where  it  exists."  W1 

John  Quincy  Adams,  the  first  great  anti-slavery  leader  in 
Congress,  had  just  declared  that  he  would  not  support  any 
petitions  "  for  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  District  of  Colum 
bia."  ™'2  More  than  a  score  of  years  later  (1860)  the  Republican 
Party903  and  Charles  Sumner  explicitly  denied  that  Congress 
had  the  right  "  to  interfere  with  slavery  in  any  State."904  Presi 
dent  Lincoln  in  his  inaugural  (1861)  took  the  same  position.905 

But  a  more  pressing  question  than  that  of  slavery  was  now 
demanding  solution.  In  his  farewell  address,  President  Jack 
son  said:  "I  leave  this  great  people  prosperous  and  happy." 
In  his  inaugural,  Van  Buren  said:  "We  present  an  aggregate 
of  human  prosperity  surely  not  elsewhere  to  be  found."  Yet 
at  the  very  moment  when  he  uttered  these  confident  words  the 
country  was  on  the  verge  of  the  severest  financial  panic  it  had 
ever  experienced.  The  overtrading  and  reckless  land  specula 
tion  (§  364),  which  had  been  pushed  higher  and  higher  for  a 
number  of  years,  now  toppled  over  with  a  crash. 

369.  Business  failures;  application  to  the  Government  for 
relief.  —  In  the  spring  of  1837  a  large  cotton  firm  failed  in 
New  Orleans;  a  New  York  house  followed,  and  in  ten  days  the 
failures  in  that  city  amounted  to  $27,000,000.  Property  of  all 
kinds  fell  rapidly  in  value,  and  tracts  of  land  which  had  been 
purchased  at  fabulous  prices  could  not  be  sold  for  enough  to 
pay  the  taxes.  Strange  to  say,  the  country  was  actually  in 
want  of  food.  Many  farmers  had  neglected  cultivating  their 
fields  in  the  hope  of  making  money  by  speculation.  A  poor 
harvest  diminished  the  yield  of  wheat  and  corn  still  further, 
and  the  American  people,  with  millions  of  acres  of  fertile  soil, 
found  themselves  compelled  to  import  breadstuffs  from  Europe.906 
All  the  necessaries  of  life  rose  in  price,  and  there  was  great  dis 
tress  among  the  poor  in  New  York  and  other  cities. 


1837-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  327 

A  committee  of  prominent  merchants  made  a  piteous  appeal 
to  the  President  for  help.  They  stated  that  the  losses  by 
shrinkage  of  real-estate  values  and  local  stocks  in  New  York 
city  alone  exceeded  $60,000,000.  They  declared  that  within 
eight  weeks  two  hundred  and  fifty  large  business  houses  had 
failed,  and  that  twenty  thousand  laboring  men  were  parading 
the  streets,  destitute  of  food  and  unable  to  find  work.  The 
committee  believed  that  the  "specie  circular"  (§  364)  was  one 
of  the  chief  causes  of  "  tight  money  "  and  of  the  general  dis 
tress.  Van  Buren  expressed  his  sympathy,  but  declined  to 
make  any  change  in  this  respect.  He  was  convinced  that  the 
"  specie  circular  "  was  not  the  real  cause  of  the  panic,  but  was 
simply  the  pin  which  had  pricked  the  bubble  of  speculation.907 
He  said,  in  substance,  that  instead  of  praying  to  the  Govern 
ment  for  aid,  men  must  put  their  shoulders  to  the  wheel,  get  the 
load  out  of  the  slough,  and  so  find  that  "  Heaven  helps  those  " 
—  and  those  only  —  "  who  help  themselves."  £ 

370.  Bank  failures;  the  Government  suspends  specie  pay 
ment;  repudiation;  causes  of  the  panic.  —  One  of  the  deposit 
or  "  pet "  banks  (§  363)  in  New  York  failed,  and  shortly  after 
ward  all  the  other  banks  in  the  city  suspended  payment.  Those 
elsewhere  speedily  followed  their  example.  Coin  now  disap 
peared  from  circulation,  and  the  country  was  soon  flooded  with 
all  kinds  of  "  shin-plaster  "  currency. 

The  suspension  of  the  deposit  banks  compelled  the  federal 
Government  to  refuse  to  make  payments  in  gold  and  silver.  A 
number  of  States,  unable  to  raise  money  by  taxation,  repudiated 
the  interest  on  their  debts,  and  in  some  cases  refused  to  pay  the 
debts  themselves.  Later,  however,  these  States  resumed  pay 
ment,  either  partially  or  wholly.909  John  Quincy  Adams  believed 
that  the  distribution  of  the  treasury  surplus  of  $28,000,000 
(§  364)  was  the  chief  cause  of  the  financial  distress.  He  said : 
"  We  present,  at  the  present  moment,  a  most  astonishing  and 
portentous  spectacle  to  the  world  —  without  a  dollar  of  national 
debt  we  are  in  the  midst  of  national  bankruptcy."  91° 


328  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

Van  Buren  called  a  special  session  of  Congress  in  the 
autumn  of  1837  to  consider  what  action  should  be  taken 
respecting  the  deposit  of  the  government  funds.  He  attrib 
uted911  the  panic  to  four  causes:  (i)  the  enormous  multiplica 
tion  of  banks;  (2)  the  borrowing  of  more  than  $30,000,000  of 
foreign  money  by  individual  States;  (3)  reckless  speculation  in 
wild  lands  (§  364);  (4)  the  expenditure  of  vast  sums  in  "ruin 
ously  improvident  "  systems  of  internal  improvements  (§  364). 

By  the  spring  of  1838  the  sharpest  period  of  the  panic  had 
passed,  but  the  next  year  there  was  a  partial  relapse  in  the 
South,  owing  to  the  sudden  fall  in  the  price  of  cotton  from 
sixteen  cents  to  five  cents  per  pound. 

371.  Van  Buren  proposes  the  independent  treasury  sys 
tem  ;  socialistic  experiments.  —  The  President  recommended 
Congress  to  abolish  the  system  of  depositing  the  government 
money  in  State  banks,  and  to  establish  an  independent  treasury 
system.  He  argued  that  if  the  Government  deposited  its  reve 
nues  in  its  own  vaults,  the  money  would  not  only  be  absolutely 
safe,  but  it  could  not  be  used  for  speculation  or  for  political 
purposes.  Congress  did  not  then  heed  the  President's  recom 
mendation,  but  later  (1840)  adopted  it.  The  act  establishing 
the  independent  treasury  system  was,  however,  soon  repealed, 
but  was  reenacted  some  years  later  (1846)  as  it  stands  to-day. 

Meanwhile  the  hard  winter  of  1837-1838  bore  fruit  in 
other  ways.  Horace  Greeley  wrote  a  series  of  articles  on  "What 
shall  be  done  for  the  Laborer?  "  This  led  to  the  suggestion  of 
the  establishment  of  communal  farms,  to  be  cultivated  by  the 
cooperation  of  several  hundred  families.912  The  Shakers  and 
the  Rappites  were  successful  examples  of  such  communities. 
They,  however,  had  been  established  on  a  religious  basis,  while 
Greeley  and  other  thinkers  proposed  to  make  their  experiments 
industrial  and  educational. 

In  the  course  of  a  few  years  several  such  communities  were 
started.  One  of  the  most  noted  of  these  was  that  at  "  Brook 
Farm,"  near  Boston.  It  was  begun  by  an  exceptionally  intelli- 


1840.]  THE    UNION,  NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  329 

gent  and  earnest  band  of  men  and  women.  They  believed  that 
by  honest,  well-directed,  harmonious  labor  they  could  succeed 
in  showing  the  world  the  advantages  of  cooperative  industry 
joined  to  "  plain  living  and  high  thinking."  Like  most  of  these 
well-meant  projects,  it  attracted  its  full  proportion  of  "dreamers 
and  schemers,"  and  the  pressure  of  untoward  circumstances 
soon  put  an  end  to  what  Emerson  called  an  attempt  to  organize 
"  a  perpetual  picnic."  Some  of  the  purely  industrial  communi 
ties  founded  about  the  same  time  still  flourish.913 

372.  The  Mormons  found  Nauvoo ;  Millerism  and  Spirit 
ualism.  —  During  the  latter  half  of  Van  Buren's  administra 
tion,  the  Mormons,  or  "Latter  Day  Saints,"  attracted  much 
attention  in  the  West.  The  founder  of  the  organization  was 
Joseph  Smith,  a  native  of  Vermont,  who  had  in  early  life 
removed  to  western  New  York.  Smith  declared  that  an  angel 
appeared  to  him  (1827)  and  directed  him  where  to  dig  up  a 
remarkable  volume  called  the  "Book  of  Mormon."914  Smith 
and  his  followers  regarded  this  book  as  a  special  divine  reve 
lation  made  to  the  people  of  America.  They  declared  that  its 
authority  was  equal  to  that  of  the  Bible,  and  that  it  was  a  nec 
essary  supplement  to  the  Christian  gospels.  Smith  proclaimed 
himself  the  "  Prophet "  of  the  new  religion.  He  made  a  num 
ber  of  converts,  and  planted  missions  in  Ohio  and  Missouri. 

Later,  the  "  Latter  Day  Saints "  were  driven  out  of  these 
States  ;  they  then  settled  in  Illinois.  There  they  obtained  an 
unusually  liberal  charter,  and  founded  (1840)  the  "sacred  city" 
of  Nauvoo  on  a  bend  of  the  Mississippi  River.  The  population 
of  Nauvoo  eventually  reached  about  15,000.  This  made  it  the 
largest  city  in  the  State. 

Smith  was  the  supreme  head  of  the  Church  and  of  the  civil 
and  military  power  of  this  flourishing  community  which  was 
noted  for  its  industry,  temperance,  and  thrift.  As  head  of  the 
Mormon  corporation  he  could  marshal  an  army  of  trained  militia 
some  four  thousand  strong,  and  another  and  still  larger  army 
of  voters  casting  a  solid  ballot.  Governor  Ford  said  that  with- 


33O  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1843-1847. 

out  their  aid  no  one  could  hope  to  get  office.915  Political  op 
ponents  accused  them  of  plotting  to  obtain  control  of  the  State. 
They  asserted  that  when  the  followers  of  Smith  had  acquired 
sufficient  strength,  they  would  drive  the  "Gentile"  inhabitants 
out  of  Illinois  as  the  "  Children  of  Israel "  drove  the  heathen 
out  of  Canaan. 

The  Mormon  leader  professed  to  make  the  example  of  the 
Hebrew  patriarchs  his  guide  in  many  things.  He  now  (1843) 
declared  that  he  had  received  a  new  revelation  from  heaven 
respecting  marriage.  This  revelation  recommended  the  estab 
lishment  of  polygamy,916  though  the  formal,  public  declaration 
of  the  doctrine  was  not  made  until  1852.  Shortly  after  this, 
several  of  the  "  Saints,"  who  had  either  seceded  from  the  Mor 
mon  body,  or  had  been  expelled  from  it,  began  the  publication 
of  a  paper  in  Nauvoo  in  which  they  boldly  accused  the  "  Prophet " 
of  leading  a  profligate  life.917  The  Mormon  authorities  at  once 
broke  up  the  paper,  and  the  publishers  fled  to  Carthage.  Smith 
at  first  defied  the  officers  of  the  law  sent  to  arrest  him,  but 
finally  gave  himself  up  and  was  carried  to  Carthage  and  impris 
oned.  The  report  got  about  that  Governor  Ford  intended  to 
discharge  him  without  a  trial ;  a  mob  collected,  attacked  the 
jail,  and  shot  the  "Prophet"  (1844). 

After  Smith's  death  Brigham  Young,  one  of  the  "Twelve 
Apostles "  of  the  "  Latter  Day  Saints,"  became  their  leader. 
The  feeling  in  Illinois  continued  to  grow  more  and  more  bitter 
against  the  Mormons  who  then  numbered  about  twenty  thou 
sand.  Their  peculiar  religious  teachings  and  their  political 
power  roused  the  fear  and  hatred  of  the  "Gentiles."  They 
were  forced  (1846)  to  abandon  Nauvoo.  Under  the  leadership 
of  Brigham  Young,  they  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains,  then  the 
western  boundary  of  the  United  States,  and  settled  (1847)  on 
Mexican  soil  in  what  is  now  Utah.918 

There,  in  the  midst  of  an  alkali  desert  where  rain  rarely  fell, 
and  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Great  Salt  Lake,  —  the  American  Dead 
Sea,  —  they  began  to  erect  their  new  Zion.  Starting  with  no 


1837-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  331 

capital  but  their  hands,  they  transformed  the  desolate  wilderness 
into  a  garden,  and  made  the  desert  "  rejoice  and  blossom  as  the 
rose."  Later,  many  non-Mormons  were  attracted  to  Utah. 

About  the  time  that  Mormonism  was  exerting  its  influence  in 
Illinois,  William  Miller  made  an  address  in  New  York  State, 
declaring  (1843)  ^at  tne  end  °f  ^e  world  was  at  hand.  He 
readily  found  listeners  to  his  teachings,  and  some  enthusiastic 
followers  stopped  doing  business,  gave  away  their  property,  and 
prepared  their  ascension  robes.919  In  New  York  State  a  few 
years  later  (1848),  certain  mysterious  rappings,  known  as  the 
"  Rochester  Knockings,"  began  to  attract  attention  in  that  city. 
They  were  produced  through  the  agency  or  "  mediumship  "  of 
the  Fox  sisters.  These  rappings  gave  rise  to  the  widespread 
movement  known  as  modern  Spiritualism.920 

373.  Slavery  agitation  in  Congress ;  the  second  Seminole 
War.  —  Meanwhile,  notwithstanding  the  "gag-rule"  (§  365),  there 
was  intense  excitement  in  Congress  over  slavery;  Lovejoy,  the 
editor  of  an  anti-slavery  paper  in  Alton,  Illinois,  was  shot  in  a 
riot  (1837)  while  defending  his  printing-office.  His  death  gave 
fresh  impetus  to  the  abolition  movement  in  New  England,  and 
added  Wendell  Phillips  to  the  Garrisonian  ranks  (§  353). 

Calhoun  (1837)  offered  a  series  of  six  resolutions  in  the  United 
States  Senate  on  the  subject  of  the  relations  of  the  federal 
Government  to  slavery.  In  the  fifth  resolution  he  declared 
that  any  "intermeddling"  by  the  States  or  by  Congress  with 
slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  or  in  the  territories,  under 
the  pretext  that  "  it  is  immoral  or  sinful,"  would  be  a  "  direct 
and  dangerous  attack  "  on  Southern  institutions.921  Clay  offered 
two  amendments  ;  the  first  slightly  changed  the  wording  of 
Calhoun's  resolution  in  regard  to  the  interference  with  slavery 
in  the  District  of  Columbia  ;  the  second  declared  that  the  peo 
ple  of  any  territory,  when  it  should  be  admitted  as  a  State, 
should  decide  the  question  "exclusively  for  themselves"  whether 
they  would  or  would  not  have  slavery.  The  resolutions  were 
then  adopted  by  a  large  majority.9*1  In  the  House,  John  Quincy 


332  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

Adams  continued  to  offer  (§  365)  petitions  for  the  abolition  of 
slavery  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  for  the  dissolution  of  the 
Union  and  for  various  other  objects.  In  a  single  day  he  pre 
sented  several  hundred  such  papers.923  In  one  instance  he 
offered  a  petition  which  professed  to  come  from  a  number  of 
slaves.  The  excitement  became  almost  a  riot ;  members  crowded 
around  Mr.  Adams,  shouting,  "Expel  him!"  "Expel  him!" 
After  the  tumult  had  somewhat  subsided,  Mr.  Adams  dryly  ex 
plained  that  in  this  case  the  slaves  had  petitioned  against 
abolition,  not  for  it.924  He  continued  to  fight  against  the  "gag- 
rules,"  session  after  session,  until  finally  after  eight  years  of 
battle  he  succeeded  in  getting  them  repealed  (1844). 

The  Seminole  War  which  had  begun  (1817)  under  Monroe 
(§  317)  broke  out  anew  under  Van  Buren.  Osceola,  chief  of 
the  tribe,  visited  the  American  camp  under  promise  of  safety; 
but  he  was  thrown  into  prison  and  detained  until  his  death 
(1838).  This  caused  the  outbreak.  Colonel  Zachary  Taylor 
defeated  the  Indians  in  a  decisive  battle,  but  the  war  dragged 
on  in  the  swamps  of  Southern  Florida  for  several  years  longer. 
At  length,  after  having  spent  more  than  $20,000,000,  or  four 
times  what  we  originally  paid  for  the  Florida  Territory,  the 
Indians  were  compelled  to  remove  to  the  far  West  (1842). 

374.  Harnden's express;  the  daguerreotype ;  ocean  steam 
ship  lines  established ;  immigration.  —  In  1839  w-  F-  Harn- 
den,  of  Massachusetts,  began  the  business  of  carrying  parcels 
in  a  handbag  between  Boston  and  New  York  City.  In  this 
humble  way  he  founded  the  American  express  system,  the  most 
perfect  of  its  kind  in  the  world.  It  now  extends  to  every  town 
in  the  United  States,  employs  a  capital  amounting  to  many 
millions,  and  keeps  an  army  of  men  busy  day  and  night.925 

In  the  autumn  of  the  same  year  (1839)  Samuel  F.  B.  Morse, 
then  in  New  York,  took  the  first  American  photograph.  He 
constructed  his  apparatus  by  means  of  drawings  which  Daguerre, 
the  inventor  of  the  process,  sent  him  from  France,  and  succeeded 
in  greatly  reducing  the  time  required  for  taking  a  picture.926 


1838-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  333 

We  have  seen  that  the  first  American  ocean  steamship 
crossed  the  Atlantic  in  1819  (§  319).  Nearly  twenty  years 
elapsed  before  the  experiment  was  again  tried;  then  two  Eng 
lish  steamers,  the  "  Sirius  "  and  the  "  Great  Western,"  arrived 
in  New  York  on  the  same  day  (1838).  Two  years  later  (1840) 
Samuel  Cunard,  the  son  of  a  Philadelphia  merchant,  estab 
lished  the  first  regular  line  between  England  and  America,  by 
sending  the  "  Britannia  "  from  Liverpool  to  Boston.  The  Cunard 
Company  soon  put  on  a  second  regular  line  to  New  York.927 

By  means  of  fast  packets,  and  later  by  steamers,  immense 
numbers  of  immigrants  soon  began  to  pour  into  our  ports.  The 
terrible  famine  in  Ireland  (1845-1846)  and  political  troubles 
on  the  Continent  greatly  stimulated  this  influx  of  settlers.  In 
ten  years  (1840-1850)  the  number  of  arrivals  averaged  nearly 
four  thousand  a  week.  The  greatest  number  came  from  Ire 
land  ;  Germany  ranked  next,  then  England,  and,  last  of  all, 
France  and  the  other  countries  of  Europe.  The  total  number 
of  immigrants  that  arrived  from  the  close  of  the  Revolution 
to  1901  was  upwards  of  iSjOoOjOoo.928  A  large  proportion  of 
the  foreigners  now  coming  are  Italians,  and. Russian  and  Polish 
Jews. 

The  immigrants  of  the  earlier  period  were  generally  young 
men  and  women,  full  of  vigor,  who  came  here  eager  to  grapple 
with  the  Western  wilderness.  Their  labor  developed  the 
resources  of  the  country,  and  enormously  increased  its  wealth 
and  prosperity.  They  rarely  went  South,  where  free  labor  was 
not  wanted;  they  generally  voted  the  Democratic  ticket,  but 
had  no  interest  in  the  extension  of  slavery ;  they  knew  nothing 
of  the  doctrine  of  "  State-rights,"  and  gave  their  influence  and 
their  votes  to  the  cause  of  the  Union. 

On  the  other  hand,  this  immigration  often  indirectly  encour 
aged  the  municipal  corruption  which  has  disgraced  so  many  of 
our  city  governments.  Recently,  many  important  reforms  have 
been  effected  in  this  respect,  and  the  prospects  indicate  that 
the  improvement  will  go  on. 


334  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1840-. 

375.  The  presidential  election  1840;  the  "  log-cabin  and 
hard-cider  "  campaign.  —  The  party  which  happens  to  be  in 
power  during  a  period  of  business  and  financial  depression  is 
sure  to  have  much  of  the  blame  for  "hard  times  "  cast  upon  it. 
The  Whigs  believed  Van  Buren  and  his  supporters  were  respon 
sible  for  the  panic  of  1837  (§  369),  and  nominated  William 
Henry  Harrison  for  President,  with  John  Tyler,  of  Virginia,  as 
Vice-President ;  the  Democrats  renominated  Van  Buren.  The 
Abolitionists,  or  Liberty  Party,  now  for  the  first  time  appeared  in 
national  politics,  and  nominated  James  G.  Birney,  one  of  their 
leading  men,  for  the  presidency. 

Harrison,  the  "  old  hero  of  Tippecanoe  "  (§  297),  was  then 
living  in  a  very  humble  way  on  a  small  farm  in  southern  Ohio. 
An  opposition  journal  ridiculed  the  idea  of  an  attempt  to  make 
such  a  man  the  head  of  the  nation.  "Give  him  a  log-cabin  and 
a  barrel  of  hard  cider,"  said  the  editor,  "  and  he  will  stay  con 
tent  in  Ohio."929  The  Whigs  found  their  rallying  cry  in  these 
words.  They  at  once  set  up  a  great  shout  for  "  the  log-cabin 
candidate." 

Then  began  the  most  exciting  political  campaign  the  country 
had  ever  seen.  Clay,  Webster,  Everett,  and  Choate  "took  the 
stump"  for  "Harrison  and  Reform."  The  Whigs  held  gigantic 
mass-meetings,  and  marched  in  processions  miles  long.  Every 
where  one  saw  log-cabins,  barrels  of  hard  cider,  and  live  coons; 
the  whole  country  rang  with  the  rousing  chorus  of  "Tippe 
canoe  and  Tyler  too."  Harrison  spoke  to  "  ten  acres  of  people" 
at  Dayton,  Ohio,  and  pledged  himself,  if  elected,  "  to  abridge 
the  power  and  influence  of  the  national  Executive."  93°  For  the 
first  time  in  forty  years  the  Democrats  were  beaten,  and  Harri 
son  and  Tyler  were  elected. 

Before  the  campaign  Harrison  had  not  clearly  identified  him 
self  with  either  the  Whigs  or  the  Democrats.  Tyler  had  been 
a  "strict  constructionist "  (§  256)  and  a  Calhoun  Democrat, 
strongly  'favoring  "  State-rights,"  or  "  State-sovereignty."  It 
was  believed,  however,  that  he  would  throw  his  influence  on  the 


1841-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  335 

Whig  side;  his  nomination  was  made  as  a  bid  for  Southern  votes. 
The  electoral  vote  stood  234  to  60;  the  popular  vote  1,275,017 
to  1,128,702. 

376.  Summary. —  Van  Buren's  administration  began  clouded 
by  a  disastrous  panic  which  involved  the  whole  country  in  ruin 
ous  loss.     Through  the  President's  earnest  efforts   Congress 
adopted  the    "  independent  treasury  system,"  but  it  was  not 
permanently  established  until  after  he  left  office. 

The  Mormons  made  a  strong  settlement  in  Illinois,  and  when 
expelled  from  that  State  they  emigrated  to  Salt  Lake  Valley  in 
the  Mexican  Territory  of  Utah. 

The  establishment  of  regular  lines  of  ocean  steamers  and  of 
fast  packets  tended  to  encourage  immigration,  and  had  an 
important  influence  on  the  West  and  on  national  politics. 

WILLIAM  HENRY  HARRISON  (WHIG),  ONE  TERM,  1841-1845. 

377.  Harrison's    death;    Tyler's   succession.  —  General 
Harrison   (§   375)   was  an  old  man  when  he  entered  office. 
The   excitement   of    the    campaign,    Clay's    dictatorial    ways, 
and  the  persistent  demands  of  crowds  of  greedy  office-seekers 
proved  too  much  for  his  failing  strength, — a  month  after  his 
inauguration,  the  President  lay  dead  in  the  White  House.    The 
whole  country  was  startled,  for  his  death  raised  Tyler  to  the 
presidency.     Such  an  event  had  never  occurred  before,  and 
Tyler's  political  principles  (§   375)   were   very  different  from 
those  which  Harrison  had  held. 

In  their  fancied  security  the  people  had  jocosely  dubbed  the 
Vice-President,  "  His  superfluous  Excellency."  Congress  hesi 
tated  what  title  to  give  Mr.  Tyler,  but  he  promptly  informed 
them  that  he  was  now  President  of  the  United  States  "  by  the 
Constitution,  by  election,  and  by  the  hand  of  God."981 

378.  Tyler  vetoes  the  "  Fiscal  Bank"  Bill.  — The  first 
move    made   by  the  Whigs    was    to    repeal    the    Independent 
Treasury  Act  (§  371),  and  to  attempt  to  pass  a  bill  reviving  the 


336  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [i84i-. 

national  bank  (§  359)  under  the  name  of  the  "  Fiscal  Bank  of  the 
United  States."  The  President  vetoed  the  bill  (1841)  on  the 
ground  of  unconstitutionally,  since  it  granted  the  bank  the  right 
to  establish  branches  in  various  States  without  asking  their  con 
sent.932  Congress  then  prepared  a  new  bill  which  the  President 
vetoed  (1841)  on  substantially  the  same  grounds  that  he  had 
the  first.933 

This  second  veto  roused  a  storm  of  denunciation.  Every 
member  of  the  Cabinet,  except  Daniel  Webster,  Secretary  of 
State,  promptly  resigned.  The  majority  of  the  Whigs  in  both 
Houses  united  in  an  address  to  the  people,  in  which  they 
declared  (1841)  that  "the  President  .  .  .  has  voluntarily  sepa 
rated  himself  from  those  by  whose  exertions  and  suffrages  he 
was  elevated  to  that  office."  They  closed  their  address  by 
protesting  against  the  attempt  of  "  one  man  "  to  control  "  the 
will  of  the  nation."  «* 

The  Whigs  of  Massachusetts  held  a  meeting  at  which  they 
resolved  that  "  all  political  connection  between  them  and  John 
Tyler  was  at  an  end  from  that  day  forth."  935  In  future  only  a 
few  members  of  Congress,  nicknamed  the  "  Corporal's  guard," 
upheld  the  President.  The  deadlock  between  him  and  the 
Whigs  was  not  broken  until  just  as  he  was  leaving  office, 
and  the  policy  of  the  administration  throughout  was  virtually 
Democratic. 

379.  The  "Dorr  rebellion";  the  " anti-renters/* — Mean 
while  a  controversy  in  Rhode  Island  over  a  change  in  the  State 
constitution  threatened  to  end  in  civil  war.  Under  its  ancient 
charter  the  right  of  suffrage  in  that  State  was  limited  to  land 
owners  (holding  an  estate  valued  at  not  less  than  $134)  and  to 
their  eldest  sons. 

This  provision  now  caused  great  inequality  of  representation. 
Newport  had  six  members  in  the  Legislature,  while  the  city  of 
Providence,  with  a  population  nearly  three  times  larger,  had 
only  four.  Repeated  efforts  had  been  made  to  remedy  this 
inequality,  but  without  effect.  In  1841  a  popular  Convention, 


1842.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  337 

or  mass-meeting,  framed  the  "People's  Constitution";  it  estab 
lished  universal  suffrage  and  equal  representation.936  A  little 
later  (1842)  the  Legislature  summoned  a  Convention  which 
adopted  the  "Landholder's  Constitution";  it  made  universal 
suffrage  the  rule  for  all  natives  of  the  State,  but  withheld 
that  right  from  naturalized  citizens  unless  they  owned  landed 
property. 

Both  constitutions  were  submitted  to  popular  vote ;  the 
"  People's  "  was  accepted,  the  "  Landholder's  "  rejected.  The 
Legislature  believed  that  the  victory  had  been  gained  by  fraud,937 
and  forbade  the  Free  Suffrage  Party  putting  the  new  constitu 
tion  in  force.  The  Free  Suffragists  paid  no  attention  to  this 
prohibition,  and  elected  (1842)  Thomas  W.  Dorr,  Governor, 
though  Samuel  W.  King  then  held  that  position  under  the  old 
charter.  King  and  Dorr  both  threatened  to  maintain  their 
respective  authority  by  force  of  arms,  but  Dorr's  followers 
abandoned  him.  He  was  arrested,  convicted  of  treason,  and 
sent  to  prison  for  life;  but  was  pardoned  out  a  few  years  later. 
Before  the  close  of  1842  a  regularly  organized  State  Convention 
adopted  a  new  constitution  which  put  an  end  to  the  old  charter 
government,  and  practically  granted  manhood  suffrage,  or  all 
that  the  Free  Suffrage  Party  asked. 

While  this  bloodless  revolution  was  going  on  in  Rhode  Island, 
the  tenants  of  the  Van  Rensselaer  and  other  old  patroon  estates 
(§§  57,  58)  in  New  York  started  an  anti-rent  movement.  The 
dispute  became  serious,  but  was  finally  settled  by  the  landlords 
consenting  to  sell  the  estates  at  a  reduced  valuation.938  This 
gave  the  purchasers  a  freehold  title,  and  virtually  put  an  end 
to  the  patroon  system.939 

380.  The  Webster-Ashburton  Treaty ;  slavery  agitation. 
—  The  boundary  between  the  Northeastern  States  and  Canada 
had  not  been  definitely  fixed  by  the  treaty  of  peace  with  Great 
Britain  made  in  1783.  The  territory  in  dispute  was  chiefly  that 
between  Maine  and  Canada;  it  was  a  little  over  12,000  square 
miles  in  extent,  and  the  controversy  in  regard  to  it  threatened 


338  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1342. 

to  involve  the  two  countries  in  war.  Negotiations  for  a  settle 
ment  of  this  dangerous  question  were  opened  by  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States,  through  Lord  Ashburton  and  Daniel 
Webster,  aided  by  Judge  Story. 

A  treaty  was  made  (1842)  which  :  (i)  secured  to  us  more  than 
half  of  the  tract  of  land  claimed  by  Maine ;  (2)  it  reaffirmed  the 
boundary  line  of  1818  from  the  Mississippi  to  the  Rocky  Moun 
tains;  (3)  it  made  provision  for  the  mutual  surrender  of  fugitives 
from  justice.  •  In  the  course  of  the  negotiations,  Mr.  Webster 
wrote  Lord  Ashburton  respecting  the  unsettled  question  of 
impressments  (§§  299,  312).  He  stated  that  henceforth  it  must 
be  distinctly  understood  that  the  crew  of  an  American  vessel 
would  "find  their  protection  in  the  flag  which  is  over  them."940 

In  the  House,  John  Quincy  Adams,  the  venerable  champion  of 
freedom  and  free  speech  (§§  365,  373),  found  a  young  and  vigor 
ous  coadjutor  in  Joshua  R.  Giddings,  of  Ohio.  Giddings  detested 
slavery  as  heartily  as  the  most  zealous  of  the  New  England 
Abolitionists.  He  offered  a  series  of  resolutions  (1842)  declar 
ing  that,  since  slavery  was  an  abridgment  of  the  natural  rights 
of  man,  it  could  not  be  constitutionally  extended  beyond  the 
States  it  then  occupied.941  The  House  censured  Giddings;  he 
resigned,  but  was  immediately  reflected  by  a  large  majority, 
and  returned  to  renew  the  battle  in  behalf  of  free  soil. 

At  the  same  time  (1842)  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States  (Prigg  vs.  Pennsylvania)  decided  that  under  the  law  of 
1793  (§  257),  the  national  Government  could  not  compel  the 
local  officers  of  a  State  to  take  part  in  the  arrest  or  return 
of  runaway  negroes.942  This  decision  naturally  created  much 
excitement  in  the  South,  and  that  section  demanded  the  enact 
ment  of  a  new  and  more  stringent  fugitive-slave  law. 

The  growing  irritation  on  this  subject  was  aggravated  by  the 
refusal  of  Governor  Seward,  of  New  York,  to  give  up  certain 
white  citizens  charged  at  the  South  with  stealing  slaves.  This 
provoked  Virginia  and  South  Carolina  to  enact  a  law  ordering 
the  imprisonment,  while  in  port,  of  all  colored  seamen  arriving 


1842-1843.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  339 

on  New  York  vessels.943  Later  (1844),  Mr.  Hoar,  of  Boston, 
was  sent  by  his  State  to  Charleston  to  secure  the  liberation  of 
several  such  seamen  who  were  citizens  of  Massachusetts,  —  a 
State  which  had  declined  to  give  any  aid  in  enforcing  the  return 
of  fugitive  slaves.  The  people  of  Charleston  retaliated  by  com 
pelling  Mr.  Hoar  to  leave  the  city.944 

381.  The  question  of  the  annexation  of  Texas.  —  But  the 
question  of  the  extension  of  slave-holding  territory  in  the  South 
west  was  now  coming  to  the  front.  When  Houston  became 
President  of  the  "Lone  Star  Republic"  of  Texas  (§  329),  he 
was  fully  resolved  to  secure  its  annexation  to  the  United  States. 
The  South  was  eager  to  aid  him  to  accomplish  his  object.945 
The  people  of  that  section  felt  that  the  annexation  of  a  large 
area  of  slave-holding  territory  was  demanded  by  the  law  of 
political  self-preservation.  They  furthermore  declared  that 
the  market  price  of  negroes  would  thereby  be  greatly  in 
creased.946 

The  Missouri  Compromise  Act  of  1820  (§  324)  had  made 
the  whole  territorial  area  of  the  Louisiana  purchase,  free  soil 
north  of  the  parallel  of  36°  30',  —  the  State  of  Missouri  alone 
excepted.  It  seemed  plain  that  unless  the  South  could  obtain 
Texas,  slavery  must  soon  be  girdled  by  free  States;  in  that 
case,  the  power  of  the  slave-holding  class  in  Congress  would  be 
driven  to  the  wall  by  an  ever-increasing  majority  of  Northern 
representatives.947 

Calhoun  urged  immediate  annexation,  not  only  as  a  measure 
necessary  to  the  political  and  commercial  welfare  of  the  South, 
but  as  the  only  effective  method  of  preventing  Great  Britain  from 
getting  control  of  Texas.948  Lord  Brougham  (1843)  implored 
Parliament  to  use  its  influence  to  effect  the  emancipation  of  the 
slaves  in  Texas,  saying  that  the  success  of  such  a  movement 
"  must  end  in  the  abolition  of  slavery  throughout  the  whole  of 
America." m  Calhoun  believed  that  by  adopting  this  course, 
England  hoped  to  secure  a  monopoly  of  the  production  of  sugar, 
cotton,  rice,  and  tobacco  for  her  colonies.950 


340  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [IMS. 

On  the  other  hand,  Benton,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Demo 
cratic  Party,  who  was  himself  a  slave-holder,  denounced  the 
annexation  project.  He  ridiculed  the  idea  that  Great  Britain 
had  any  designs  on  Texas.951  He  declared  that  the  annexation 
scheme  was  urged  mainly  by  three  classes:  first,  by  certain 
politicians  who  were  intriguing  for  the  Presidency;  secondly,  by 
those  who  were  plotting  to  dissolve  the  Union  in  order  to  form 
a  Southern  slave-holding  Confederacy;  and  thirdly,  by  Southern 
speculators  who  held  Texas  scrip  or  Texas  lands.952 

382.  Sectional  excitement  over  the  question  of  annexation. 
-The  excitement  over  the  discussion  of  the  Texas  question 

rose  to  fever  heat.  Webster  and  Clay  strongly  opposed  the  an 
nexation  of  "another  acre  of  slave  territory,"  and  eight  North 
ern  Legislatures  protested  against  it.  They  declared  that  it 
would  tend  to  nationalize  slavery,  and  that  it  would  involve  us 
in  a  war  with  Mexico,  which  absolutely  refused  to  recognize 
Texan  independence. 

John  Quincy  Adams,  with  twelve  members  of  Congress, 
published  an  address,  declaring  that  annexation  would  not 
only  "result  in  a  dissolution  of  the  Union,"  but  would 
fully  "justify  it."963 

On  the  other  hand,  mass-meetings  were  held  in  various  parts 
of  South  Carolina,  at  which  it  was  resolved  that  it  would  be 
better  "  to  be  out  of  the  Union  with  Texas  than  in  it  without 
her."954  But  both  at  the  South  and  the  North  there  were  strong 
protests  on  the  part  of  influential  citizens  and  prominent 
journals  against  the  utterance  of  threats  of  disunion.955 

383.  Texas  and  the  presidential  campaign.  —  Meanwhile 
President  Tyler,   with  the  help  of  Upshur,  his  Secretary  of 
State,  followed  by  Calhoun,  was  quietly  but  vigorously  pushing 
forward  the  scheme  of  annexation.     As  the  time  drew  near  for 
the  nomination  of  presidential  candidates,  the  feeling  on  this 
question  daily  became  more  intense. 

The  Liberty  Party  (§  375)  held  its  National  Convention  first 
(1843),  and  again  nominated  James  G.  Birney.  Their  platform 
strongly  condemned  any  attempt  to  extend  slavery.950 


1844-1845.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  34! 

The  Whig  Party  at  their  Convention  (1844)  nominated  Henry 
Clay,  and  adopted  a  brief  "broad-construction"  (§  256)  plat 
form,  advocating  the  establishment  of  a  protective  tariff  and  a 
national  currency;  their  platform  did  not  mention  slavery.957 

The  Democratic  National  Convention  (1844)  adopted  a  "strict- 
construction  "  (§  256)  platform.  They  deprecated  any  inter 
ference  by  Congress  with  the  question  of  slavery  as  dangerous 
to  the  stability  of  the  Union,  and  resolved  that  "  the  reoccupa- 
tion  of  Oregon  (§  389)  (then  held  jointly  with  Great  Britain) 
and  the  reannexation  of  Texas  (§  318)  at  the  earliest  practica 
ble  period  are  great  American  measures  which  this  Convention 
recommends."  <J58  They  nominated  James  K.  Polk,  of  Tennes 
see,  an  "  unconditional  annexationist,"  ara  for  President. 

The  Southern  Whigs  urged  Clay  to  soften  his  outspoken 
opposition  to  the  immediate  annexation  of  Texas,  fearing  that 
otherwise  he  would  lose  many  votes  at  the  South.  Clay  yielded 
and  wrote  a  letter  for  publication,  in  which  he  said  of  annexa 
tion:  "I  should  be  glad  to  see  it  ...  upon  just  and  fair  terms. 
I  do  not  think  that  the  subject  of  slavery  ought  to  affect  the 
question  one  way  or  the  other."960  The  Whigs  were  confident 
that  they  could  elect  their  candidate ;  but  this  letter  repelled 
the  vote  of  the  anti-slavery  members  of  that  party.  Clay  was 
defeated,  and  the  Democrats  elected  Polk,  —  the  first  political 
"  dark  horse  "  —  with  George  M.  Dallas  as  Vice-President.  The 
electoral  vote  stood  170  for  Polk  to  105  for  Clay,  and  the  popu 
lar  vote  1,337,243  to  1,299,068. 

384.  Texas  annexed  (1845);  admission  of  Florida  and 
Texas;  new  tariff. — The  question  of  annexation  came  up  in 
Congress  for  the  last  time  in  the  closing  days  of  Tyler's  adminis 
tration.  It  was  doubtful  whether  the  necessary  two-thirds  vote 
could  be  obtained  in  the  Senate;  Congress,  therefore,  resorted  to 
the  expedient  of  carrying  the  measure  through  by  a  joint  resolu 
tion  which  simply  required  a  majority  of  each  House.  The  motion 
to  annex  was  passed,  and  with  it  an  amendment  proposed  by 
Stephen  A.  Douglas,  of  Illinois,  which  prohibited  slavery  in  the 


342 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


[1845. 


Texan  territory  north  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  line  of  36° 
30'  (§  324),  but  left  all  territory  south  of  that  line  open  to  it.0**1 
The  entire  area  thus  annexed  had  an  extent  of  over  376,000 
square  miles.  It  was  expected  that  Texas  would  be  divided 
into  at  least  five  States,  —  one  free,  and  the  rest  slave. 

The  passage  of  the  vote  was  triumphantly  announced  from 
the  capitol  by  the  firing  of  one  hundred  guns.     Texas  was  the 


The  Republic  of  Texas  annexed  in  I  845,  and  admitted  to  the  Union,  Dec.  29  of  that  Year. 

(The  black  and  white  bars  on  the  southwest  indicate  the  disputed  territory  which  caused  the 
Mexican  War.     The  "  Oregon  Country  "  was  held  jointly  with  Great  Britain.) 

last  slave  State  to  enter  the  Union;  but  it  was  not  admitted 
until  the  Congress  of  the  next  administration  met  (1845)  and 
after  Florida  had  entered.  The  Texans  grievously  disappointed 
the  South  by  refusing  to  divide  their  immense  territory;  hence, 
the  Pro- Slavery  Party  in  the  Southern  States  did  not  gain  the 
large  increase  in  political  power  which  it  had  confidently  ex 
pected  to  obtain. 

Meanwhile  the  "compromise  tariff"  of  1833  (§  355)  had  cut 
down  the  customs-duties  to  such  an  extent  that  the  Treasury  was 


1832-1844.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT  343 

threatened  with  empty  vaults.  The  Whigs,  therefore,  repealed 
the  law  and  passed  a  new  tariff  act  (1842);  it  was  mainly 
intended  for  revenue,  though  it  had  some  protective  features. 

385.  Professor  Morse  invents  the  electric  telegraph.  —  As 
the  annexation  of  Texas  was  the  most  important  political  event 
of  the  Harrison  and  Tyler  administration,  so  the  application  of 
electricity  to  the  transmission  of  intelligence  was  the   most 
important  event  in  our  material  progress.     Franklin   (§   181) 
said  in  1750:  "There  are  no  bounds  (but  what  expense  and 
labor  give)  to  the  force  man  may  raise  and  use  in  the  electrical 
way."     But  for  more  than  three-quarters  of  a  century  after  that 
philosopher  made  his  experiments,  little  was  accomplished  in 
the  direction  which  he  had  pointed  out.     Then  (1831)  Profes 
sor  Joseph  Henry  (later  connected  with  the  Smithsonian  Insti 
tute)  invented  an  electro-magnet  which  would  transmit  a  current 
over  a  mile  or  more  of  wire,  and  ring  a  bell  at  the  farther 
extremity.      Taking  the  hint  from   this   apparatus,    Professor 
Samuel  F.  B.  Morse  (§  374)  invented  (1832)  the  first  recording 
telegraph  which  would  make  permanent  intelligible  characters. 
Professor  Morse's  partner,  Mr.  Alfred  Vail,  developed  and  per 
fected   these    characters,    and    so   formed   the    "  dot-and-dash 
alphabet,"  which  was  finally  adopted. 

But  electricity  had  not  yet  been  compelled  to  fulfill  its  task. 
The  current  failed  after  it  had  travelled  a  short  distance.  The 
question  was  how  to  overcome  this  difficulty.  Mr.  Morse  said: 
"  If  it  will  go  ten  miles  without  stopping,  I  can  make  it  go 
around  the  globe  ";  but  it  would  not  go  ten  miles.  At  length, 
after  many  failures,  he  succeeded  in  inventing  a  relay-magnet 
which  would  reinforce  the  current,  and  send  it  to  any  distance. 
Then  the  problem  was  solved.962 

386.  Congress  appropriates  $30,000  to  build  the  first  tele 
graph;  the  line  opened  (1844).  —  Professor  Morse,  with  his 
partner,  Mr.  Vail,  publicly  exhibited  (1837)  a  small  model  of 
the  telegraph,  but  capitalists  declined  to  risk  their  money  in 
constructing  a  trial  line.     The  inventor  then  petitioned  Con- 


344  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.        [1843-1897. 

gress  to  grant  him  $30,000  to  build  a  line  between  Washington 
and  Baltimore.  His  petition  was  generally  treated  with  ridicule. 
One  member  suggested  that  if  the  money  should  be  voted,  part 
of  it  ought  to  be  used  for  making  mesmeric  experiments,  while 
another  suggested  that  the  funds  would  be  more  wisely  employed 
in  building  a  railroad  to  the  moon.968 

The  last  day  of  the  session  (March  3,  1843)  was  reached, 
but  Congress  had  taken  no  action.  Professor  Morse  was 
almost  penniless.  He  saw  nothing  but  failure  and  ridicule 
before  him.  He  waited  in  the  capitol  until  a  few  minutes 
before  midnight,  and  then,  unable  to  endure  the  strain,  left  the 
building  with  a  sinking  heart.  He  had  hardly  gone  when 
Congress  took  up  his  bill  and  passed  it  without  division. 

The  spring  of  1844  saw  the  Washington  and  Baltimore  tele 
graph  line  completed  and  in  working  order.  On  May  24, 
Professor  Morse,  sitting  in  the  old  Supreme  Court-room  in  the 
capitol,  sent  over  the  wire  these  words,  quoted  from  Scrip 
ture  :  "  What  hath  God  wrought  !  " 9C4  Two  days  later  the 
National  Democratic  Convention,  then  in  session  in  Baltimore, 
flashed  the  report  of  Folk's  nomination  to  the  presidency  to 
Congress.965  The  following  day  (May  27,  1844)  the  heading 
"Telegraphic  News"  appeared  in  a  Washington  journal  for 
the  first  time  in  the  world's  history ;  it  has  never  since  been 
dropped.966 

Professor  Morse  lived  to  see  his  line  of  forty  miles  multiplied 
in  the  United  States  more  than  three  thousand  fold;967  he  saw 
the  American  continent  (1856)  crossed,  and  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
(1866)  cabled  by  permanent  electric  wires. 

387.  Development  of  telegraphic  communication  and  of 
electricity.  —  To-day  (1901)  a  network  of  nearly  a  million  of 
miles  of  telegraphic  wire  covers  the  United  States.  Like  a 
gigantic  nervous  system,  it  stretches  from  city  to  city  and  from 
town  to  town.  It  practically  puts  every  center  of  population 
throughout  the  Union  in  instantaneous  communication  with  every 
other,  and  with  the  remotest  parts  of  the  civilized  globe  besides. 


& 


K  vi  Is 


^ 


^ 


s   &    > 

b]  -^ 


1876-1897.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  345 

The  next  great  step  in  electrical  progress  was  the  invention 
of  the  telephone  by  Professor  Bell  (1876).  It  brings  places 
as  far  apart  as  Boston  and  Kansas  City  within  speaking  dis 
tance  of  each  other.968  When  it  shall  be  still  further  perfected, 
the  "  long-distance  telephone  "  promises  to  make  it  possible  to 
carry  on  a  conversation  between  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  coasts, 
or  even  between  America  and  Europe. 

Again,  various  experiments  had  been  made  with  electricity, 
with  the  view  of  using  it  as  an  illuminator  or  as  a  motor 
power.  No  practical  results  of  value  were  obtained  until 
the  invention  of  the  arc  light 9e&  and  the  Edison  incandescent 
light  (1879). 

Five  years  later  (1884)  Edison  set  in  operation  at  Menlo 
Park,  New  Jersey,  two  miles  of  electric  railway,  —  the  first 
opened  to  the  American  public.970  Electricity  has  ever  since 
been  coming  into  use  on  an  increasing  scale.  It  now  drives 
machinery,  carriages,  cabs,  and  trucks,  and  it  has  generally 
superseded  horses  on  our  street  railroads.  The  day  is  per 
haps  not  far  distant  when  it  will  be  employed  to  operate  long 
lines  of  railway  ;  and  should  the  "  storage  system  "  be  perfected, 
we  may  yet  see  it  used  in  propelling  vessels  on  the  Atlantic. 

388.  Summary.  —  The  three  most  important  national  events 
of  the  Harrison  and  Tyler  administration  were  :   (i)  the  negotia 
tion  of  the  Webster-Ashburton  Treaty  ;   (2)  the  invention  of  the 
electric  telegraph ;  and  (3)  the  annexation  of  Texas  as  a  slave 
State. 

JAMES  K.  POLK  (DEMOCRAT),  ONE  TERM,  1845-1849. 

389.  The  Oregon  question.  —  Now  that  Texas  was  annexed 
(§  384),  the  question  came  up  whether  we  should  make  good 
the  Democratic  demand  (§  383)  for  the  occupation  of  Oregon. 
This  region,  called  by  an  Indian  name  used  by  Jonathan  Carver 
in   1766,  lay  between  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Pacific. 
On  the  south  it  extended  to  the  42 d  parallel,  or  the  northern 
limit  of  the  Mexican  province  of  California ;  on  the  north  to 


346  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1345-. 

latitude  54°  40',  or  the  southern  boundary  of  the  Russian 
possessions  (Alaska). 

Spain,  through  her  early  voyagers  (1543-1774),  planted 
her  flag  on  the  Oregon  coast;  the  English  explorers  (1579- 
1793)  also  claimed  it.971  The  Government  of  the  United  States 
disputed  both  these  claims.  We  based  our  title:  (i)  on  Cap 
tain  Gray's  discovery  and  partial  exploration  of  the  Columbia 
River  in  1792  (§  258);  (2)  on  the  exploration  made  by  Lewis 
and  Clark  in  1805-1806  (§  283) ;  (3)  on  emigration  and 
settlement,  beginning  with  Astor's  fur-trading  post,  established 
in  1811  (§  312),  and  continued  by  missionaries  and  pioneers 
from  1832;  (4)  on  the  transfer  of  all  Spanish  claims  to  us  by 
the  Florida  purchase  treaty  of  1819  (§  318).  The  conflict  of 
the  British  and  American  claims  was  adjusted  by  an  agreement 
made  in  1818  and  confirmed  in  1827.  It  stipulated  that  the 
two  nations  should  occupy  the  Oregon  country  jointly,  with  the 
proviso  that  either  Government  might  terminate  the  agreement 
by  giving  a  year's  notice  to  the  other.972  This  arrangement  was 
in  force  when  Polk  entered  office. 

390.  What  America  thought  of  Oregon.  —  Before  the  con 
struction  of  railroads,  the  Oregon  country  seemed  to  many 
American  statesmen  hardly  worth  disputing  about.  Its  enor 
mous  distance  from  Washington  made  it  a  question  whether 
it  could  be  advantageously  added  to  the  Union,  or  securely 
retained.  Jefferson  thought  (1811)  that  Oregon  might  become 
an  independent  American  nation  "  unconnected  with  us,  but  by 
the  ties  of  blood  and  interest." 

Benton  declared  that  the  Rocky  Mountains  ought  to  be 
regarded  as  the  "  natural  and  everlasting "  western  boundary 
of  the  United  States.973  Webster  is  represented  as  saying  of 
Oregon:  "What  do  we  want  with  this  vast  worthless  area,  this 
region  of  savages  and  wild  beasts,  of  deserts  of  shifting  sands 
and  whirlwinds  of  dust,  of  cactus,  and  prairie  dogs  ?  "  974  But 
John  Quincy  Adams  believed  that  the  Pacific  coast  belonged  to 
us  by  "manifest  destiny";975  Benton,  too,  became  a  convert  to 


1834-1846.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  347 

the  same  idea,  and  ardently  advocated  our  settlement  of  that 
distant  region.  His  bronze  statue  in  St.  Louis  stands  pointing 
toward  the  Rocky  Mountains,  with  his  words,  "  There  is  the 
East;  there  is  the  road  to  India  !  "  inscribed  on  the  pedestal.976 

391.  Our  occupation  of  the  Oregon  country;  Whitman's 
journey  ;  the  treaty.  —  The  permanent  American  settlement 
of  the  Oregon  country  did  not  begin  until  1834,  when  the  Metho 
dists  sent  out  missionaries  to  the  Indians.  A  little  later  (1836) 
two  Orthodox  missionaries,  Dr.  Whitman  and  H.  H.  Spalding, 
started  with  their  brides  to  make  a  home  in  the  wilderness  of 
the  far  West.  They  went  out  by  the  South  Pass  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  (§  405),  and  were  the  first  emigrants  who  succeeded 
in  getting  a  wagon  across  the  country  to  Fort  Boise  (Idaho), 
and  eventually  to  Walla  Walla,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Columbia. 
Dr.  Whitman's  wagon  naturally  suggested  the  emigration  of 
families,977  for  where  one  wheeled  vehicle  could  go,  more  could 
follow. 

Six  years  later  (1842)  Dr.  Whitman  set  out  for  the  East. 
His  object  was  to  secure  the  continuance  of  his  mission  and 
to  induce  Christian  families  to  go  to  Oregon.  After  a  terrible 
winter  journey  of  four  thousand  miles  he  reached  Boston.  A 
small  party  of  emigrants  had  already  gone  to  the  Pacific  coast. 
Encouraged  by  the  action  of  the  Senate,  a  second  party  num 
bering  about  a  thousand  started  in  1843.  Dr.  Whitman  went 
as  guide.  By  his  efficient  help  the  emigrants  reached  the  land 
they  sought.  Benton  says  that  these  men,  with  those  who 
followed  them,  "  saved  the  Territory  of  Oregon  to  the  United 
States."  The  new  settlers  on  the  Columbia  framed  a  pro 
visional  government  and  held  the  position  for  the  future.978 

The  northern  boundary  of  the  Oregon  country,  as  held  jointly 
by  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  (§  389),  was  54°  40'. 
In  1846  the  political  cry  wast  "The  whole  of  Oregon  or 
none  !  "  "  Fifty-four  forty  or  fight  "  (§  332).  But  a  little  later 
our  contest  with  Mexico  made  the  Government  willing  to  con 
cede  a  part  of  the  disputed  territory  to  the  demands  of  Great 


348 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


[1846. 


Britain.  A  treaty  was  negotiated  (1846)  which  fixed  our  north 
ern  boundary  at  the  49th  parallel.  This  gave  us  the  absolute 
control  of  the  Columbia  River  and  possession  of  about  300,000 
square  miles  of  territory,  out  of  which  the  States  of  Oregon, 
Washington,  Idaho,  and  parts  of  Montana  and  Wyoming 
were  subsequently  formed.  Two  years  later  (1848)  Congress 


The  United  States  in  I  846  after  the  Acquisition,  by  Treaty,  of  the  "  Oregon  Country." 

organized  Oregon  Territory.  Calhoun  demanded  that,  in 
common  with  all  of  the  public  domain,  it  should  be  declared 
open  to  slavery  ;  but  Congress  applied  to  it  the  provisions  of 
the  celebrated  Ordinance  of  1787  (§  237),  and  thus  prohibited 
slavery  forever  within  the  new  Territory.979 

392.  The  Texan  boundary  dispute.  — Before  we  got  posses 
sion  of  Texas,  Webster,  Clay,  and  Benton  declared  that  if  we 
annexed  it  (§  384)  we  should  "  annex  a  war  with  Mexico." 
Their  predictions  were  soon  fulfilled.  Texas  insisted  that  her 
western  boundary  was  the  Rio  Grande.  This  was  in  accord 
ance  with  the  claim  made  by  La  Salle  in  the  seventeenth  century 
(§  159),  and  which  Spain  and  France  had  recognized  by  their 


1846.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  349 

respective  treaties  (1800,  1803)  (§§  172,  280).  The  Republic 
of  Mexico,  however,  contended  that  Texas  did  not  extend 
farther  west  than  the  left  bank  of  the  Nueces.  For  this  reason 
the  strip  of  territory  between  that  river  and  the  Rio  Grande 
was  disputed  ground,  and  each  country  vehemently  denied  that 
the  other  had  any  right  to  it. 

393.  Taylor's  advance  into  the  disputed  territory;  Arista's 
attack.  —  In  the  summer  of  1845  the  President  ordered  Gen 
eral  Taylor,  who  was  then  in  Texas,  to  cross  the  Nueces  and 
take  post  at  Corpus  Christi,  within  the  disputed  territory. 

Polk  next  (January,  1846)  ordered  him  to  advance  as  far 
as  the  Rio  Grande.  Taylor  did  so,  and  erected  Fort  Brown, 
opposite  the  Mexican  town  of  Matamoras,  on  the  farther  bank 
of  the  river.  Arista,  the  Mexican  commander,  notified  General 
Taylor  that  he  considered  his  advance  an  act  of  war,  and 
requested  him  to  fall  back  to  the  Nueces.  Taylor  refused  to 
move;  Arista  then  crossed  the  river  and  (April  24,  1846)  sur 
prised  and  captured  a  small  party  of  American  troops.  In  the 
fight  several  of  our  men  were  killed. 

394.  Folk's  message  to  Congress ;  Lincoln's  "  Spot  Reso 
lutions." —  President  Polk  at  once  sent  a  special  message  to 
Congress.     He  said:  "  Mexico  has  passed  the  boundary  of  the 
United  States,  has  invaded  our  territory,  and  shed  American 
blood  upon  the  American  soil."     "War  exists,  and  notwith 
standing  all  our  efforts  to  avoid  it,  exists  by  the  act  of  Mexico 
herself."980     The  United  States  forthwith  declared  war,   and 
called  for  50,000  volunteers. 

When  Abraham  Lincoln  entered  Congress  (1847)  he  pre 
sented  his  famous  "  Spot  Resolutions,"  in  which  he  asked  the 
President  to  inform  Congress,  first,  just  where  the  "  spot "  was 
on  which  the  blood  of  American  citizens  had  been  shed;  and 
next,  to  state  whether  those  Americans  were  or  were  not 
"armed  soldiers,"  sent  to  that  "spot"  by  his  express  orders.981 

395.  Palo  Alto;  Resaca  de  la  Palma ;  Monterey.  —  Mean 
while  General  Taylor,  with  his  army  of  less  than  3000  men, 


35°  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1846-1847. 

had  advanced  against  a  Mexican  force  of  more  than  double 
that  number.  He  fought  a  battle  (May  8,  1846)  on  the  marshy 
plain  of  Palo  Alto,  and  followed  it  up  the  next  day  with  the 
•battle  of  the  ravine  of  Resaca  de  la  Palma.  Both  of  these 
engagements  took  place  within  the  disputed  territory,  between 
the  Nueces  and  the  Rio  Grande;  in  each  case  we  were  success 
ful,  and  the  Mexicans  were  routed  with  heavy  loss. 

Taylor  then  crossed  the  Rio  Grande,  occupied  Matamoras 
(§  393),  and  advanced  into  the  interior  of  Mexico,  as  far  as 
the  fortified  town  of  Monterey.  Here  the  enemy  made  a 
determined  stand.  Three  days  of  desperate  fighting  followed 
(September  22-24,  1846);  Taylor's  men  dug  their  way  through 
the  stone  walls  of  the  houses  or  climbed  to  the  flat  roofs,  and 
fought  their  way,  from  street  to  street,  till  they  took  the  city. 

396.  General  Scott  takes  chief  command;  his  plan  of 
campaign ;  Buena  Vista.  —  As  it  now  seemed  probable  that 
the  Mexicans  would  make  a  prolonged  resistance,  General 
Winfield  Scott  (§  306),  the  senior  officer  in  the  United  States 
army,  was  ordered  to  take  the  chief  command.  His  plan  was 
to  leave  Taylor  with  a  small  force  to  hold  the  line  of  the  Rio 
Grande,  while  he  embarked  with  an  army  to  capture  the  forti 
fied  port  of  Vera  Cruz.  He  then  purposed  moving  directly  on 
the  city  of  Mexico,  the  capital  of  the  Mexican  Republic. 

Meanwhile  General  Kearny,  commander  of  the  Department 
of  the  West,  was  to  advance  from  Fort  Leavenworth  (Kansas) 
against  Santa  Fe,  take  possession  of  that  city  and  of  New 
Mexico,  and  then  move  forward  and  occupy  the  Mexican 
province  of  California.  The  Mormons  (§  372)  raised  a  bat 
talion  which  took  part  in  this  expedition  of  conquest,  and 
helped  to  secure  California  for  the  United  States. 

Taylor's  force  was  now  about  4600  men;  with  this  little  army 
he  resolved  to  hold  the  wild  mountain  pass  of  Buena  Vista,  to 
the  southwest  of  Monterey  (§  395),  against  the  enemy  who  were 
advancing  to  attack  him.  Santa  Anna,  the  commander-in-chief 
of  the  Mexican  army,  surrounded  Taylor  with  a  force  20,000 


MAP  No.  I.   The  Mexican  War ;   MAP  No.  II.    Scott's  march  to  the  City  of  Mexico. 


1847.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  351 

strong;  he  then  sent  the  American  general  a  despatch,  telling 
him  that  he  must  surrender  or  be  cut  to  pieces.  "  Old  Rough 
and  Ready,"  as  his  men  called  him,  determined  to  hold  his 
ground,  and  the  unequal  contest  began  (February  22,  1847). 
Colonel  Jefferson  Davis,  with  his  gallant  Mississippians,  and 
Captain  Bragg,  with  his  batteries  hurling  storms  of  grape  shot, 
saved  the  day.  Santa  Anna  retreated,  and  Buena  Vista  was  re 
corded  on  our  roll  of  victories,  though  it  cost  Taylor  more  than 
a  sixth  of  his  entire  force  to  win  it.  This  was  Taylor's  last 
battle ;  he  resented  what  he  considered  to  be  political  interfer 
ence  with  his  plans,  and,  leaving  General  Wool  in  command, 
returned  late  in  1847  to  his  home  in  Louisiana.  The  enthusiasm 
over  Buena  Vista  made  Taylor's  name  the  Whig  rallying  cry  as 
candidate  for  the  presidency.982 

397.  Vera  Cruz;  CerroGordo;  advance  on  Mexico. —  Mean 
while  General  Scott,  with  less  than  12,000  men,  besieged  and 
took  Vera  Cruz  (§  396),  "  the  Gibraltar  of  Mexico  "  (March  27, 
1847).     Among  the  officers  who  made  their  mark  in  that  vic 
torious  siege,  two  deserve  especial  notice  —  Lieutenant  Ulysses 
S.  Grant  and  Captain  Robert  E.  Lee. 

Having  captured  the  castle  and  port,  Scott  began  his  ad 
vance  into  the  interior.  He  met  the  enemy  on  the  rugged 
heights  of  Cerro  Gordo.  Santa  Anna  fled,  and  the  Americans 
moved  forward.  In  August  (1847)  our  l^6  force  climbed  the 
summit  of  the  Cordilleras  and  looked  down  on  the  capital  of 
Mexico,  surrounded  by  lakes  and  sparkling  in  the  sun.  The 
city  could  not  be  approached  except  by  the  National  Road  —  a 
causeway  built  across  a  marsh.  Santa  Anna  posted  a  strong 
force  to  sweep  that  road  with  cannon.  The  venerable  Duke  of 
Wellington  had  followed,  on  a  map,  the  advance  of  the  Ameri 
can  general  to  this  point;  then  he  said:  "  Scott  is  lost.  .  .  . 
He  can't  take  the  city,  and  he  can't  fall  back  upon  his 
base."983 

398.  Contreras,  Churubusco,  Molino  del  Key,  and  Cha- 
pultepec.  —  But  Scott  recalled  Napoleon's  maxim:  "  Never  go 


352  THE    STUDENTS    AMERICAN    HISTORY.  [1847. 

where  your  enemy  wants  you  to  go."  He  turned  aside  and 
made  his  way  forward,  by  a  circuitous  route,  over  the  rough 
lava  beds,  building  his  road  and  beating  back  the  foe  as  he 
advanced.  First  he  won  the  battle  of  Contreras  (August  20, 
1847),  and  on  tne  following  day,  that  of  the  convent  of  Churu- 
busco.  Next,  after  the  bloodiest  fight  of  the  war,  he  took  the 
cannon  foundry  of  Molino  del  Rey  (September  8,  1847).  Less 
than  a  week  later  (September  13,  1847)  he  stormed  the  castle- 
crowned  height  of  Chapultepec,  which  guarded  the  gate  of  the 
city. 

399-  Scott  enters  the  city  of  Mexico  (1847) ;  end  of  the 
war  ;  results — The  next  day  Scott  entered  the  Mexican  capi 
tal  and  hoisted  the  American  flag  (September  14,  1847)  on  the 
walls  of  the  National  Palace.  The  contest  was  now  practically 
over,  and  the  United  States  could  dictate  its  own  terms.  The 
people  of  Mexico  had  fought  bravely;  but  they  were  wretchedly 
organized,  and  utterly  lacking  in  military  training. 

The  conflict  with  Mexico  is  perhaps  the  only  modern  war  in 
which  every  battle  ended  in  victory,  and  every  victory  was  on 
the  side  of  the  invading  army.  It  was  the  training-school  for 
the  American  Civil  War.  General  Grant  said  that  all  the  older 
officers  who  became  conspicuous  in  that  terrible  struggle  had 
served  under  Taylor  or  Scott.984 

400.  Fremont  is  sent  to  California.  — When  the  Mexican 
War  broke  out,  Captain  John  C.  Fremont,  Benton's  son-in-law, 
was  in  the  Mexican  province  of  California.  His  explorations  in 
the  far  West  (1842-1844)  had  won  for  him  the  popular  name 
of  the  "  Pathfinder,"  and  the  Government  sent  him  (1845)  on 
a  third  expedition  "  to  spy  out  "  the  coveted  Mexican  territory 
on  the  Pacific.985 

In  the  spring  of  1846  Fremont  moved  northward  into 
Oregon.  While  there,  a  messenger  from  Washington  arrived 
(May  9,  1846),  bringing  a  verbal  despatch  from  Mr.  Buchanan, 
Secretary  of  State.  This  despatch,  says  Fre'mont,986  informed 
him  that  "  the  Government  intended  to  take  California."  He 


1846-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  353 

was  instructed  to  counteract  any  schemes  of  the  British  to  get 
possession  of  that  country,  and  at  the  same  time  to  "  conciliate 
the  good  will  of  the  inhabitants  toward  the  United  States."  *" 

401.  Fremont  takes  Sonoma;  the  "bear  flag." — Fre'mont 
at  once   returned   to   California   and   encamped   near   Sutter's 
Fort,  in  the  valley  of  the  Sacramento.     Soon  after  his  arrival 
a  report  was  brought  that  Mexican  forces  were  preparing  to 
drive  out  all  Americans.    Fremont  sent  Merritt,  one  of  his  men, 
to  capture  Sonoma,  a  town  about  fifty  miles  north  of  San  Fran 
cisco.     Sonoma  was  quickly  taken  (June   14,   1846),  and  the 
Americans  then  hoisced  the  famous   "bear  flag."     It  was   a 
strip  of  white  cloth,  on  which  they  had  painted  a  huge  "grizzly" 
facing  a  star;  underneath  was  the  inscription:988  "California 
Republic."     Fremont,  with  his  men,  soon  afterward  fixed  his 
headquarters  at   Sonoma.     In  commencing  hostilities  he  had 
acted,   says  Benton,    entirely  on  his  own   responsibility,   and 
without  orders  from  the  Government.989 

402.  Capture  of  Monterey;  conquest  of  California.  —  A 
little  later,  Commodore  Sloat,  then  commanding  a  United  States 
squadron  off  the  coast,  entered  the  harbor  of  Monterey,  south 
of  San  Francisco.     He  ran  up  the  "  stars  and  stripes  "  (July  7, 
1846),    and  proclaimed  California  "a  portion  of  the   United 
States."  "°    A  week  later,  Captain  Montgomery  raised  the  same 
colors  at  San  Francisco.     Admiral  Seymour,  in  command  of  a 
British  fleet,  arrived  shortly  afterward  at  Monterey.     He  found 
to  his  astonishment  the  American  flag  flying  over  the  town,  tne 
American  squadron,  then  under  Commodore  Stockton,  in  its 
harbor,  and  Fremont's  mounted  riflemen  in  camp.991 

The  Americans  proceeded  to  organize  a  civil  government 
(August  13,  1846),  and  chose  Fre'mont  for  Governor.  Com 
modore  Shubrick,  of  the  United  States  navy,  arrived  in  Janu 
ary  (1847);  acting  in  conjunction  with  Commodore  Stockton 
and  Governor  Fre'mont,  these  three  commanders  completed  the 
occupation  of  the  province  without  any  very  serious  fighting. 
Fremont  got  the  lion's  share  of  fame,  and  the  people  of  Cali- 


354  THE    STUDENTS    AMERICAN    HISTORY.          [1848-1853. 

fornia  have  always  considered  him  the  real  conqueror  of  the 
country. 

403.  Treaty  of  peace  (1848) ;  territory  ceded  by  Mexico ; 
the  Gadsden  purchase  (1853). — A  little  more  than  a  year  later 
a  treaty  of  peace  was  signed  (February  2,  1848)  between  Mex 
ico  and  the  United  States.992  By  its  terms  Mexico  ceded  to  us 
the  territory  of  Upper  California  and  New  Mexico,  for  which 


The  United  States  in    1854,  showing  the   Mexican  Cessions  of  I  848  (namely,  California, 
Utah,  New  Mexico)  and  the  Gadsden  Purchase  of  1853  (indicated  by  date  on  map). 

we  agreed  to  pay  $15,000,000.  The  treaty  made  the  Rio 
Grande  the  western  boundary  of  Texas,  and  the  Gila  River 
the  northern  boundary  of  Mexico. 

The  ceded  territory  included  Utah,  Nevada,  and  a  part  of 
Arizona,  Colorado,  and  Wyoming.  Adding  Texas,  this  region 
formed  a  broad  belt,  extending  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the 
Pacific,  and  having  an  area  of  over  850,000  square  miles,  —  or 
more  than  the  entire  American  Republic  possessed  at  the  close 
of  the  Revolutionary  War. 

Five  years  later  (1853),  in  order  to  settle  a  dispute  respecting 
the  Gila  River  boundary,  Captain  Gadsden  purchased  the 


1846-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  355 

Mesilla  Valley,  a  region  south  of  that  river,  for  the  United 
States.  For  the  sum  of  $10,000,000,  we  thus  added  a  tract 
having  an  area  of  more  than  45,000  square  miles  to  our  previous 
acquisitions.993 

404.  The  new  tariff ;  Independent  Treasury  Act ;  cheap 
postage ;  the  Wilmot  Proviso  (1846) ;  Calhoun's  resolutions 
(1847) ;  "Woman's  Rights'*  Convention  (1848).—  Meanwhile 
the  Democratic  Congress  had  passed  (1846)  a  new  tariff  act 
(§  384),  intended  chiefly  for  revenue  instead  of  "  protection." 
In  1857  the  duties  on  imports  were  still  further  lowered;  this 
tariff  remained  in  force  until  the  spring  of  1861,  when  the 
Morrill  Tariff  made  the  average  rate  of  duty  about  27  per  cent 
—  or  somewhat  higher  than  the  rate  of  i846.994 

In  the  course  of  the  same  summer  (1846)  Van  Buren's  great 
measure,  the  Independent  Treasury  Act  (§  371),  was  permanently 
reenacted.  Meanwhile  (1845)  Congress  reduced  the  rate  of 
postage  to  a  maximum  rate  of  ten  cents  —  it  had  been  twenty- 
five  —  and  charged  five  cents  for  distances  of  three  hundred 
miles  and  under.  Two  years  later  (1847)  postage  stamps  were 
issued ;  but  they  did  not  come  into  general  use  until  a  number 
of  years  later.  In  1863  postage  on  letters  was  reduced  to  three 
cents,  and  in  1883  to  two  cents.  This  rate  is  the  cheapest  in 
the  world,  since  a  two-cent  stamp  will  carry  a  heavy  letter  from 
Key  West,  Florida,  to  Sitka,  Alaska,  a  distance  of  over  4000  miles. 

Shortly  after  the  Mexican  War  began  (1846),  President  Polk 
asked  Congress  for  an  appropriation  of  $2,000,000  to  purchase 
territory  from  Mexico,  in  order  to  adjust  the  boundary.  A  bill 
was  introduced  to  that  end;  David  Wilmot,  a  Pennsylvania 
Democrat,  offered  the  famous  "Wilmot  Proviso"  (1846)  as  an 
amendment  to  this  bill.  It  extended  the  provision  of  the 
Ordinance  of  1787  (§  237),  which  prohibited  slavery,  so  that  it 
would  cover  all  territory  which  might  be  ceded  to  us  by 
Mexico.995  The  Wilmot  amendment  passed  the  House,  but  did 
not  reach  the  Senate  in  time  to  be  acted  upon.  Every  North 
ern  Legislature  but  one  approved  of  the  measure  ;  but  the 


356  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1846-1848. 

Southern  States,  with  few  exceptions,  passed  resolutions  refus 
ing  to  submit  to  it.  They  protested  against  any  legislation 
which  should  prevent  slave-holders  from  taking  their  negroes 
with  them  into  the  public  domain.996 

Though  the  "  Wilmot  Proviso"  failed  of  adoption,  yet  it  led 
to  the  organization,  two  years  later,  of  the  Free  Soil  Party, 
which  was  eventually  absorbed  by  the  Republican  Party.  After 
the  beginning  of  the  Civil  War,  Congress,  by  the  Territorial  Act 
(1862),  accepted  the  principle  of  the  proviso,  and  prohibited 
"slavery  in  any  Territory  of  the  United  States  now  existing,  or 
which  may  be  hereafter  formed  or  acquired."  997 

At  the  time  of  the  passage  of  the  Missouri  Compromise  Act 
(1820),  Calhoun  admitted  the  right  of  Congress  to  exclude 
slavery  from  the  Territories  (§  324).  .  In  1837  he  did  not  openly 
take  the  opposite  ground  (§  373).  But  in  1847  he  offered  a 
series  of  resolutions  in  the  Senate,  in  which  he  emphatically 
denied  the  constitutional  power  of  Congress  to  shut  out  slavery 
from  the  public  lands.  He  furthermore  declared  that  the  exer 
cise  of  such  power  would  necessarily  lead  to  the  dissolution  of 
the  Union.998  These  resolutions  anticipated  the  Dred  Scott 
decision  of  ten  years  later.  No  action  was  taken  on  Calhoun's 
motion.  Soon  afterward  (1847)  he  wrote  a  letter  to  a  member 
of  the  Alabama  Legislature,  in  which  he  declared  that  he 
believed  the  South,  instead  of  avoiding  the  slavery  contest, 
should  "  force  the  issue  on  the  North."  He  ended  by  saying 
that  the  true  policy  for  the  South  to  adopt  was  one  of  retalia 
tion,  and  that  they  should  close  their  ports  against  sea-going 
vessels  from  the  offending  Northern  States,  leaving  open  the 
trade  of  the  West  by  the  Mississippi.  This  course,  said  he, 
would  be  "  a  remedy  short  of  disunion,"  while  it  would  tend 
"to  detach  the  Northwestern  from  the  Eastern  States."999 

While  this  agitation  respecting  the  extension  of  slavery  was 
going  on  in  and  out  of  Congress,  Mrs.  Elizabeth  Cady  Stanton, 
Reverend  Samuel  J.  May,  Lucretia  Mott,  Susan  B.  Anthony, 
and  Lucy  Stone  were  urging  that  women  should  stand  on  a 


1848-.] 


THE    UNION,  NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT. 


357 


political  equality  with  men.  The  first  "  Woman's  Rights " 
Convention  in  the  world  was  held  at  Seneca  Falls,  New  York, 
in  the  summer  of  1848.  This  meeting  led  to  the  organization 
of  the  National  Woman  Suffrage  Convention  which  met  in 
Worcester,  Massachusetts,  two  years  later  (1850).  The  agita 
tion  thus  begun  has  resulted  in  recent  years  in  the  admission 
of  women,  in  several  States,  to  equality  of  suffrage  and  power 
to  hold  office,  and  in  admission  to  partial  suffrage  in  a  number 
of  other  States.1000 

405.  Discovery  of  gold  in  California.  —  Just  before  the 
treaty  of  peace  with  Mexico  was  signed  (§  403),  gold  was  dis 
covered  (1848)  in  California.  It  was  found  in  the  newly  dug 


Lewis  and  Clark's  Exploration  (I  804-1  806)  ;   First  Settlement  of  Oregon  ; 
Discovery  of  Gold  in  California. 

mill-race  of  Captain  Sutter's  saw-mill  at  Coloma,  on  the  Ameri 
can  River.  Specimens  of  the  ore  were  carried  to  Governor 
Mason,  and  he,  with  Colonel  W.  T.  Sherman,  carefully  tested 
them.  The  discovery  caused  no  particular  excitement,  as  it  was 
not  believed  that  the  precious  metal  could  be  obtained  in  pay 
ing  quantities.1001  But  early  in  May  (1848)  a  Mormon  walked 
through  the  little  village  of  San  Francisco,  holding  up  a  bottle 


358  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1848-1349. 

of  yellow  dust  in  one  hand,  swinging  his  hat  with  the  other, 
and  shouting  at  the  top  of  his  voice :  "  Gold !  Gold !  Gold  from 
the  American  River  !  "  1002  Then  the  rush  began,  and  soon  the 
entire  male  population  of  San  Francisco  and  vicinity  was  "  off 
to  the  diggings." 

The  news  was  speedily  transmitted  to  the  East;  a  box  of 
California  gold  was  exhibited  at  the  war-office  at  Washington, 
and  the  President  spoke  of  the  marvellous  discovery  in  his 
message.1003 

406.  Emigration  to  California ;  the  San  Francisco  "  Vigi 
lance  Committee ";  results  of  the  production  of  gold.  —  A 
great  movement  of  emigration  to  California  at  once  began. 
From  Maine  to  Texas  thousands  of  men,  armed  with  pick  and 
shovel,  crowded  the  ports  on  their  way  to  the  new  El  Dorado. 
The  recently  established  line  of  Pacific  mail-steamers  could  not 
carry  the  multitude  that  besieged  their  offices.  In  the  height 
of  the  excitement  emigrants  eagerly  paid  a  thousand  dollars  for 
steerage  passage  with  the  privilege  of  sleeping  "  in  a  coil  of 
rope."  1004  Every  kind  of  sailing-ship,  whether  seaworthy  or  not, 
was  pressed  into  the  service;  and  in  a  single  year  a  thousand 
vessels  entered  the  once  almost  solitary  harbor  of  San  Francisco. 

The  next  spring  (1849)  the  great  overland  march  began.  By 
the  end  of  April  twenty  thousand  men,  women,  and  children 
had  gathered  at  St.  Joseph,  Independence,  and  other  points  on 
the  Missouri  River,  ready  to  cross  the  plains.  They  journeyed 
on  horseback,  on  foot,  and  in  huge,  canvas-covered  wagons, 
known  as  "  prairie  schooners."  Multitudes  died  before  they 
reached  the  Rocky  Mountains;  while  others,  exhausted  by  hun 
ger  and  fatigue,  were  glad  to  stop  at  Salt  Lake  City  (§  372) 
and  hire  themselves  out  as  day-laborers  to  the  thrifty  Mormon 
farmers.  Those  whom  no  hardship  or  suffering  could  daunt 
pressed  on,  until  at  last  they  descended  the  Sierras  and  entered 
the  Land  of  Promise.  Their  weary  pathway  through  the  terrible 
wilderness  was  marked  by  the  bleaching  skeletons  of  horses 
and  cattle,  and  by  many  newly  made  graves.1006 


1849-1897.]        THE    UNION,   NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  359 

Nothing  could  check  the  movement,  and  at  the  close  of  1849 
between  80,000  and  100,000  emigrants  had  passed  into  Cali 
fornia.  The  settlers  respected  free  labor  and  adopted  a  State 
constitution  prohibiting  slavery.1006 

The  rapidly  growing  city  of  San  Francisco  naturally  attracted 
many  lawless  and  desperate  characters.  The  inefficiency  of  the 
courts  prompted  the  organization  of  a  "  Vigilance  Committee  " 
which  practically  governed  the  city  from  1851  to  1856.  It 
tried,  convicted,  and  hanged  several  notorious  criminals,  drove 
many  others  out  of  the  country,  and,  though  acting  without  the 
law,  it  compelled  the  dangerous  classes  to  respect  law  and  order. 
In  the  end,  this  organization  —  the  result  of  an  awakening  of 
the  public  conscience  —  brought  about  important  municipal  and 
legislative  reforms. 

Up  to  the  time  when  gold  was  discovered  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  the  value  of  the  whole  annual  product  of  that  metal  in 
the  United  States  was  less  than  $250,000.  In  1848  California 
alone  produced  $10,000,000;  in  1849,  $40,000,000;  and  by 
1853  it  had  reached  its  maximum  product  of  $65,ooo,ooo.1007 
The  total  amount  obtained  from  1848  to  1856  was  $456,000,000, 
and  the  entire  yield  of  the  half-century  (1848-1897)  is  estimated 
at  upwards  of  $2,ooo,ooo,ooo.1008  Yet  the  precious  metal 
actually  cost  more  labor  than  it  was  worth. 

The  enormous  production  of  gold  in  California  had  far-reach 
ing  economic  and  political  results:  (i)  it  raised  the  price  of 
goods  and  labor;  (2)  it  opened  new  markets  and  extended 
commerce;  (3)  it  filled  a  wilderness  with  settlers,  stimulated 
the  development  of  the  Pacific  coast,  established  new  lines  of 
steamships,  and  in  time  made  a  transcontinental  railroad  a 
necessity;  (4)  it  was  one  of  the  causes  which  induced  the 
majority  of  the  nations  of  Europe  (1870-1878)  to  stop  the 
coinage  of  silver  (except  for  "  change  "),  and  to  adopt  gold  as 
their  sole  standard  money ;  (5)  it  extended  the  domain  of  free 
labor  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  effectually  shut  out  slavery  in 
all  that  part  of  the  West. 


360  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [iwe. 

407  Inventions  and  discoveries ;  the  sewing-machine ; 
ether.  —  It  was  during  Folk's  administration  that  Elias  Howe 
patented  (1846)  what  he  called  his  "iron  needlewoman" 
the  first  practical  sewing-machine.  It  revolutionized  the  manu 
facture  of  clothing  and  greatly  reduced  its  price.  It  was  feared 
that  the  sewing-machine  would  permanently  throw  large  num 
bers  of  people  out  of  work;  but  it  has  had  just  the  opposite 
effect.  Instead  of  contracting  the  field  of  hand  labor,  the  intro 
duction  of  machinery  has  actually  extended  it.  At  the  same 
time  the  introduction  of  the  telegraph,  telephone,  and  type 
writer  have  created  new  opportunities  of  employment  for 
thousands.1009 

A  very  remarkable  discovery  was  now  at  hand.  Dr.  Horace 
Wells  of  Hartford,  Connecticut,  found  (1844)  by  experiments 
in  dentistry  that  he  could  produce  insensibility  to  pain  by  the 
use  of  nitrous  oxide  gas.  This  discovery  stimulated  the  efforts 
of  Dr.  W.  T.  G.  Morton  of  Boston,  a  former  partner  of  Dr. 
Wells,  to  endeavor  to  find  a  more  convenient  and  effective 
anaesthetic.  Dr.  Charles  T.  Jackson  of  Boston  suggested  to 
Dr.  Morton,  then  a  student  in  his  office,  to  try  the  inhalation  of 
the  vapor  of  sulphuric  ether  ;  to  his  surprise  and  delight  it 
proved  to  be  what  he  was  seeking.  In  1846  he  obtained  per 
mission  from  the  senior  surgeon  of  the  Massachusetts  General 
Hospital  in  Boston  to  have  a  public  test  made  in  that  institution. 
Late  in  the  autumn  of  that  year  (October  16,  1846)  the  first  im 
portant  operation  ever  performed  under  ether  took  place  beneath 
the  dome  of  the  hospital.  The  room  was  completely  filled  with 
physicians  and  eminent  men  of  other  professions,  who  had  been 
invited  to  see  the  miracle  of  painless  surgery.  The  operation 
was  successfully  performed  while  the  patient  slept  as  quietly 
under  the  knife  as  a  child  in  its  cradle.1010 

It  soon  became  known  to  the  world  that  Dr.  Morton  had 
made  the  most  beneficent  contribution  to  medical  science  re 
corded  in  history,  —  one  which  must  henceforth  render  every 
human  being  his  debtor.  In  commemoration  of  his  work  his 


1848-.]  THE    UNION,   NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  361 

monument  in  Mount  Auburn  Cemetery,  near  Boston,  bears  this 
inscription:  "  Before  whom,  in  all  time,  surgery  was  agony.  .  .  . 
Since  whom,  science  has  control  of  pain." 

408.  The  presidential  election;  new  States;  slavery  vs. 
freedom. — The  Democratic  National  Convention  (1848)  nomi 
nated  Lewis  Cass  on  a  "strict-construction"  (§  256)  platform. 
The  Whig  National  Convention  nominated  General  Zachary 
Taylor  (§  396).  Neither  Convention  would  speak  out  on  the 
question  of  the  extension  of  slavery  —  a  subject  which  was  soon 
to  be  uppermost  in  politics.  Finally  a  new  party  —  the  "  Free 
Soilers  "  —  held  their  National  Convention.  They  were  made 
up  chiefly  of  two  elements :  the  first  was  the  Radical  Democrats 
who  were  determined  to  stop  the  extension  of  slavery  at  any 
cost.  Their  opponents,  the  Conservative  Democrats,  or  "  Hun 
kers,"  compared  them  to  the  farmer  who  set  fire  to  his  barn  to 
clear  it  of  rats,  and  so  nicknamed  them  "  Barnburners."  The 
second  element  in  the  Free  Soil  Party  was  the  Abolitionists, 
or  members  of  the  old  Liberty  Party  (§  383).  The  Convention 
declared  itself  for  "  free  soil,  free  speech,  free  labor,  and  free 
men."  lon  It  nominated  ex-President  Martin  Van  Buren  (§  368). 

The  Whigs  succeeded  in  what  was  called  the  "  star-and-stripe 
campaign,"  and  elected  General  Taylor,  with  Millard  Fillmore 
as  Vice-President.  The  electoral  vote  stood  163  to  127,  and 
the  popular  vote  1,360,101  to  1,220,544,  besides  291,263  cast 
by  the  Free  Soilers  for  Van  Buren. 

Under  Polk's  administration  three  new  States  —  Texas 
(1845),  Iowa  (1846),  and  Wisconsin  (1848) — were  admitted  to 
the  Union,  making  the  whole  number  thirty.  Half  were  free 
and  half  slave  States.  This  division  gave  both  sections  equal 
representation  in  the  Senate;  but  owing  to  the  much  larger 
population  of  the  North  (due  in  considerable  measure  to  immi 
gration)  (§  374),  the  free  States  had  139  representatives  to  91 
from  the  slave  States.1012  It  was  plain  that  unless  the  South 
could  secure  additional  slave  territory  in  some  quarter,  the  free 
States  would  soon  have  the  political  control  in  Congress. 


362  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1849-. 

409.  /Summary.  —  The  principal  events  of  Folk's  adminis 
tration  were:  (i)   the   settlement  of  the  Oregon   question  by 
treaty   with    Great    Britain ;    (2)    war   with    Mexico,    and   the 
acquisition  of  a  large  amount  of  territory;   (3)  the  discovery 
of  gold  in  California;  (4)  the  discussion  of  slavery  extension  as 
represented  in  the  Wilmot  Proviso  vs.  Calhoun's  resolutions; 
.(5)  the  permanent  establishment  of  the  Independent  Treasury 

system,  and  the  beginning  of  the  Woman's  Rights  movement; 
(6)  the  invention  of  the  sewing-machine,  and  Morton's  introduc 
tion  of  ether  into  surgery. 

ZACHARY   TAYLOR  (WHIG),  1849-1853, 

410.  General  Taylor's  position;  the  question  of  slavery 
extension.  —  Before  his  election  to  the   presidency  (§  408), 
General  Taylor  said:  "  I  have  no  private  purpose  to  accomplish, 
no  party  projects  to  build  up,  no  enemies  to  punish,  —  nothing 
to  serve  but  my  country."  1013     Taylor  did  not  seek  the  office  to 
which  the  Whig   Party  had  elected  him.     He  took  so  little 
interest  in  politics  that  he  had  never  in  his  life  cast  a  vote.1014 
He  was  one  of  the  largest  slave-holders  in  the  South,  yet,  like 
Henry  Clay,  he  opposed  the  extension  of  slavery.     He  was  by 
nature  a  soldier,  a  man  of  action,  blunt  and  "downright";  he 
had  served  under  the  "  stars  and  stripes  "  for  more  than  forty 
years;  he  loved  the  flag,  and  he  loved  the  Union  which  that  flag 
represented.1016 

Congress  was  called  to  decide  t  the  burning  question  whether 
slavery  should  be  admitted  into  the  new  territory  ceded  by 
Mexico  (§  403).  Lewis  Cass  contended  that  the  people  of  the 
Territories  should  determine  for  themselves  whether  they  would 
or  would  not  have  slavery.  Calhoun  ridiculed  this  doctrine  as 
"Squatter  Sovereignty";  later,  in -a  different  form,  it  was  advo 
cated  by  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  under  the  name  of  "  Popular 
Sovereignty."1016  After  a  bitter  contest  Howell  Cobb  of 
Georgia,  a  strong  advocate  of  slavery  extension,  was  chosen 


1849-1850.]        THE    UNION,   NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT. 

Speaker  of  the  House.     This  seemed  to  presage  a  victory  for 
the  South. 

411.  Debate  on  the  admission  of   California  as  a  free 
State.  —  In  anticipation  of  a  Congressional  battle  over  slavery 
extension,    President    Taylor    had    recommended    the    newly 
acquired  Territories  to  form  State  constitutions.1017     He  hoped 
that  he  might  thereby  get  the  vexed  question  promptly  settled; 
but  he  was  disappointed.     The  action  of  the  people  of  Cali 
fornia  in  adopting  a  constitution  (November  13,  1849)  which 
prohibited  slavery  (§  406)  roused  an  angry  debate,  which  con 
tinued  for  nearly  a  year.     If  California  should  be  admitted  as 
a  free  State  there  seemed  little  prospect  that  any  of  the  remain 
ing  territory  obtained   from   Mexico   could  be  gained  by  the 
South.     Webster,  Clay,  and  Alexander  H.  Stephens  declared 
that  hitherto  slavery  had  generally  taken  the  lead  in  Congress 
and  controlled  the  Executive.    The  growth  of  the  Republic,  by 
the  continued  admission  of  free  States,  threatened  to  destroy 
this  preponderance  of  the  slave-holding  class,  and,  as  Giddings 
later  said,  restore  the  political  power  to  the  people.1018 

The  Free  Soilers  rejoiced  at  the  prospect  of  the  nationaliza 
tion  of  the  principle  of  liberty;  but  the  Whigs  and  Democrats 
feared  that  this  triumph  would  result  in  the  destruction  of  the 
American  commonwealth.  The  extreme  pro-slavery  class  at 
the  South  vehemently  opposed  the  action  of  the  people  of 
California. 

Toombs  of  Georgia  said :  "  If  by  your  legislation  you  seek 
to  drive  us  from  the  Territories  of  California  and  New  Mexico 
(§  403),  purchased  by  the  common  blood  and  treasure  of  the 
whole  people,  ...  I  am  for  disunion."  1019  The  Southern  mem 
bers  greeted  this  declaration  with  loud  applause.  Alexander 
H.  Stephens  said  :  "  Every  word  uttered  by  my  colleague  (Mr. 
Toombs)  meets  my  hearty  response."  102°  The  next  year  (1850) 
Stephens  wrote:  "We  have  ultimately  to  submit  or  fight."1021 

412.  Clay's   Compromise  Measures   (1850).  —  Clay,  the 
"great  peacemaker  "  now  came  forward  with  his  famous  Com- 


364  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [isso. 

promise  Measures  (January  29,  1850).  His  purpose  was  to 
conciliate  both  sections  and  all  political  parties  in  order  to  pre 
serve  the  Union.  He  offered  five  propositions:  (i)  to  admit 
California  as  a  free  State;  (2)  to  apply  Cass's  principle  of 
"Squatter  Sovereignty"  (§410)  to  New  Mexico  and  Utah, 
but  not  until  they  should  become  States.  By  this  provision, 
when  they  entered  the  Union  they  were  to  be  received  with 
or  without  slavery,  as  their  inhabitants  should  demand;1022 
(3)  to  purchase  the  claim  which  Texas  made  to  a  part  of  New 
Mexico ;  (4)  to  abolish  the  slave-trade,  but  not  slavery  itself, 
in  the  District  of  Columbia;  (5)  to  pass  a  new  and  more  effi 
cient  fugitive-slave  act  (§  380)  for  the  protection  of  Southern 
planters. 

413.  Debate  on  Clay's  Compromise  Measures  (1850). — 
Webster,  Clay,  and  Stephen  A.  Douglas  warmly  defended  the 
proposed  measures,  and  Seward,  Chase,  and  Hale  denounced 
them.  Calhoun  and  Jefferson  Davis  refused  to  accept  them  for 
the  South,  and  Benton  ridiculed  them  as  a  mere  "  compromise 
plaster."  1023  Davis  demanded  that  the  Missouri  Compromise 
line  of  36°  30'  (§  324)  should  be  extended  to  the  Pacific,  and 
that  all  of  the  new  territory  below  that  line  should  be  open  to 
slavery.1024  Such  an  arrangement  would  have  given  the  South  a 
large  part  of  California,  nearly  the  whole  of  what  now  constitutes 
Arizona  and  New  Mexico,  together  with  a  corner  of  Nevada. 

Clay  replied:  "  Coming  from  a  slave  State  as  I  do,  ...  no 
earthly  power  could  induce  me  to  vote  for  .  .  .  the  introduction 
of  slavery  where  it  had  not  before  existed,  either  south  or  north 
of  that  line."  1025 

The  hand  of  Death  rested  on  Calhoun;  he  was  too  feeble  to 
address  the  Senate,  and  a  friend  read  his  speech  for  him.  It 
had  the  solemnity  of  a  funeral  oration.  The  great  champion 
of  slavery  (§  354)  declared  that,  if  the  North  desired  to  save 
the  Republic,  it  must  first  "  concede  to  the  South  an  equal 
right  in  the  acquired  territory,"  and  next  faithfully  enforce  the 
fugitive-slave  law  of  I793.1026 


1850.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  365 

The  following  day  he  said :  "  As  things  now  stand,  the 
Southern  States  cannot  remain  in  the  Union." 1027 

Calhoun  saw  signs  of  coming  secession,  not  only  in  the 
political,  but  in  the  religious  situation.  The  Southern  Metho 
dists  and  Baptists,  provoked  by  action  taken  by  Northern 
churches  on  the  subject  of  slavery,  had  split  off  (1845)  ^rom 
the  main  body  and  formed  independent  organizations.  This 
action  seemed  prophetic  of  the  withdrawal  of  the  slave-holding 
States  from  the  Union. 

Three  days  after  Calhoun  made  his  speech  in  the  Senate, 
Webster  followed  with  his  celebrated  speech  of  the  yth  of  March. 
Again  and  again  the  great  New  England  statesman  had  declared 
his  unalterable  opposition  to  the  extension  of  slavery;  on  this 
point  his  convictions  had  undergone  no  change  whatever,  but 
he  now  urged  the  necessity  of  conciliating  the  South,  in  order 
to  preserve  the  Union.  He  declared  that  to  apply  the  Wilmot 
Proviso  (§  404)  to  California  and  New  Mexico  would  not  only 
be  an  affront  to  the  Southern  people,  but  an  act  of  folly. 
Nature,  said  he,  has  effectually  shut  out  slavery  from  those 
regions,  and  Congress  is  not  called  upon  to  "  reenact  the  will 
of  God."  He  pleaded  for  the  cultivation  of  "  more  fraternal  sen 
timents  "  between  the  North  and  the  South.  "  I  hear,"  said  he, 
"  with  distress  and  anguish  the  word  *  secession.'  "  "  There  can 
be  no  such  thing  as  peaceable  secession."  "  Disruption  must 
produce  war,  and  such  a  war  as  I  will  not  describe."  1028 

Seward,  on  the  contrary,  as  the  champion  of  freedom,  de 
nounced  all  attempts  at  compromise  with  slavery.  He  declared 
that  the  Constitution  devoted  the  public  domain  "  to  union,  to 
justice,  to  defence,  to  welfare,  and  to  liberty."  Then  he  startled 
his  hearers  by  adding:  "But  there  is  a  higher  law  than  the 
Constitution,"  "  which  devotes  it  to  the  same  noble  purpose." 1029 

414.  The  "  Omnibus  Bill";  Taylor's  death;  Sumner ; 
admission  of  California.  —  Early  in  May  (1850)  Clay's  com 
promise  measures  (§  412)  were  reported  in  the  form  of  a  bill, 
which  carried  so  many  provisions  that  it  got  the  name  of  the 


366  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [isso-. 

"  Omnibus  Bill."  103°  This  measure  was  hotly  debated  for  the 
rest  of  the  session.  All  of  its  provisions,  including  the  new 
Fugitive- Slave  Act  (§  412),  were  passed,  but  in  the  form  of 
separate  bills,  before  the  end  of  September,  1850.  This  great 
compromise  averted  disunion  for  the  time,  and  made  it  possible 
for  the  Republic  to  continue  for  another  decade  "half  slave 
and  half  free."  Both  parties  now  exultantly  declared  that  the 
terrible  negro  question  was  "  finally  settled." 

Meanwhile  President  Taylor  had  suddenly  died  (July  9,  1850) 
and  Vice-President  Fillmore  had  taken  the  Executive  helm.  Fill- 
more  made  Webster  Secretary  of  State,  and  Massachusetts  chose 
Charles  Sumner  to  succeed  him  in  the  Senate.  Sumner,  though 
an  uncompromising  champion  of  the  anti-slavery  cause,  was  not 
an  extreme  Abolitionist.  Speaking  of  his  office,  he  said  to  his 
constituents:  "I  accept  it  as  the  servant  of  the  Union,  bound 
to  oppose  all  sectionalism,  .  .  .  whether  in  unconstitutional 
efforts  by  the  North  to  carry  .  .  .  freedom  into  the  slave  States 
[or]  in  unconstitutional  efforts  by  the  South  to  carry  .  .  . 
slavery  into  the  free  States."1031 

In  the  autumn  of  1850  California  was  admitted  to  the 
Union.  This  made  the  whole  number  of  States  thirty-one,— 
fifteen  for  slavery,  sixteen  for  free  soil.  There  could  be  little 
doubt  that  henceforth  the  free  States  would  hold  the  .political 
control. 

415.  Excitement  at  the  North  over  the  new  Fugitive- 
Slave  Act.  —  The  excitement  at  the  North  over  the  passage  of 
the  new  Fugitive-Slave  Act  (§  414)  was  intense.  From  all 
parts  of  the  free  States  memorials  poured  in  upon  Congress. 
They  condemned  the  law  as  "  revolting  to  the  moral  sense  of 
the  civilized  world,"  and  demanded  its  immediate  repeal.1032 
Giddings  of  Ohio  declared  that  the  execution  of  such  a  law 
was  worse  "  than  ordinary  murder,"  and  that  no  slave-holder 
could  compel  the  freemen  of  his  State  to  turn  out  "  to  chase 
the  panting  fugitive."  1038  The  Abolitionists  denounced  Web 
ster  for  upholding  the  act,  and  declared  him  a  traitor  to  New 


I860-.]      THE  UNION,  NATIONAL  DEVELOPMENT.       367 

England  and  to  liberty.     Whittier  wrote  his  dirge-like  lines  of 
"  Ichabod"  to  lament  his  fall : 

"  From  those  great  eyes 

The  soul  has  fled; 

When  faith  is  lost,  when  honor  dies, 
The  man  is  dead." 

But  eight  hundred  leading  citizens  of  Boston  and  vicinity 
came  to  Webster's  defence.  They  signed  a  paper  thanking  him 
for  recalling  them  to  their  "duties  under  the  Constitution."1034 
They  accepted  his  declaration  that  if  the  North  refused  to 
return  fugitive  slaves,  "  the  South  would  no  longer  be  bound 
to  observe  the  compact"  of  the  Constitution;  and  that  "a 
bargain"  cannot  be  broken  on  one  side  and  still  bind  the 
other." 1036  Ten  years  later,  Abraham  Lincoln,  in  his  inaugural, 
acknowledged  that  the  Constitution  required  him  to  enforce  the 
Fugitive-Slave  Law.1036 

416.  "  Personal  Liberty  Laws "  ;  enforcement  of  the 
Fugitive-Slave  Act.  —  Prior  to  1850  several  Northern  States 
had  passed  "  Personal  Liberty  Laws,"  forbidding  State  officers 
to  aid  in  the  enforcement  of  the  Fugitive-Slave  Act  of  1793 
(§  257).  The  new  act  (1850)  (§  414)  roused  still  greater  oppo 
sition.  In  the  course  of  the  next  ten  years  (1850-1860)  four 
teen  Northern  States  passed  laws  to  protect  negroes  claimed 
as  runaway  slaves.  These  statutes  generally  secured  to  such 
negroes  the  right  of  having  counsel  to  defend  them,  the  right 
to  testify  in  their  own  behalf,  and  the  right  of  trial  by  jury;  all 
of  which  privileges  the  Fugitive-Slave  Act  of  1850  denied.1037 

The  South  complained  that  these  laws  "  were  intended  to 
nullify  an  act  of  Congress,  and  that  they  violated  the  Constitu 
tion." 

So  far  as  the  actual  number  of  fugitives  was  concerned,  the 
loss  to  the  South  was  small.  In  1850  only  one-thirtieth  of  one 
per  cent  of  the  slave  population  escaped,  and  by  1860  it  had 
fallen  much  lower.1038  Southern  estimates,  however,  represented 


368  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

the  total  number  of  fugitives  living  in  the  North  at  30,000, 
valued  at  $i5,ooo,ooo.1039 

Long  before  the  passage  of  the  new  law,  the  Abolitionists 
had  organized  a  regular  system  of  escape  for  negroes  who  had 
succeeded  in  entering  the  free  States.  The  "Underground 
Railroad"  consisted  of  a  chain  of  stations  —  private  houses 
about  a  day's  journey  apart,  —  and  the  fugitives  were 
hurried  along  from  station  to  station  until  they  reached 
Canada.1040 

Under  the  Fugitive-Slave  Act  of  1850  more  seizures  were 
made  than  in  all  the  previous  sixty  years.  Thomas  Sims  (1851) 
and  Anthony  Burns  (1854)  were  carried  back  from  Boston.  A 
desperate  attempt  was  made  to  rescue  Burns,  and  one  man  was 
killed.  The  files  of  armed  soldiers  who  conveyed  him  to  the 
wharf  were  greeted  with  mingled  cheers,  hisses,  and  groans, 
and  they  had  to  pass  beneath  a  national  flag  draped  in  mourn 
ing  and  suspended,  union  down,  across  the  street.  The  deter 
mined  resistance  to  the  law  made  the  cost  of  returning  the 
fugitives  enormously  expensive.  In  several  instances,  notably 
that  of  "  Shadrach,"  in  Boston  (1851),  and  "Jerry,"  in  Syra 
cuse,  New  York,  the  negroes  were  rescued;  and  at  Christiana, 
Pennsylvania,  a  slave-holder  and  his  son  were  killed  in  their 
attempt  to  seize  an  alleged  fugitive.  These  cases  showed  that 
it  would  be  practically  impossible  to  enforce  the  obnoxious  act 
on  a  broad  scale. 

417.  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin";  Helper's  "  Impending 
Crisis. " — In  the  spring  of  1852  two  national  political  con 
ventions,  representing  the  two  chief  parties,  met  to  take  action. 
They  solemnly  pledged  themselves  to  resist  all  attempts  to 
renew  the  discussion  of  slavery  "  whenever,  however,  and 
wherever  made."  1041 

Just  at  that  time  Mrs.  Stowe  published  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin." 
She  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  anti-slavery  principles,  but  not 
a  declared  Abolitionist.  She  bore  no  hatred  to  the  South. 
She  wrote  rather  in  sorrow  than  in  anger,  her  only  object  being, 


1852.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  369 

as  she  said,  to  make  her  countrymen  "  feel  what  an  accursed 
thing  slavery  is."  1(m 

Garrison  declared  that  her  book  "  would  take  the  world  by 
storm."  He  was  right.  In  eight  weeks  100,000  copies  were 
sold  in  the  United  States,  and  that  was  only  the.  beginning; 
within  a  year  a  million  copies  were  sold  in  England,  and  the 
story  was  soon  translated  into  every  European  language.  Mrs. 
Stowe's  work  was  the  direct  fruit  of  the  Fugitive-Slave  Act, 
and  it  struck  slavery  a  blow  from  which  it  never  recovered.1043 

Five  years  later  (1857)  another  remarkable  book  appeared 
on  the  same  subject;  this  was  Helper's  "Impending  Crisis." 
The  author  was  a  North  Carolinian.  He  did  not  profess  to  be 
a  friend  to  the  negro,  but  attacked  slavery  mainly  on  economic 
grounds.  He  dedicated  his  work  to  the  "non-slave-holding 
whites"  of  the  South;  his  object  was  to  show  by  solid  facts 
and  figures  that  the  system  did  not  pay,  that  it  was  a  curse  to 
the  section  where  it  existed,1044  especially  to  the  "  poor  whites." 

Helper's  book  had  a  very  large  sale,  and  three  years  later 
(1860)  the  Republican  Party  circulated  it  by  thousands  as  a 
campaign  document.1045 

418.  National  political  conventions;  the  presidential  election 
(1852).  —  The  Democratic  National  Convention  (1852)  adopted 
a  "  strict-construction"  (§  256)  platform.1046  It  upheld  the  Ken 
tucky  and  Virginia  (State  Rights)  resolutions  of  1792  and  1798 
(§  273),  and  pledged  the  support  of  the  party  to  the  Compromise 
Measures  of  1850  (§§  412,  414),  and  to  the  enforcement  of  the 
Fugitive-Slave  Law.  The  Convention  nominated  Franklin  Pierce 
for  President,  and  William  R.  King  for  Vice-President. 

The  Whig  National  Convention  met  soon  afterward;  it 
adopted  a  carefully  worded  "broad-construction"  (§  256) 
platform,  and  accepted  the  Compromise  Measures  of  1850, 
with  the  Fugitive-Slave  Law  (§§  412,  414).  It  nominated 
General  Scott  (§  396)  for  the  presidency. 

The  Free-Soil  Democratic  National  Convention  adopted  a 
platform  which  repudiated  the  Compromise  Measures  of  1850, 


3/o  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

including  the  Fugitive-Slave  Law  (§§  412,  414).  It  proclaimed- 
"No  more  slave  States;  no  more  slave  Territories;  no  national 
ized  slavery;  and  no  national  legislation  for  the  extradition  of 
slaves."  1047  The  Free  Soilers  nominated  John  P.  Hale  for  the 
presidency. 

Pierce  gained  a  sweeping  victory.  He  received  254  elec 
toral  votes  to  42  cast  for  Scott;  the  popular  vote  stood 
1,601,474  for  Pierce,  and  1,386,578  for  Scott.  Hale,  the 
candidate  of  the  Free-Soil  Democrats,  received  a  popular 
vote  of  156,149. 

Before  the  year  (1852)  closed,  Calhoun,  Webster,  and  Clay 
were  in  their  graves.  Sumner  and  Jefferson  Davis  were  soon 
to  stand,  face  to  face,  in  the  United  States  Senate  as  leading 
combatants  in  the  "irrepressible  conflict"  between  slavery  and 
freedom. 

419.  Rise  of  the  "  Know  Nothing  "  Party;  death  of  the 
Whig  Party.  —  Between  1849  and  1852  immigration  (§  374) 
had  increased  enormously,  the  arrivals  at  our  ports  averaging 
nearly  a  thousand  a  day.1048  Hostility  to  the  political  influence 
of  this  army  of  new  settlers  gave  rise  to  a  secret  oath-bound 
fraternity,  which  took  for  its  watchword  the  cry:  "  Americans 
must  rule  America."  This  organization  developed  into  the  politi 
cal  party  (1852)  of  the  "Order  of  United  Americans."  The 
members  were  popularly  called  "  Know  Nothings,"  because 
when  questioned  they  invariably  professed  that  they  knew 
nothing  of  the  party  or  its  objects.  The  "  Know  Nothings  " 
generally  selected  their  candidates  from  rival  political  tickets; 
and  for  some  years  they  met  with  great  success  in  State  elec 
tions.  They  required  that  those  for  whom  they  voted  should 
be  native-born  citizens;  that  they  should  declare  their  entire 
devotion  to  the  national  and  State  Constitutions;  and  explic 
itly  disclaim  allegiance  to  any  "  foreign  prince,  potentate,  or 
power."  1049 

They  furthermore  demanded  "  a  continued  residence  of 
twenty-one  years  as  an  indispensable  requisite  for  citizenship," 


1853.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  3/1 

and  resolved  that  it  was  the  duty  of  the  national  Government 
to  prohibit  the  landing  of  foreign  paupers  and  criminals  on  our 
shores.  The  chief  power  of  the  American  Party  was  exerted 
between  1850  and  1856;  it  then  gradually  declined.1060 

After  the  presidential  election  of  1852  the  Whig  Party 
(§§  256,  341)  went  to  pieces.  Many  Whigs  joined  the  "Know 
Nothings,"  and  after  the  organization  of  the  Republican  Party 
(1854-1856)  great  numbers  were  absorbed  by  it.1051 

420.  Summary.  —  The  chief  events  of  the  Taylor  and  Fill- 
more  administration  were:   (i)  the  discussion  in  Congress  over 
the  admission  of  California  as  a  free  State;  (2)  the  adoption  of 
Clay's  Compromise  Measures  of  1850,  including  the  application 
of  the  principle  of  "  Squatter  Sovereignty,"  and  the  passage  of 
a  new  Fugitive-Slave  Act;  (3)  the  enactment  by  many  Northern 
States  of  "  Personal  Liberty  Laws,"  and  the  publication  of 
"  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin  "   and   Helper's    "  Impending   Crisis  "  ; 
(4)    the    death    of   three   great    political    leaders,  —  Webster, 
Calhoun,  and  Clay,  followed  by  the  decline  and  disappearance 
of  the  Whig  Party,  and  by  the  rise  of  the  short-lived  American, 
or  "Know  Nothing,"  Party. 

FRANKLIN  PIERCE  (DEMOCRAT),  ONE  TERM,  1853-1857. 

421.  Pierce's  inaugural;   the  first  American   " World's 
Fair."  —  In  his  inaugural  address   President  Pierce    (§   418) 
spoke  explicitly  on  the  slavery  question.      He  said:  "  I  believe 
that  involuntary  servitude  as  it  exists  in  different  States  of  this 
Confederacy  is  recognized  by  the  Constitution  "  (§  415).     "  I 
hold  that  the  laws  of  1850,  commonly  called  the  'Compromise 
Measures'  (§§  412,  414),  are  strictly  constitutional,  and  to  be 
unhesitatingly  carried  into  effect."  105a 

The  slavery  question,  however,  kept  itself  in  the  background 
for  a  brief  period,  while  America  took  part  in  an  international 
exhibition.  In  the  summer  of  1853  the  President  opened  the 
first  "World's  Fair"  held  in  the  United  States,  in  the  "Crystal 


372  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.      [1853-1854. 

Palace,"  in  New  York.  The  foreign  department  was  noted  for 
its  large  and  valuable  collection  of  works  of  art.  The  American 
department  took  the  front  rank  in  the  variety  of  its  wood-work 
ing  machinery  and  agricultural  implements.1053  Nothing  could 
equal  the  excellence  of  the  work  done  by  the  improved  planing- 
machines,  the  lathes  for  turning  gun-stocks  and  similar  irregular 
forms,  and  the  machinery  for  manufacturing  barrels,  pails,  and 
other  hollow  ware. 

Our  reapers  and  mowers  (§  366),  horse-rakes,  hay-tedders, 
and  "  cultivators  "  had  revolutionized  farming.  With  one  of 
these  machines  and  the  aid  of  a  pair  of  horses,  a  man  could 
easily  do  the  work  of  twenty-five  hand  laborers.  Every  sum 
mer  these  inventions  saved  enormous  quantities  of  grass  and 
grain  which  must  otherwise  have  been  lost  for  lack  of  men 
to  harvest  them.  An  acre  of  oats  could  be  cut  in  less  than 
half  an  hour,  and  an  acre  of  hay  spread  in  about  the  same 
time. 

Secretary  Seward  said  that  these  agricultural  implements 
were  pushing  the  line  of  civilization  westward  at  the  rate 
of  thirty  miles  a  year.  In  that  way  they  had  a  powerful  in 
fluence  on  the  economic  progress  of  the  American  Republic. 

422.  The  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill.  —  In  the  great  debate  on 
the  Compromise  Measures  of  1850  (§  412),  Senator  Stephen 
A.  Douglas  of  Illinois,  popularly  known  as  the  "  little  giant  of 
the  West,"  successfully  advocated  the  application  of  "  Squatter 
Sovereignty  "  (§§  410,  412)  to  New  Mexico  and  Utah,  when 
they  should  be  admitted  as  States.  In  January,  1854,  Douglas, 
as  chairman  of  the  Committee  on  Territories,  determined  to 
make  an  effort  to  extend  the  principle  of  "  Popular  Sovereignty," 
as  he  called  it,  to  the  unorganized  territory  comprised  in  the 
Louisiana  purchase  of  1803  (§  280).  This  region  lay  west  of 
the  States  of  Missouri,  Iowa,  and  Minnesota  Territory.  It  was 
called  the  Platte,  or  Nebraska  country,  and  as  it  was  north  of 
the  Missouri  Compromise  line  of  36°  30'  (§  324),  slavery  was 
"forever"  excluded  from  it. 


1854.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  3/3 

The  bill,  as  Senator  Douglas  finally  presented  it  (January  23, 
1854),  provided  that  the  Platte  country  should  be  divided  into 
two  parts,  the  northern  to  be  organized  as  the  Territory  of 
Nebraska,  and  the  southern  as  the  Territory  of  Kansas.  The 
fourteenth  section  of  the  bill  repealed  the  Missouri  Compro 
mise  (§  324),  and  declared  it  henceforth  "inoperative  and 
void."1054  The  avowed  object  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill 
was  "  not  to  legislate  slavery  into  any  Territory  or  State,  nor 
to  exclude  it  therefrom,  but  to  leave  the  people  thereof  per 
fectly  free  to  form  and  regulate  their  domestic  institutions  in 
their  own  way,  subject  only  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States."1055 

A  separate  clause  in  the  bill  expressly  provided  that  the 
Fugitive-Slave  Act  (§§  412,  414)  should  be  enforced  in  the  two 
proposed  Territories.1056 

Senator  Douglas  declared  that  his  sole  object  in  advocating 
the  measure  was  to  take  the  discussion  of  the  slavery  ques 
tion  out  of  Congress,  and  hand  it  over  to  the  people  of  the 
States  and  Territories  for  settlement.  Such  a  policy,  he  be 
lieved,  would  preserve  peace,  and  maintain  the  Union  in  its 
integrity.1057 

423.  Debate  on  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill;  Northern  oppo 
sition.  —  The  proposition  to  repeal  the  Missouri  Compromise 
(§  324)  and  to  apply  the  principle  of  "  Popular  Sovereignty" 
(§  422)  to  Kansas  and  Nebraska  startled  the  whole  country 
like  a  thunderbolt  from  a  clear  sky.  No  bill  was  ever  intro 
duced  into  Congress  which  gave  rise  to  more  excited  debate. 
Sumner  vehemently  protested  against  the  removal  of  the  "land 
marks  of  freedom."  105S  Wade  raised  his  voice  against  giving 
slavery  a  chance  to  enter  a  Territory  "  as  large  as  all  the  free 
States,  pure  as  Nature,  and  beautiful  as  the  Garden  of  God."1059 
Benton  denounced  Douglas's  proposition  as  a  "  see-saw  bill,  .  .  . 
the  up-and-down  game  of  politicians."1  Seward  declared  that 
the  fate  of  the  Republic  hung  on  this  measure.  "  Its  success  or 
defeat,"  said  he,  "  will  decide  whether  slavery  shall  go  on 


374  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.  [1854. 

increasing  in  influence  over  the  central  power  here,  or  whether 
freedom  shall  gain  the  ascendency."  1061 

Edward  Everett  presented  a  protest  against  the  bill,  signed 
by  more  than  three  thousand  New  England  clergymen.1062  The 
"  Independent  Democrats "  in  Congress  drew  up  an  appeal 
denouncing  the  proposed  law  as  "  a  gross  violation  of  a  sacred 
pledge,"  and  as  part  of  "  an  atrocious  plot  to  exclude  from  a 
vast  unoccupied  region,  immigrants  from  the  old  world  and  free 
laborers  from  our  own  States,  and  convert  it  into  a  dreary  region 
of  despotism,  inhabited  by  masters  and  slaves." 1063  Chase, 
Sumner,  Giddings,  and  Gerritt  Smith  joined  in  signing  the  paper. 

424.  Southern   feeling   about  the   bill.  —  The   Southern 
members  of  Congress  at  first  manifested  little  interest  in  the 
Kansas-Nebraska    Bill.     Bell    of   Tennessee    said    that    every 
Southern  Senator  with  whom  he  had  spoken,  excepting  Toombs 
of  Georgia,  regretted  this  attempt  to  wipe  out  a  line  which  had 
preserved  the  peace  of  the  country  for  thirty  years.     He  added, 
however,  that  since  the   North   had   introduced   the  bill,  the 
South  would  not  vote  against  it.1064      Houston  of  Texas  im 
plored  the  Senate,  for  the  sake  of  the  Union,  not  to  repeal  the 
Missouri  Compromise.1065     Cullom  of  Tennessee  declared  that 
its  repeal  would  repudiate  "  the  faith  and  honor  of  the  South, 
plighted  by  the  act  of  1820."  1066 

But  Jefferson  Davis  and  Senator  Toombs,  representing  the 
extreme  class  popularly  known  as  "  fire-eaters,"  condemned  the 
Missouri  Compromise  as  unjust  to  the  South.  They,  with 
Alexander  Stephens,  welcomed  its  repeal  by  a  bill  which  vir 
tually  denied  the  power  of  Congress  to  legislate  respecting 
slavery  in  the  Territories.  They  insisted  that  the  Constitution 
gave  slaveholders,  in  common  with  other  owners  of  property, 
the  right  to  take  their  negroes  into  any  part  of  the  public 
domain  ;  then,  when  the  settlers  framed  a  state  constitution, 
they  could  decide  whether  it  should  be  slave  or  free.1067 

425.  Seward's  attitude;   excitement  at  the  North;  pas 
sage  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  (1854) ;  results.  — When 


THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT. 


375 


it  became  apparent  that  a  majority  of  Southern  members  would 
vote  for  the  bill,  Seward  exclaimed:  "  Come  on  then,  gentlemen 
of  the  slave  States,  since  there  is  no  escaping  your  challenge, 
I  accept  it  in  behalf  of  the  cause  of  freedom.  We  will  engage 
in  competition  for  the  soil  of  Kansas,  and  God  give  the  victory 
to  the  side  which  is  stronger  in  numbers  as  in  right."  1068  The 
debate  on  the  bill  raged  for  nearly  five  months.  During  that 


Territory  opened  to  Slavery  by  the  "  Kansas-Nebraska  Act"  of  1854. 

The  "  Compromise  Measures  "  of  1850  opened  Utah  and  New  Mexico  to  slavery  when  they 
should  be  admitted  as  States  (see  §  422).  Oregon  was  free  territory  by  Act  of  Congress 
of  1848  (see  §  391). 

time  the  North  was  seething  with  indignation,  and  mass-meeting 
after  mass-meeting  protested  against  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise  Act  (§  324). 

The  opponents  of  Senator  Douglas  branded  him  as  an  enemy 
to  the  cause  of  freedom  and  of  free  soil.  The  demonstrations 
against  him  were  so  violent  that  he  said  :  "  I  could  travel  from 
Boston  to  Chicago  by  the  light  of  my  own  burning  effigies."1069 
The  bill  finally  passed  the  House  (May  22,  1854)  by  a  vote  of  113 
to  100  ;  it  finally  passed  the  Senate  (May  26)  by  a  vote  of  35  to  13. 


376  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1854-. 

The  Southern  Democrats  and  Whigs  voted  for  it ;  half  of 
the  Northern  Democrats  were  for  it  and  half  against  it;  while 
the  Northern  Whigs  and  Free  Soilers  all  opposed  it.1070  The 
President  strongly  favored  the  bill  and  promptly  signed  it 
(May  30,  1854). 

The  new  Congress  that  met  the  next  year  (1855)  held  the 
stormiest  session  ever  recorded.  The  struggle  to  elect  a 
Speaker  lasted  nine  weeks  ;  members  ate  and  slept  at  their 
desks.  The  election  of  Banks  of  Massachusetts  was  regarded 
as  a  victory  of  the  free  States  over  the  consolidated  power  of 
the  slave  States.  Elaine  in  his  "  Twenty  Years  of  Congress  " 
says :  "  It  marked  an  epoch." 

The  Kansas-Nebraska  Act  had  three  momentous  results:  (i) 
by  repealing  the  Missouri  Compromise  Act  (§  324)  and  estab 
lishing  the  principle  of  "  Popular  Sovereignty"  (§  422)  in  the 
two  Territories  north  of  36°  30',  it  opened  a  new  battle-ground 
between  the  forces  of  slavery  and  freedom;  (2)  it  gave  the 
finishing  blow  to  the  expiring  Whig  Party  (§  419),  and  it  shaped 
the  wedge  which  later  (1860)  split  the  Democratic  Party  into  a 
Northern  and  Southern  section;  (3)  it  united  all  "anti-Nebraska" 
men  at  the  North  in  a  new  political  organization,  which  subse 
quently  (1856)  took  the  name  of  the  Republican  Party.1071  The 
Republicans,  unlike  the  Democrats  or  the  Whigs,  had  no  adher 
ents  at  the  South.  They  were  sectional  in  the  sense  that  free 
dom  was  sectional,  and  they  pledged  themselves  to  use  all 
constitutional  means  to  prevent  the  extension  of  slavery.1072 

426.  The  struggle  for  Kansas  (1854-1859) ;  "  Sons  of  the 
South "  vs.  " Free-State  men." — No  sooner  was  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  Bill  signed  (§  425)  than  companies  of  "Sons  of  the 
South  "  rushed  in  to  seize  the  Territory  and  open  it  to  slavery. 
The  planters  of  Missouri  engaged  in  this  movement  as  an  act 
of  self-preservation.  They  held  nearly  100,000  negroes,  and 
they  believed  that  if  Kansas  should  enter  the  Union  as  a  free 
State,  their  human  property  would  speedily  take  to  its  legs  and 
cross  the  border.  Senator  Atchison  of  Missouri  said  that  a 


1854-.]  THE    UNION,   NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT. 

horde  of  Western  savages  would  be  less  formidable  neighbors 
than  a  population  of  Abolitionists.1073  The  pro-slavery  men 
who  entered  the  Territory  at  once  took  possession  of  large 
tracts  of  land  and  planted  the  towns  of  Atchison,  Leaven- 
worth,  and  Lecompton.  They  warned  intending  emigrants 
from  the  free  States  not  to  endeavor  to  enter  Kansas  through 
Missouri.1074 

The  "  Free-State  men  "  acted  with  equal  energy.  In  expec 
tation  of  the  passage  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  Eli  Thayer 
of  Massachusetts  organized  the  "  New  England  Aid  Society  " 
to  send  out  colonists  to  Kansas.  This  society  received  the 
hearty  encouragement  of  Amos  A.  Lawrence  of  Boston,  who 
helped  to  furnish  it  with  the  "sinews  of  war."  The  society 
despatched  the  first  band  of  emigrants  in  the  summer  of  1854. 
The  total  number  sent  out  by  them  in  the  course  of  the  crusade 
was  about  3000,  —  all  men,  and  voters;  before  they  reached 
Kansas  this  number  was  probably  doubled.  The  pioneer  colony 
from  Boston  planted  the  town  of  Lawrence;  subsequently  bands 
of  "  Free-State  men  "  planted  Topeka  and  Ossawatomie.1075 

The  settlers  were  strongly  opposed  to  the  spread  of  slavery, 
but  they  had  no  intention  of  attacking  it  in  the  States  where 
it  was  already  established.  Garrison's  "  Liberator  "  (§  353), 
speaking  of  the  New  England  emigrants,  said  that  "hardly 
a  single  Abolitionist  could  be  found  among  all  who  went."  1076 

But  among  those  who  emigrated  from  New  York  and  Ohio, 
there  were  at  least  six  Abolitionists  of  the  most  radical  stamp. 
One  of  them  was  destined  to  make  his  name  and  exploits 
known  throughout  the  world.  These  six  men  were  John 
Brown,  a  descendant  of  Pilgrim  stock,  and  his  five  sons. 
They  settled  in  or  near  Ossawatomie,  and  "  Old  John  Brown," 
as  he  was  familiarly  called,  soon  became  a  power  in  that  region. 
He  went  out,  rifle  in  hand,  determined,  as  he  said,  to  "kill 
American  slavery." 1077 

The  "  Sons  of  the  South  "  denounced  the  "  Free-State  men  " 
as  "Black  Republicans";  the  "  Free- State  men"  retorted  by 


378  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [ISM-* 

calling  their  adversaries  "  Border  Ruffians."  The  excited 
feeling  naturally  led  to  acts  of  violence  which  threatened  to 
end  in  bloodshed. 

427.  The  Kansas  elections ;  the  rival  constitutions;  con 
gressional  report.  —  At  the  first  election  of  a  delegate  to  Con 
gress  (1854)  a  large  force  of  armed  Missourians  entered  the 
Territory  and  elected  a  pro-slavery  candidate.1078     The  next 
spring  (1855)  a  second  body  of  Missourians  crossed  the  border 
into  Kansas  and  elected  a  Territorial  Legislature  which  not 
only  adopted  the  entire  slave  code  of  Missouri,  but  strengthened 
it  by  the  addition  of  numerous  death  penalties.1079 

The  Free-State  settlers  repudiated  this  "  bogus  legislation," 
and  elected  an  anti-slavery  delegate  to  Congress.  In  the 
autumn  (1855)  they  held  a  convention  at  Topeka,  framed  a 
State  constitution  prohibiting  slavery,  set  up  a  rival  govern 
ment,  and  applied  for  admission  to  the  Union,  but  without 
success.  Then  the  Pro-Slavery  Party  met  at  Pawnee  and 
framed  a  State  constitution  to  suit  themselves;  but  the  people 
of  the  Territory  rejected  it.1080 

The  next  year  (1856)  Congress  sent  out  a  special  committee 
of  three  (W.  W.  Howard  of  Michigan,  John  Sherman  of  Ohio, 
and  Mordecai  Oliver  of  Missouri)  to  investigate  the  Kansas 
troubles.  The  first  two  members  of  the  committee  reported: 
(i)  that  the  Territorial  elections  had  been  "carried  by  organ 
ized  invasions  from  the  State  of  Missouri";  (2)  "that  the 
alleged  Territorial  (Pro- Slavery)  Legislature  was  an  illegally 
constituted  body";  (3)  that  no  delegate  to  Congress  had  been 
elected  "in  pursuance  of  law";  (4)  that  in  the  present  condi 
tion  of  the  Territory  a  fair  election  could  not  be  held  unless 
"  United  States  troops  "  should  be  present  "  at  every  place  of 
election." 1081  The  third  member  of  the  committee  made  a 
separate  report  dissenting  from  that  of  the  majority.1085 

428.  Civil   war   in   Kansas.  —  The  national    Government 
sent  out  troops  to  guard  the  polls,  but  civil  war  broke  out. 
The  greater  part  of  the  actual  settlers  desired  peace,  but  bands 


1854-1859.]        THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  3/9 

of  marauders  —  Free-State  "  Jayhawkers "  and  Slave-State 
"Border  Ruffians" — burned  farmhouses,  broke  up  settlements, 
pillaged  towns,  and  committed  numerous  murders.  One  act  of 
violence  provoked  another  until  the  Territory  became,  in  sober 
truth,  "Bleeding  Kansas."1083  Lawrence  was  twice  besieged 
and  once  burned;  Ossawatomie,  Pottawatomie,  and  Leavenworth 
were  attacked  and  partially  destroyed.  Each  side  suffered; 
each  made  the  other  suffer.  The  motto  was :  "  War  to  the 
knife  and  the  knife  to  the  hilt."  "  Old  John  Brown  "  shot  or 
cut  down  a  number  of  pro-slavery  men  in  cold  blood  at  Potta 
watomie  (1856),  and  made  raids  into  Missouri  for  the  purpose 
of  liberating  negroes.  The  other  side  retaliated  with  interest, 
and  killed  two  to  one  in  the  massacre  at  Marais  des  Cygnes 
(i858).1084  But  this  last  outrage  was  an  isolated  act,  and 
fortunately  this  frightful  state  of  anarchy  was  practically  over 
by  1857.  The  "Free-State  men"  had  come  to  stay;  and  as 
they  gradually  increased  in  numbers,  they  obtained  the  political 
control  and  rejected  the  pro-slavery  constitution  framed  by  a 
convention  at  Lecompton  (1858). 

The  next  year  a  Free-State  Convention  met  at  Wyandotte 
(July  5,  1859)  and  adopted  a  new  constitution  which  prohibited 
slavery.  This  was  ratified  by  the  people,  and  was  later  (1861) 
accepted  by  a  Congress  from  which  the  Southern  members  had 
withdrawn  to  engage  in  that  stupendous  civil  war  destined  to 
overthrow  slavery  forever.  Out  of  her  population  of  100,000, 
Kansas  contributed  no  less  than  20,000  men  to  the  ranks  of 
the  Union  army. 

429.  Assault  on  Senator  Sumner.  —  While  the  Western 
troubles  were  at  their  height,  Senator  Sumner  delivered  a 
powerful  speech  in  Congress  (May  19,  20,  1856)  on  the 
"  Crime  against  Kansas."  He  denounced  the  "  tyranny, 
imbecility,  absurdity,  and  infamy "  of  those  who  were  en 
deavoring  to  fasten  negro  bondage  on  the  free  soil  of  Western 
Territories.  In  the  course  of  his  speech  he  attacked  Senator 
Butler  of  South  Carolina,  and  held  him  up  to  ridicule  as  a 


380  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

half-crazed  old  man  completely  infatuated  with  the  charms  of 
Slavery.1085 

Two  days  later  Preston  S.  Brooks,  a  nephew  of  Senator 
Butler  and  a  Representative  from  South  Carolina,  made  an 
assault  on  Sumner  while  he  was  sitting  at  his  desk  in  the 
Senate  chamber.  Brooks  struck  him  blow  after  blow  over 
the  head  with  a  loaded  cane  until  his  victim  fell  senseless 
and  bleeding  to  the  floor.  Senator  Sumner's  injuries  were 
so  serious  that  he  had  to  withdraw  from  political  life  for 
several  years.  Massachusetts  kept  his  seat  for  him  in  the 
Senate  until  he  resumed  it  (1859),  not  long  before  the  out 
break  of  the  Civil  War.  Brooks  resigned,  but  was  presented 
with  a  new  cane  by  his  admiring  constituents,  and  was  trium 
phantly  reflected.1086  Seward  said :  "  The  blows  that  fell  on  the 
head  of  the  Senator  from  Massachusetts  have  done  more  for 
the  cause  of  human  freedom,"  than  all  its  friends  have  ever 
accomplished  in  Congress.1087 

430.  Treaties  with  Japan  and  China;  the  Ostend  Mani 
festo.  —  While  the  Kansas  question  was  agitating  the  whole 
country,  our  foreign  relations  had  an  important  bearing  on  the 
policy  and  welfare  of  the  nation. 

Under  the  previous  administration  Commodore  Perry  was 
sent  out  in  command  of  a  squadron  to  endeavor  to  negotiate  a 
treaty  with  Japan.  The  ports  of  that  "  Land  of  Great  Peace," 
once  partially  open  to  the  Dutch,  had  been  closed  to  the 
entire  world  for  more  than  two  centuries.  Perry  succeeded  in 
reopening  the  barred  doors,  and  by  his  tact,  firmness,  and 
diplomatic  skill  secured  a  favorable  treaty  (1854).  It  gave  us 
opportunities  for  trade,  and  prepared  the  way  for  full  inter 
national  intercourse  with  the  foremost  people  of  the  East. 
Japan  owes  her  recent  remarkable  progress  in  western  civiliza 
tion,  and  her  present  position  among  Oriental  nations,  in  great 
measure  to  Perry's  success  and  to  the  introduction  of  American 
inventions  and  American  educational  influences.1088  Fourteen 
years  later  Anson  Burlingame  negotiated  (1868)  an  important 


1854-1856]        THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  381 

treaty  with  China,  under  which  that  nation  for  the  first  time 
officially  accepted  the  principles  of  international  law. 

The  failure  of  the  South  to  secure  fresh  territory  for  slavery 
extension  led  to  attempts  to  get  possession  of  Cuba.  Filibus 
tering  expeditions  sailed  from  New  Orleans  (1850,  1851)  for 
the  purpose  of  exciting  a  revolution  in  that  island;  they  accom 
plished  nothing,  however,  but  their  own  destruction.1089  Fill- 
more,  who  was  then  President,  issued  a  proclamation  condemning 
these  "  wicked  schemes  "  and  warning  citizens  of  the  United 
States  against  taking  part  in  them.109*  Later,  the  Government 
endeavored  to  purchase  the  much-coveted  island,  but  all  offers 
were  rejected.  Meanwhile  reports  were  circulated  that  the 
Cuban  negroes  were  plotting  to  establish  a  free  black  Republic 
on  the  plan  of  San  Domingo.  This  rumor  made  the  South  all 
the  more  anxious  to  get  possession  of  a  country  that  might  other 
wise  become  a  menace  to  slave-holders  in  the  cotton  States. 

James  Buchanan,  our  Minister  to  England,  met  with  our 
Ministers  to  France  and  Spain  at  Ostend  (1854)  to  discuss  the 
question  of  the  acquisition  of  Cuba.  They  united  in  signing 
the  Ostend  Manifesto.  They  declared  in  that  document  that 
if  Spain  persisted  in  her  refusal  to  sell  Cuba,  and  if  our  peace 
should  thereby  be  endangered,  we  should  be  justified  by  every 
law,  human  and  divine,  in  seizing  the  island.1091 

431 .  National  presidential  conventions ;  the  election  (1856) . 
-The  "Know  Nothing"  Party  (§  419)  held  their  National 
Convention  early  in  1856.  The  delegates  adopted  a  platform 
which  declared  that  none  but  Americans  should  rule  America, 
and  demanded  that  foreigners  should  be  refused  naturalization 
until  they  had  resided  in  the  United  States  for  twenty-one 
years.  The  only  plank  in  the  platform  relating  to  slavery  was 
one  which  condemned  the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise 
(§  42 5). 1092  The  Convention  nominated  Millard  Fillmore  for 
President. 

The  Democratic  Convention  met  in  June  (1856).  It  adopted 
a  "strict-construction"  (§  256)  platform,  denounced  the  prin- 


382  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [isse. 

ciples  of  the  "  Know  Nothing  "  Party,  and  endorsed  the  Kansas- 
Nebraska  Act  (§  425).1091  The  Convention  nominated  James 
Buchanan,  our  late  Minister  to  England  (§  430),  for  the 
presidency. 

The  Republican  Party  (§  425)  held  their  Convention  about 
midsummer  (1856).  The  delegates  adopted  a  "broad-construc 
tion  "  (§  256)  platform.  They  approved  of  the  Government's 
encouraging  "  internal  improvements  "  (§  285),  especially  the 
building  of  a  railroad  to  the  Pacific.  They  denounced  the 
Ostend  Manifesto  (§  430)  as  "  the  highwayman's  plea  that 
'might  makes  right'  ";  they  strongly  condemned  the  repeal  of 
the  Missouri  Compromise  (§  425),  and  urged  the  prompt 
admission  of  Kansas  (§  428)  as  a  free  State. 

They  took  decided  ground  with  respect  to  the  power  of  the 
national  Government  over  the  Territories,  resolving  that  it  was 
both  "the  right  and  the  duty  of  Congress  "  to  prohibit  "  those 
twin  relics  of  barbarism,  —  polygamy  and  slavery."  1094  For 
President  they  nominated  John  C.  Fremont  (§  400).  His 
nomination  was  condemned  by  his  opponents  as  a  purely 
sectional  act,  —  one  in  which  the  free  States  alone  were  inter 
ested.  Rufus  Choate  denounced  the  Republicans  as  "the  new 
geographical  party,"  and  added  that  their  success  would  put 
"the  Union  in  danger."  Governor  Wise  and  other  leading 
men  at  the  South  openly  declared  that  Fre'mont's  election 
would  cause  "  certain  and  immediate  disunion."  1095 

The  Democrats  elected  James  Buchanan  President,  with  J.  C. 
Breckenridge  Vice-President.  The  electoral  vote  stood  174  for 
Buchanan  to  114  for  Fremont,  and  8  for  Fillmore;  the  popular 
vote  stood  1,838,169  for  Buchanan  to  1,341,264  for  Fre'mont 
and  874,534  for  Fillmore. 

432.  Summary.  —  The  principal  events  of  Pierce's  admin 
istration  were:  (i)  the  passage  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Act, 
repealing  the  Missouri  Compromise  and  applying  the  principle 
of  Popular  Sovereignty  to  the  settlement  of  the  question  of 
slavery  extension  in  those  Territories;  (2)  the  struggle  between 


1857.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  383 

the  North  and  the  South  for  the  possession  of  Kansas;  (3)  the 
opening  of  the  first  American  World's  Fair,  the  negotiation  of 
a  treaty  with  Japan,  the  attempts  of  the  Government  to  purchase 
Cuba,  and  the  Ostend  Manifesto. 


JAMES  BUCHANAN  (DEMOCRAT),  ONE  TERM,  1857-1861. 

433.  The  Dred  Scott  case.  —  Two  days  after  Buchanan's 
(§  431)  inauguration,  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States 
delivered  its  decision  (March  6,  1857)  in  the  celebrated  Dred 
Scott  case. 

Scott  was  a  negro  slave  living  in  the  slave  State  of  Missouri. 
His  master  took  him  with. him  to  Illinois  (1834),  and,  after 
residing  there  for  two  years,  removed  with  his  property  to  the 
Territory  then  called  Upper  Louisiana  —  now  Minnesota.  Two 
years  later  (1838)  Scott's  owner  took  him  back  to  Missouri 
and  there  sold  him  to  a  Mr.  Sandford. 

Scott  denied  Sandford's  legal  right  to  hold  him  in  bondage, 
and  brought  suit  for  his  liberty  in  the  Circuit  Court  of  the 
United  States  for  the  district  of  Missouri.  He  took  the  ground 
that  his  residence  in  the  free  State  of  Illinois,  and  in  a  Terri 
tory  in  which  slavery  was  expressly  prohibited  by  the  Missouri 
Compromise  Act  (§  324),  had  made  him  a  free  man. 

The  Court  decided  in  Sandford's  favor;  thereupon  Scott 
carried  the  case  by  appeal  to  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United 
States. 

434.  Decision  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court.— 
That  tribunal  undertook  to  pass  judgment  on  two  questions: 
(i)  Is  Dred  Scott  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  as  such, 
entitled  to  bring  suit  in  the  United   States  courts?    (2)  Did 
Scott's  residence  for  several  years  on  free  soil  render  him  free? 

In  delivering  the  decision  of  the  Court,  Chief-Justice  Taney 
took  occasion  to  review  the  history  of  the  negro  race  in  Amer 
ica.  He  declared  that  when  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States  was  adopted,  "  negroes  had  no  rights  which  the  white 


384  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1557. 

man  was  bound  to  respect."  "  It  is  absolutely  certain,"  said 
he,  "  that  the  African  race  were  not  included  under  the  name 
of  citizens  of  a  State  by  the  framers  of  the  Constitution."  10<J6 

Coming  to  the  first  of  the  questions  under  consideration,  the 
Court  decided  that  "  Dred  Scott  was  not  a  citizen  of  Missouri 
within  the  meaning  of  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
and  not  entitled  as  such  to  sue  in  its  courts."  1097  The  delivery 
of  this  opinion  really  ended  the  case,1098  but  the  Court  now  took 
up  the  second  question  which  had  been  raised.  On  this  point 
it  decided  (i)  that  Scott  did  not  acquire  freedom  by  his  resi 
dence  in  Illinois;  and  (2)  "that  the  Act  of  Congress  [of  1820] 
which  prohibited  a  citizen  from  holding  and  owning."  slaves 
"in  the  territory  of  the  United  States  north  of  the  line  [36°  30'] 
therein  mentioned  is  not  warranted  by  the  Constitution,  and  is 
therefore  void."  10" 

The  eight  associate  justices,  with  the  exception  of  Judge 
Curtis  of  Massachusetts  and  Judge  McLean  of  Pennsylvania, 
concurred  in  the  opinion  delivered  by  the  Chief-Justice.1100 

435.  Effect  of  the  Dred  Scott  decision.  —  This  decision 
pronounced  by  the  highest  tribunal  of  the  nation  created  con 
sternation  at  the  North.  The  most  that  the  Kansas-Nebraska 
Act  (§  422)  had  done  was  to  throw  open  a  certain  limited  ter 
ritory  to  slavery,  provided  a  majority  of  the  inhabitants  desired 
it;  but  now  the  Supreme  Court  of  the  United  States  solemnly 
declared  that  every  slave-holder  at  the  South  had  the  same  con 
stitutional  right  to  take  his  negroes  into  any  part  of  the  public 
domain  that  he  had  to  take  his  horses  or  his  cattle  there  (§322). 
A  great  number  of  the  people  of  the  free  States  became  convinced 
that  "  party  spirit  had  taken  possession  of  the  Court  in  the 
interest  of  slavery."  Seward  boldly  declared:  "  We  shall  reor 
ganize  the  Court,  and  thus  reform  its  political  sentiments."  no1 
Many  persons  expressed  the  fear  that  the  supreme  tribunal  of 
the  country  was  preparing  to  affirm  that  negro  bondage  was  not 
local  but  national.  This  conviction  added  enormously  to  the 
strength  of  the  newly  organized  Republican  Party  (§  425), 
which  pledged  itself  to  resist  all  encroachments  on  free  soil 


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1857-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  385 

(§§  425,  431).  On  the  other  hand,  the  exultant  South  found  in 
the  hostile  attitude  of  this  army  of  Northern  voters  fresh  justi 
fication  for  threats  of  disunion. 

Later  (1859),  the  Senate  of  the  United  States  endorsed  the 
Dred  Scott  decision  by  a  vote  of  35  to  2i.1102  This  action 
encouraged  those  who  advocated  slavery  extension,  but  it 
irritated  and  alarmed  the  friends  of  freedom,  and  so  helped  to 
widen  the  breach  between  North  and  South. 

436.  The  financial  panic  of  1857.  —  To  add  to  the  excite 
ment  caused  by  political  questions,  a  financial  panic  now  swept 
over  the  country.     In  August  (1857)  the  "Ohio  Life  and  Trust 
Company  "  of  Cincinnati  failed  for  $7,000,000.     An  investiga 
tion  showed  that  the  managers  had  lost  the  entire  capital  in 
stock-gambling.     The  failure  compelled  many  banks   in  New 
York  to  suddenly  reduce  their  loans ;    this  caused  a  general 
financial  crash.     Business  was  in  great  measure  paralyzed,  and 
with   three  exceptions,  the  banks  throughout  the  country  sus 
pended  specie  payments.1103     The  great  railway  and  manufac 
turing  corporations  found  it  impossible  to  meet  their  obligations; 
cotton  dropped  from  sixteen  cents  a  pound  to  nine,  and  the 
receipts  of  the  national  Government  fell  below  its  expenditures. 
The  panic  spread,  and  "  a  wave  of  bankruptcy  swept  round  the 
civilized  world."     Well-qualified  judges  believed  that  it  was 
caused  by  over-speculation  resulting  from  the  enormous  produc 
tion  of  gold  by  the  mines  of  California  and  Australia.1104    But  if 
the  crisis  was  sharp,  it  was  short,  and  so  far  as  the  United 
States  was  concerned,  it  was  only  "  a  bad  stumble  in  a  career 
of  great  prosperity."1105     The  country  generally  was  in  a  sound 
condition,  and  the  crops  were  abundant.     This  favorable  con 
dition  of  things  enabled  the  banks  to  resume  specie  payments 
before  the  end  of  the  year,  and  business  rapidly  recovered.1106 

437.  Discovery  of  silver,  petroleum,  and  natural  gas.  - 
While  the  country  was  recovering  from  the  effects  of  the  finan 
cial  depression,  a  remarkable  discovery  was  made  (1859)  on 
the  eastern  slope  of  the  Sierras,  in  what  is  now  the  State  of 


386  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1359-. 

Nevada.  Some  miners  digging  in  that  region  came  to  a  layer 
of  strange-looking  earth.  A  bystander,  named  Comstock, 
exclaimed  when  he  saw  it:  "  You  have  struck  it,  boys  !  "  They 
had,  in  fact,  struck  what  proved  to  be  the  great  "  Bonanza  " 
silver  mines.  Comstock  controlled  the  only  spring  of  water 
which  could  be  used  for  working  the  mines;  for  this  reason  he 
was  admitted  to  share  in  the  good  luck.1107 

Up  to  this  time  no  silver  worth  mentioning  had  been  found 
in  the  United  States;  but  in  the  course  of  the  next  twenty  years 
(1859-1879)  ore  to  the  amount  of  more  than  $300,000,000  was 
taken  from  the  Comstock  lode.1108 

Nevada,  however,  was  not  to  remain  our  only  source  of 
supply  for  silver.  Rich  deposits  of  that  metal  were  discovered 
(1876)  at  Leadville,  Colorado,  and  later  in  Utah  and 
Arizona.1109 

By  1873  the  world's  output  of  silver  had  doubled  in  quantity. 
Twenty  years  later,  the  total  product  had  risen  from  an  average 
of  less  than  $38,000,000  in  1859  *°  more  than  $198,000,00  in 
1892,  — 4  an  increase  of  over  four  hundred  per  cent.  In  1859 
the  United  States  contributed  to  this  output  only  the  compara 
tively  insignificant  sum  of  $100,000;  in  1892  (the  year  of  the 
largest  yield  from  our  mines)  it  contributed  more  than  $82,000,- 
ooo.1110  In  1859  the  average  market-price  of  bar  silver  was 
nearly  $1.25  per  ounce;  by  1892  it  had  fallen  to  less  than  80 
cents  per  ounce.1111 

The  same  summer  (1859)  that  the  "Bonanza"  mines  were 
found,  a  remarkable  discovery  was  made  in  western  Pennsyl 
vania.  Professor  Silliman  of  Yale  University  had  suggested 
the  practicability  of  using  petroleum  as  an  illuminator,  and  a 
company  was  formed  to  bore  wells  for  it.  "  Colonel "  E.  L. 
Drake  bored  well  after  well  with  no  better  result  than  to  sink 
the  capital  of  the  company  that  employed  him  and  his  own 
funds  besides.  His  money  and  credit  were  both  exhausted, 
and  no  one  cared  to  trust  this  "  petroleum  crank,"  as  he  was 
called,  for  even  a  sack  of  flour. 


1859-.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  387 

On  the  morning  of  August  28,  1859,  Drake  went  back  to  his 
work  near  Titusville  hungry  and  penniless.  That  morning  he 
" struck  oil."  Wild  speculation  followed  his  success;  thousands 
of  wells  were  bored  in  all  parts  of  the  "oil-creek"  region,  some 
of  which  yielded  from  100  to  2000  barrels  of  petroleum  a  day. 

Later,  oil  was  found  in  Kentucky,  West  Virginia,  Ohio,  and 
on  the  Pacific  coast. 

In  1865  the  "pipe  line"  system  of  conveying  oil  from  the 
wells  was  begun  in  a  small  way.  Since  then  25,000  miles  of 
pipe  have  been  laid.  Petroleum  is  now  carried  in  this  way  as 
far  east  as  New  York  and  as  far  west  as  Chicago.  These 
rivers  of  oil  not  only  supply  the  enormous  home  demand,  but 
furnish  enough  for  exportation  besides,  the  value  of  the  quan 
tity  sent  abroad  during  the  last  thirty-five  years  averaging  more 
than  $45,000,000  annually,  and  the  total  export  value  from 
1864-1901  exceeding  $i,5oo,ooo,ooo.1112 

About  fifteen  years  after  the  discovery  of  petroleum,  a  well 
of  "natural  gas  "  was  struck1113  near  Pittsburg.  The  escaping 
gas  ran  to  waste  for  a  number  of  years,  before  capitalists  could 
be  induced  to  invest  in  it.  The  gas  has  since  been  found  in 
Indiana  and  some  other  parts  of  the  West,  and  it  is  extensively 
used  for  fuel  in  houses  and  manufacturing  establishments,  and 
for  lighting  the  streets  in  some  cities.1114 

438.  The  "  Mormon  rebellion";  the  Mountain  Meadows 
massacre;  Kansas;  Yancey's  "  Scarlet  Letter."  —  Three 
years  after  the  Mormons  settled  in  Salt  Lake  Valley  (§  372) 
Congress  organized  the  Territory  of  Utah  (1850),  and  President 
Fillmore  appointed  Brigham  Young,  Governor.  He  declared  in 
a  public  discourse  (1853)  that  he  would  continue  to  hold  the 
office  —  in  spite  of  any  orders  to  the  contrary  —  until  the 
Almighty  should  say,  "  Brigham,  you  need  not  be  Governor  any 
longer."1115 

The  federal  judges  in  Utah  accused  the  Mormon  leaders 
of  obstructing  the  administration  of  justice  and  of  burning 
the  Court  records.  The  Mormons  retorted  that  the  judges 


388  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

were  men  of  corrupt  character.     President  Buchanan  appointed 

(1857)  Alfred  Gumming,  a  "Gentile,"  to  supersede  Young,  and 
sent  General  Harney  with  2500  troops  to  sustain  the  authority 
of  the  new  Governor. 

The  Mormons  attacked  Harney's  wagon  trains,  destroyed  a 
large  part  of  his  supplies,  and  prevented  the  troops  from 
entering  the  valley  until  the  spring  of  i858.1116 

Meanwhile  Bishop  Lee  and  several  other  Mormons  led  a 
band  of  Indians  against  a  party  of  emigrants  who  were  crossing 
Utah  on  their  way  to  California,  and  massacred  them  at  Moun 
tain  Meadows  (1857).  Twenty  years  later  Lee  was  arrested 
and  convicted  of  having  taken  a  prominent  part  in  the  mas 
sacre.  He  confessed  his  guilt,  and  was  executed  (1877)  on 
the  very  spot  where  the  crime  was  perpetrated.1117 

When  Harney's  "  Army  of  Utah  "  entered  Salt  Lake  Valley 

(1858)  they  found  the  "  city  of  the  Saints"  deserted.     Had  the 
troops    attempted    to  occupy  the    Mormon   "  Zion,"   Brigham 
Young  would  have  burned  it,  as  the   Russians  did   Moscow 
when    Napoleon    captured    it.       In    this    dilemma,    President 
Buchanan  decided  to  issue  a  proclamation  of  pardon  to  the 
Mormons  on  condition  that  they  should  obey  the  federal  laws, 
and  Governor  Gumming  persuaded  the  inhabitants  of  Salt  Lake 
City  to  return;  thus  the  threatened  war  was  averted.1118 

But  though  the  outbreak  in  Utah  was  settled,  the  Kansas 
troubles,  described  earlier  (§  428),  dragged  on.  Buchanan 
threw  his  influence  on  the  side  of  making  it  a  slave  State.  It 
was  not  until  Minnesota  (1858)  and  Oregon  (1859)  had  entered 
the  Union  that  Kansas  was  admitted  (1861)  as  the  thirty-fourth 
State,  with  a  free  State  constitution. 

Meanwhile  the  excitement  over  slavery  did  not  abate.  Wil 
liam  L.  Yancey,  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  Alabama  slave-holders, 
published  (1858)  his  famous  "Scarlet  Letter,"  foreshadowing 
secession.  He  urged  the  organization  of  "committees  of 
safety "  to  "  fire  the  Southern  heart,"  and  at  "  the  proper 
moment "  to  "  precipitate  the  cotton  States  into  a  revolu- 


1858.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  389 

tion."  1119  Later,  Jefferson  Davis  told  the  people  of  his  own 
State  that  if  an  "Abolitionist"  should  be  chosen  President  in 
1860,  they  ought  to  provide  for  their  safety  "outside  the 
Union."  112° 

439.  The  Lincoln-Douglas  campaign  and  joint  debates.  - 
In  the  summer  of  1858  the  Republicans  of  Illinois  nominated 
Abraham  Lincoln  (§  394)  as  their  candidate  for  United  States 
Senator.  Lincoln's  opponent  was  Stephen  A.  Douglas  (§  422), 
the  great  champion  of  Popular  Sovereignty.  Judge  Douglas, 
whose  term  in  the  Senate  was  about  to  expire,  had  the  enthusi 
astic  support  of  the  Democratic  Party  in  his  State.  He  had 
also  gained  many  warm  friends  among  the  Republicans  by  the 
prominent  stand  he  had  taken  in  defeating  the  Lecompton,  or 
pro-slavery,  constitution  (§  428),  which  he  accused  the  admin 
istration  of  attempting  to  force  upon  the  people  of  Kansas.1* 

In  such  a  political  duel  for  office,  the  "  little  giant  of  the 
West"  (§  422)  seemed  to  possess  every  advantage.  More  than 
this,  Lincoln  made  an  opening  speech  at  Springfield  (1858), 
which  most  of  his  warmest  friends  condemned  as  suicidal.  He 
began  by  bringing  the  slavery  question  directly  to  the  front. 
"'A  house  divided  against  itself,'  said  he,  'cannot  stand.'  I 
believe  this  Government  cannot  permanently  endure  half  slave 
and  half  free.  I  do  not  expect  the  Union  to  be  dissolved,  I 
do  not  expect  the  house  to  fall,  but  I  do  expect  it  will  cease  to 
be  divided.  It  will  become  all  one  thing  or  all  the  other."  1121 

In  his  reply,  Douglas  said :  "  Lincoln  goes  for  a  war  of 
sections  until  one  or  the  other  shall  be  subdued;  I  go  for  the 
great  principle  of  the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill  (§  422),  —  the  right 
of  the  people  to  decide  for  themselves."1122 

*  The  Covode  investigation.  —  At  the  next  Congress  (1859-1860) 
two  Democratic  members  of  the  House  accused  the  President  of  having 
corruptly  attempted  to  secure  their  votes  for  the  Lecompton  Bill.  A  com 
mittee,  with  Covode  of  Pennsylvania  as  chairman,  investigated  the  charge. 
The  Republican  majority  on  that  committee  found  the  President  guilty;  the 
Democratic  minority  found  nothing  against  him.  No  action  was  taken  on 
the  report. 


390  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

Later,  Lincoln  challenged  Douglas  to  meet  him  in  a  series  of 
seven  joint  debates.  The  people  of  Illinois  turned  out  by  tens 
of  thousands  to  enjoy  this  gladiatorial  contest.  They  greeted 
the  combatants  with  bonfires,  music,  and  the  wildest  demon 
strations  of  delight. 

At  Freeport,  Lincoln  asked  his  antagonist  :  Can  the  people 
of  a  Territory  in  any  lawful  way,  against  the  wish  of  any  citizen 
of  the  United  States,  exclude  slavery  prior  to  the  formation  of 
a  State  constitution  ?  Douglas,  true  to  "popular  sovereignty," 
answered  :  Yes.  This  reply  pleased  the  North,  but  angered 
the  South,  which  ardently  upheld  the  Dred  Scott  decision 
(§§  434,  435).  Douglas  secured  the  senatorship,  but  lost  the 
Southern  vote  for  the  presidency  in  1860.  Lincoln  had  fallen 
in  the  race,  but  he  had  fallen  up  hill,  not  down,  and  when  he 
rose  he  was  on  the  path  to  the  White  House.1123 

440.  The  John  Brown  raid  (1859).  —  The  next  year  the 
whole  country  was  startled  by  the  report  that  John  Brown,  — 
"old  John  Brown  of  Ossawatomie"  (§  426),  —  with  eighteen 
followers,  had  captured  (October  16,  1859)  the  arsenal  and 
engine-house  at  Harper's  Ferry,  Virginia.  Two  days  later  the 
news  came  that  Colonel  Robert  E.  Lee  (§  397),  with  a  company 
of  marines,  had  taken  Brown  and  several  of  his  companions 
prisoners,  but  only  after  a  hard  fight,  in  which  a  number  of 
persons  had  been  killed. 

The  attack  on  Harper's  Ferry  was  not  a  sudden  impulse,  but 
the  result  of  a  long-meditated  plan.  Brown  had  resolved  to 
strike  slavery  a  fatal  blow,  and  he  struck  it  in  the  State  where 
American  slavery  originated.  Gerritt  Smith  of  New  York  and 
a  few  Massachusetts  Abolitionists  reluctantly  furnished  the 
funds  and  the  arms  for  the  rash  expedition  which  they  spoke 
of  among  themselves  as  "  a  little  speculation  in  wool."  1124 

On  his  trial  Brown  was  convicted  of  treason  and  murder. 
He  declared  that  he  had  not  intended  to  commit  either  crime, 
but  only  "to  free  slaves."1125  "Stonewall"  Jackson  com 
manded  a  military  company  on  guard  at  Brown's  execution 


i+»J(s 


4 


0\Jtt»1r  />>wr7-e.    M^A.  ksj  .      ^^^  ov^ 


J 


^4  />**  kfoL±,  <£*#>,, 


From  Frank  B.   Sanborn's  "  Life  of  John  Brown,"  by  permission  of  the  Author 


1859-1860.]        THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  39 1 

(1859).  "He  behaved,"  said  he,  "with  unflinching  firmness." 
"  I  sent  up  the  petition  that  he  might  be  saved." 1126 

Six  of  Brown's  followers  were  executed  later.  Emerson 
spoke  of  John  Brown  as  "  that  new  saint "  who  "  will  make  the 
gallows  glorious  like  the  cross "  ; 1127  but  Lincoln,  and  the 
Republican  Party  generally,  strongly  condemned  the  Harper's 
Ferry  invasion.1128 

The  affair  threw  the  South  into  an  uproar.  When  Congress 
assembled,  Ex-President  Tyler  said  of  Virginia:  "But  one 
sentiment  pervades  the  country,  —  security  in  the  Union,  or 
separation."  1129 

A  Senate  Committee  reported  that  the  invasion  "was  simply 
the  act  of  lawless  ruffians  under  the  sanction  of  no  public  or 
political  authority";  118°  but  notwithstanding  that  assurance,  the 
gulf  between  North  and  South  appeared  to  have  widened. 
Just  before  his  execution,  John  Brown  declared  that  the  negro 
question  could  never  be  settled  save  by  the  "shedding  of  blood." 
He  was  right;  in  less  than  two  years  after  his  death  at  Charles- 
town,  Virginia,  a  Massachusetts  regiment,  on  its  way  to  the 
defence  of  the  Union,  marched  through  that  place  (1862)  sing 
ing: 

"  John  Brown's  body  lies  a-mouldering  in  the  grave, 
But  his  soul  goes  marching  on." 1181 

441.     The  national  political  conventions  of  1860.  —  The 

Democratic  Convention  met  at  Charleston  and  adopted  a  plat 
form  endorsing  Popular  Sovereignty  (§  422),  thereby  fully 
recognizing  "the  right  of  the  people  of  all  the  Territories" 
"to  form  a  constitution  with  or  without  domestic  slavery." 
The  Southern  delegates  hoped  that  the  Convention  would 
explicitly  sustain  the  Dred  Scott  decision  (§  434),  which 
declared  the  Territories  open  to  slavery  independent  of  the 
will  of  the  people.  They  expressed  their  disappointment  by 
seceding.  Later,  they  organized  a  Convention  of  their  own, 
affirmed  the  principles  of  the  Dred  Scott  decision,  and  nomi 
nated  John  C.  Breckenridge  of  Kentucky  and  Joseph  Lane  of 


3Q2  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 

Oregon  for  the  presidency  and  vice-presidency.  Meanwhile 
the  remaining  delegates  of  the  original  Charleston  Convention 
nominated  Stephen  A.  Douglas  (§  422)  for  President,  and 
Herschel  V.  Johnson  of  Georgia  for  Vice-President.1132  Alex 
ander  H.  Stephens  of  Georgia  thought  that  this  split  in  the 
Democratic  Party  was  the  forerunner  of  civil  war.  He  said : 
"Men  will  be  cutting  one  another's  throats  in  a  little  while."1133 

The  "  Constitutional  Union  Party,"  composed  mainly  of 
"  Know  Nothings  "  (§  419)  and  "  Old  Whigs "  (§  419), 
adopted  a  platform  which  did  not  mention  slavery,  but  simply 
pledged  the  party  to  maintain  "  the  Constitution  of  the  country, 
the  Union  of  the  States,  and  the  enforcement  of  the  laws." 
They  nominated  John  Bell  of  Tennessee  and  Edward  Everett 
of  Massachusetts.  This  gave  them  the  popular  name  of  the 
"Bell  and  Everett  Party."1134 

The  Republican  Convention  met  in  Chicago.  They  adopted 
a  platform  which  denounced  "  threats  of  disunion "  as  an 
"avowal  of  contemplated  treason";  they  branded  the  Dred 
Scott  decision  (§  433)  as  "  a  dangerous  political  heresy  ";  they 
recognized  "  the  right  of  each  State "  "  to  control  its  own 
domestic  institutions,"  but  rejected  "Popular  Sovereignty" 
(§  422)  by  denying  "the  authority  of  Congress,  of  a  Territorial 
Legislature,  or  of  any  individual  to  give  existence  to  slavery  in 
any  Territory  of  the  United  States."  1135 

Finally,  amid  the  cheers  and  yells  of  ten  thousand  excited 
men,  they  nominated  Abraham  Lincoln  (§  439)  and  Hannibal 
Hamlin  of  Maine  for  President  and  Vice-President. 

Leading  Southern  men  declared  that  Lincoln,  like  Fremont 
(§  431),  was  a  "sectional  candidate,"  supported  only  by  a 
"sectional  party,"  and  that  they  would  never  "submit  to  a 
'Black  Republican'  President."1136  The  Republicans  dis 
claimed  all  hostility  to  the  South,  but  affirmed  that  it  was 
slavery  that  was  "  sectional,"  and  that  the  spirit  of  American 
institutions  demanded  freedom  in  the  Territories  for  the  best 
interests  of  all. 


I860.]  THE    UNION,   NATIONAL   DEVELOPMENT.  393 

442.  The  election  of  Lincoln  (1860).  —  From  the  outset  it 
was  evident  that  if  zeal  could  elect  the  Republican  candidate  he 
was  sure  of  success.     "  Wide-Awake  Clubs,"  dressed  in  uniform 
and  carrying  flaring  torches,   marched  nightly  through   every 
Northern   city  and  town,   making  the  streets  ring  with  their 
campaign  songs.     These  parades  foreshadowed  the  marches  to 
the  battlefield  in  which  men  of  all  parties  were  soon  to  take 
part.     The  Governor  of  South  •  Carolina,   believing  that  Lin 
coln's  election  would  give  slavery  "  a  fatal  blow,"  sent  a  circu 
lar  letter  to  the  Governors  of  the  other  cotton  States,  declaring 
that  his  State  stood  ready  to  secede  in  case  the  Republicans 
won  the  day.1137 

At  the  election  (1860)  Lincoln  received  180  electoral  votes 
(but  not  one  in  the  slave  States);  Breckenridge  72  (but  not 
one  in  the  free  States);  Bell  39,  and  Douglas  12.  The  pop 
ular  vote  stood  1,866,452  for  Lincoln,  849,781  for  Brecken 
ridge,  588,879  for  Bell,  and  1,376,957  for  Douglas.1138 

443.  Action  of   South  Carolina ;   Buchanan's  message ; 
feeling  at  the  North ;   Stephens' s  speech  ;  the  Crittenden 
Compromise. — The  news   of    Lincoln's   election   (1860)   was 
received  in  Charleston,  South  Carolina,  "  with  long-continued 
cheering  for   a  Southern   Confederacy,"   and   the   Legislature 
summoned  a  Convention  to  decide  the  question  of  secession.1139 

In  his  annual  message  (1860),  President  Buchanan  declared: 
(i)  that  no  State  had  the  constitutional  right  to  secede,  and 
quoted  General  Jackson's  words  (§  355)  with  approval;  (2) 
that  the  federal  Government  would  take  measures  to  hold  the 
forts  and  other  property  of  the  United  States  in  South  Carolina  ; 
(3)  but  that  the  Government  had  no  constitutional  power  "  to 
coerce  a  State."  mo 

The  action  of  South  Carolina  was  a  surprise  to  the  North. 
Many  Northern  men  urged  that  immediate  concessions  should 
be  made  to  prevent  separation ;  others  believed  that  separation 
was  inevitable.  Two  leading  New  York  papers,  representing 
the  two  great  political  parties,  declared  that  the  South  had  the 


394  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [iseo. 

same  right  to  secede  from  the  Union  that  the  thirteen  colonies 
had  to  secede  from  Great  Britain.1141  On  the  other  hand,  Alex 
ander  H.  Stephens  of  Georgia,  in  a  speech  before  the  Georgia 
Legislature  (November  14, 1860),  called  on  the  South  to  accept 
Lincoln's  election;  to  secede  because  of  that  election,  said  he, 
"puts  us  in  the  wrong."  Then  he  significantly  added:  "  Some 
of  our  public  men  have  failed  in  their  aspirations"  ;  "from  that 
comes  a  great  part  of  our  .troubles."  This  statement  of 
Stephens's  was  greeted  with  prolonged  applause.1142  Pollard 
of  Virginia  later  said  that  Southern  ambition  for  office  was  a 
strong  factor  in  secession. 

Senator  Crittenden  of  Kentucky  led  a  compromise  move 
ment  in  Congress.  He  advocated  (i)  the  extension  of  the 
former  Missouri  Compromise  parallel  of  36°  30'  (§  324)  through 
to  the  Pacific,  so  as  to  permanently  divide  the  Territories  into 
free-state  and  slave-state  sections ;  (2)  he  proposed  to  strictly 
enforce  the  Fugitive-Slave  Act  (§  412),  or  secure  compensation 
for  every  slave  rescued.1148  Crittenden 's  well-meant  attempt 
came  to  nothing,  so  too  did  a  movement  to  amend  the  Consti 
tution  so  as  to  protect  slavery  in  the  Southern  States. 

444.  Secession  of  South  Carolina  (1860);  statement  of 
reasons;  six  other  States  follow  (1861). — The  crisis  was 
reached  on  December  20,  1860.  On  that  eventful  day  the 
South  Carolina  Convention  (§  443),  sitting  in  Charleston, 
unanimously  passed  an  ordinance  of  secession.  It  declared 
that  the  union  existing  between  South  Carolina  and  the  other 
States  "  is  hereby  dissolved."  1144 

The  citizens  of  Charleston  hailed  the  announcement  with  the 
wildest  demonstrations  of  delight,  and  the  daily  papers  of  the 
city  began  forthwith  to  print  all  intelligence  received  from 
the  North  under  the  heading  :  Foreign  News. 

South  Carolina,  having  declared  herself  independent,  sent 
a  commission  to  Washington  to  demand  of  the  United  States 
the  prompt  surrender  of  all  forts,  arsenals,  and  other  property 
held  by  the  federal  Government  within  the  seceded  State.  The 


CHARLESTON 

MERCURY 


EXTRA: 


Passed  unanimously  at  1.15  oY/ocAr,  P.  .W..  December 
*0/A,  1860. 

AN  ORDIXAXCE 

To  dUgotr*  the  thian  beltr-een  the  State  of  South  Carolina  and 
other  Statet  mUtd  wUh  Her  wider  the  compact  entUled  «  7TU 
Constitution  «/  the  tnUtd  Statet  of  Anurica,» 


We,  (U  People  eftlt  Suit  o/&ott  CaroKto.  in.  CbnvoiAon  o^tmifed,  do  declare  and  ordau,  awrf 
*  a  fcrriy  declared  o*d  ordained, 

Th*t  ta  OrdiMoc*  Adopted  67  u  b  Coareatioi,  on  (ha  tweaty-ltttrd  dty  of  Mty,  to  ib. 
r»u  of  our  Lord  <xw  thouswut  MTCD  hundred  tad  elghty-eight,  whereby  the  Coutitution  of  tb* 
Uciled  SUtei  of  Amenc*  wu  r»lified,  »nd  tbo,  »n  Acto  tod  ptrto  of  Aeto  of  the  0«oeMl 

AwemWy  of  thU  Sute,  r»tifying  laendmeaU  of  the  uid  ConUiUUion.  u»  Hereby  repealed; 
wd  thit  the  aoion  now  tubtistiog  between  South  Ctraliu  tod  other  SUtet,  under  the  sune  of 
"The  Coiled  StoiM  of.Americ*,"  u  hereby  diMolred. 


UNION 

DISSOLVED! 


I860.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  395 

President  declined  to  receive  them  officially.  South  Carolina 
denied  that  her  action  in  withdrawing  from  the  Union  was 
revolutionary  or  rebellious,  but  claimed  that  the  right  to  secede 
(§  355)  was  "an  essential  part  of  State  sovereignty,"  and  that 
it  was  in  no  sense  a  violation  of  the  Constitution.1145 

The  Convention  declared  that  South  Carolina  seceded  for 
two  reasons:  first,  because  fourteen  of  the  Northern  States  had 
"  deliberately  refused  to  fulfill  their  constitutional  obligations  " 
by  enacting  "  Personal  Liberty  Laws"  (§  416),  which  nullified 
the  Fugitive- Slave  Act  (§  414)  or  rendered  it  useless  to  the 
South;  secondly,  because  a  geographical  or  sectional  party  had 
been  formed  at  the  North,  which  had  elected  a  President 
"  whose  opinions  and  purposes  are  hostile  to  slavery,"  and  who 
had  publicly  said  (§  439) :  the  "  national  Government  cannot 
endure  permanently  half  slave,  half  free."  1146 

The  South  Carolina  secessionists  proclaimed  that  their  ob 
ject  was  to  establish  "  a  great  slave-holding  Confederacy  stretch 
ing  its  arms  over  a  Territory  larger  than  any  power  in  Europe 
possesses."  114r 

By  the  first  of  February  (1861)  the  six  States  of  Mississippi, 
Florida,  Alabama,  Georgia,  Louisiana,  and  Texas  had  followed 
the  example  of  South  Carolina,  and  had  declared  themselves 
out  of  the  Union.  The  Mississippi  Convention  frankly  avowed 
that  the  object  of  secession  was  to  save  "slavery  —  the  greatest 
material  interest  in  the  world."  Georgia  went  reluctantly,  ap 
parently  expecting  to  soon  return.  Stephens  said  she  was 
induced  to  go  by  the  argument :  "  We  can  make  better  terms 
out  of  the  Union  than  in  it."  1148  The  truth  was  that  many  or 
her  citizens,  and  of  the  other  cotton  States,  loved  the  old  flag, 
and  left  it  only  because  they  were  overcome  by  the  secession 
movement  and  had  no  choice.  These  States  seized  the  forts 
and  other  property  of  the  United  States  within  their  limits  so 
far  as  they  could  lay  hands  on  them.  In  Texas,  General 
Twiggs  turned  over  about  a  million  dollars'  worth  of  national 
military  stores  to  the  secessionists. 


396  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

Meanwhile  President  Buchanan  had  sent  a  merchant  vessel, 
the  "  Star  of  the  West,"  with  reinforcements  and  supplies  for 
Major  Anderson,  who  held  Fort  Suinter  for  the  Union.  The 
people  of  Charleston  fired  on  the  vessel  and  compelled  her  to 
turn  back.  Wigfall  of  Texas,  who  still  retained  his  seat  in  the 
United  States  Senate,  jeered  at  the  Government,  saying:  "Your 
flag  has  been  insulted,  redress  it  if  you  dare."  1149 

445.  The  "  Confederate  States  of  America ";  their  flag; 
their  constitution;  the  Peace  Convention.  —  In  February  (1861) 
delegates  from  all  of  the  seceded  States  met  at  Montgomery, 
Alabama,  and  framed  a  provisional  Government.  They  took 
the  name  of  the  "  Confederate  States  of  America,"  and  made 
Montgomery  the  capital  of  the  new  slave-holding  Republic. 
Pollard  believes  that  they  represented  the  "politicians,"  not 
the  "people,"  of  the  South.1150  Jefferson  Davis  (§  413)  of 
Mississippi  was  elected  President  for  six  years,  with  Alexander 
H.  Stephens  (§  41 1)  of  Georgia  for  Vice-President. 

In  the  Georgia  State  Convention,  Stephens  had  declared 
that  the  South  had  always  had  "  the  control "  of  the  general 
Government,  and  could  show  no  cause  for  withdrawing  from 
the  Union  (§  443).  He  then  denounced  secession  as  "  the 
height  of  madness,  folly,  and  wickedness";1151  but,  unlike 
Henry  Clay  at  an  earlier  period,  he  declared  that  he  would  go 
with  his  State.  He  said  that  the  "corner-stone"  of  the  Con 
federacy  rested  on  slavery  as  its  foundation  ;  and  he  boasted 
that  the  Confederacy,  if  true  to  itself,  would  become  "  the  con 
trolling  power  on  this  continent." 1162 

In  March  (1861)  the  Confederate  States  adopted  the  "stars 
and  bars"  as  their  national  flag,  and  ratified  a  permanent  con 
stitution.  It  differed  from  that  of  the  United  States  in  two  very 
important  points :  first,  it  expressly  prohibited  protective  duties 
and  bounties;  secondly,  it  nationalized  slavery,  and  provided 
not  only  for  its  perpetual  maintenance,  but  for  its  extension  to 
all  Territory  the  new  Government  might  acquire.1153 

On  the  very  day  on  which  the  secession  delegates  met  at 


From  the  Rev.  Morgan  Dix's  "Memoirs  of  John  A.  Dix,"  by  permission  of  the  Author. 


NOTE.— Captain  Breshwood  of  New  Orleans  refused  to  take  any  steps  toward 
saving  the  revenue  cutter  McClelland  from  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Secessionists 
who  were  seizing  such  vessels  for  the  use  of  the  Southern  States.  The  letter  of 
Secretary  Dix  on  this  point  explains  itself. 


1861.]  THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT.  397 

Montgomery  (February  4,  1861),  a  "  Peace  Convention  "  called 
at  the  request  of  Virginia,  assembled  at  Washington.  Twenty- 
one  States  were  represented,  but  none  of  the  seven  seceded 
States  sent  delegates.  The  purpose  of  the  Convention  was  to 
effect  a  compromise  and  "  save  the  Union,"  but  nothing  came 
of  the  attempt.  While  the  men  of  peace  were  in  session,  the 
people  of  Charleston  were  building  batteries  to  bombard  Sumter. 
They  only  waited  for  the  order  from  Jefferson  Davis  to  open 
fire  and  begin  the  civil  war. 

446.  What  made  secession  possible.  —  Slavery  was  the 
primary  cause  of  secession.  Madison,  "  the  Father  of  the  Con 
stitution,"  was  convinced  that  it  threatened  sooner  or  later 
to  split  the  Republic.  Jefferson  held  the  same  conviction.1154 
Directly  or  indirectly  it  had  threatened  to  destroy  the  Union 
from  the  outset  (§257);  yet  considered  purely  from  an  economic 
and  industrial  point  of  view,  there  was  a  period  in  our  history 
when  slavery  was  an  apparent  advantage.  Its  introduction 
into  Virginia  (§  44)  stimulated  the  settlement  of  that  colony 
—  the  mother-colony  of  the  American  commonwealth  —  and 
established  a  lucrative  commerce  in  tobacco. 

Later  (§  259),  the  same  system  of  labor  made  the  raising  of 
cotton  enormously  profitable,  not  only  to  the  South,  but  to  the 
whole  country. 

But  these  temporary  material  benefits  were  offset  by  the 
fact  that  slave  labor  was  necessarily  opposed  to  progress 
beyond  a  certain  point.  It  was  adapted  to  a  simple  uniform 
routine  system  of  agriculture,  and  to  nothing  more.  It 
exhausted  the  soil ;  it  discouraged  free  labor ;  it  shut  the 
South  against  immigration  ;  it  refused  to  establish  common 
schools.1155  It  concentrated  the  capital,  the  intelligence,  the 
political  power,  and  the  social  influence  of  the  South  in  the 
hands  of  a  small  per  cent  of  the  population.  It  left  the  great 
mass  of  the  people  in  poverty  and  ignorance,  and  without  real 
legislative  representation.  It  was  the  slave-holder,  and,  as  a 
rule,  the  slave-holder  only,  who  went  to  Congress,  or  was  elected 


398  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [iseo-. 

to  any  State  office.1156  The  men  who  did  not  possess  slaves 
were  branded  as  "poor  white  trash,"  and  the  very  negroes 
looked  down  upon  them  in  contempt.  These  Poor  Whites  were 
the  victims  of  the  slave  system;  as  a  recent  Southern  writer 
acknowledges,  they  withered  under  its  overshadowing  influence 
as  shrubs  wither  beneath  a  wide-spreading  oak.1157 

So  far  as  progress  was  concerned  in  1860,  slavery  was  a 
spent  force.  It  was  a  system  of  labor  which  the  civilized  world 
generally  had  outgrown  and  cast  aside.  More  than  that,  it  was 
a  stumbling-block  to  the  very  people  who  cherished  it,  and  who 
were  ready  to  fight  for  it.  It  was  the  misfortune,  not  the  crime 
of  the  Southern  people  (§  352),  that  they  could  not  see  this  then. 
They  had  been  reared  among  slaves,  and  Calhoun  had  educated 
them  to  believe  that  African  servitude  was  "  a  positive  good  " 
to  both  black  and  white  (§  354).  Hence,  as  a  representative 
of  South  Carolina  has  said,  slavery  kept  the  South  stationary 
"in  government,  in  society,  in  employments,  in  labor,"  so  that 
it  had  not  moved  for  half  a  century.1158  It  was  a  case  of  what 
physiologists  call  "arrested  development,"  and  the  best  powers 
of  our  Southern  brothers  lay  concealed  and  dormant,  waiting 
for  the  great  day  of  emancipation  and  resurrection. 

At  the  North  everything  had  changed ;  slavery  had  disap 
peared,  free  labor  prospered,  education  was  open  to  all,  mil 
lions  of  sturdy  immigrants  had  settled  in  the  West,  and  planted 
civilization  in  the  wilderness.  Patriotism  —  thanks,  in  no 
small  measure,  to  Webster's  efforts  (§  351)  —  had  outgrown  the 
narrow  crippling  theory  of  State-sovereignty,  and  had  broadened 
into  a  genuine  devotion  to  the  Union.  For  many  years  no  man, 
or  set  of  men,  possessed  of  political  influence  had  so  much  as 
hinted  at  the  possibility  of  Northern  secession  (§§  310,  382). 

On  the  other  hand,  the  Southern  people  had  been  taught  by 
Calhoun*  and  his  school  that  the  American  Republic,  however 
dear  it  might  be  to  them,  was  not  a  nation,  but  simply  a  part- 

*  See  Calhoun's  Works,  vi,  169  and  194  et  seq.  Calhoun's  love  of  the 
Union  was  over-balanced  by  his  conviction  of  the  right  of  nullification  and, 
if  need  be,  of  secession  in  the  interest  of  State-sovereignty  and  of  slavery. 


1857-1861.]       THE    UNION,    NATIONAL    DEVELOPMENT. 


399 


nership  of  independent  States  which  had  the  Constitutional 
right  to  withdraw  when  they  saw  fit.  Misled  by  slavery,  they 
had  come  to  believe  that  their  welfare  depended  on  holding 
the  negro  in  bondage.  Notwithstanding  the  protests  of  the 
Republican  Party  to  the  contrary,  they  conceived  that  the 
election  of  Lincoln  showed  that  the  free  States  were  resolved 
to  destroy  the  system  of  property  in  man  throughout  the  South; 
in  order  to  perpetuate  and  extend  that  system,  they  now  deter 
mined  to  pull  down  the  pillars  of  the  Republic  and  to  build  up 
a  new  commonwealth  "separated,"  as  an  able  Southern  writer 
has  said,  "  from  the  rest  of  the  world  in  sympathy  and  feel 
ing,"  opposed  to  progress,  and  with  its  face  turned  from  the 
light  and  toward  the  past.1159  Thus  slavery  bred  sectionalism, 
and  sectionalism  bred  secession  and  civil  war. 

447.  Summary.  —  The  chief  events  of  Buchanan's  adminis 
tration  were:  (i)  the  Dred  Scott  decision,  opening  the  Terri 
tories  to  slavery;  (2)  the  panic  of  1857  ;  (3)  the  discovery  of 
the  "Bonanza"  silver  mines,  and  the  development  of  our 
petroleum  deposits  ;  (4)  the  Mormon  rebellion  ;>  (5)  the  John 
Brown  raid  ;  (6)  the  secession  of  South  Carolina,  followed  by  six 
other  States,  and  the  formation  of  the  Southern  Confederacy. 


Map  of  Charleston    Harbor. 

Showing  Fort  Sumter  and  the  battery  which  fired  on  the  "  Star  of  the  West. 
(See  §  444-) 


VI. 

THE   WAR    OF    SECESSION. 
(1861-1865.) 

For  A  uthorities  for  this  Chapter,  see  Appendix,  page  xxiv.     The  small  figures  in  the 
text  refer  to  Authorities  cited  on  page  in  of  the  Appendix. 


ABRAHAM   LINCOLN  (REPUBLICAN),   TWO  TERMS,   1861-1869. 

448.  Lincoln's  journey  to  Washington  and  inaugural 
address.  —  In  his  farewell  speech  at  Springfield,  Illinois, 
Lincoln  said  to  his  friends  :  "  I  go  to  assume  a  task  more 
difficult  than  that  which  devolved  upon  Washington.  Unless 
the  great  God,  who  assisted  him,  shall  be  with  and  aid  me,  I 
must  fail."  To  avoid  the  danger  of  threatened  assassination 
at  Baltimore,  the  President-elect,  acting  on  the  advice  of 
General  Scott  and  Secretary  Seward,*  made  the  last  part  of 
his  journey  to  Washington  secretly,  by  night  train. 

In  his  inaugural  address  (§  442),  the  President  said:  "  I  have 
no  purpose,  directly  or  indirectly,  to  interfere  with  the  institution 
of  slavery  where  it  exists.  I  believe  I  have  no  lawful  right  to 
do  so,  and  I  have  no  intention  to  do  so."  He  even  favored  an 
amendment  to  the  Constitution  prohibiting  such  interference. 

*  President  Lincoln's  Cabinet.  —  Secretary  of  State,  William  H.  Seward; 
Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Salmon  P.  Chase  (succeeded  July  5,  1864,  by 
Wm.  P.  Fessenden)  ;  Secretary  of  War,  Simon  Cameron  (succeeded  Jan. 
n,  1862,  by  Edwin  M.  Stanton)  ;  Secretary  of  the  Navy,  Gideon  Welles; 
Secretary  of  the  Interior,  C.  B.  Smith  (succeeded  Jan.  8,  1863,  by  J.  P. 
Usher) ;  Attorney-General,  Edward  Bates  (succeeded  Dec.  14,  1864,  by 
James  Speed)  ;  Postmaster-General,  Montgomery  Blair  (succeeded  Oct.  I, 
1864,  by  Wm.  Dennison).  Second  Term.  Cabinet  changes  :  Secretary  of 
the  Treasury,  Hugh  McCulloch  ;  Secretary  of  the  Interior,  James  Harlan. 


4O2  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [isei. 

Passing  to  the  question  of  secession,  he  said  :  "  The  Union  of 
these  States  is  perpetual."  "  No  State  upon  its  own  mere  motion 
can  lawfully  get  out  of  the  Union."  "I  shall  take  care,  as  the 
Constitution  itself  expressly  enjoins  upon  me,  that  the  laws 
of  the  Union  shall  be  faithfully  executed  in  all  the  States." 
"  The  power  confided  to  me  will  be  used  to  hold,  occupy,  and 
possess  the  property  and  places  belonging  to  the  Government." 
Then  turning  to  those  of  his  hearers  who  sympathized  with 
secession,  he  said  :  "  In  your  hands,  my  dissatisfied  fellow- 
countrymen,  and  not  in  mine,  is  the  momentous  issue  of  civil 
war.  The  Government  will  not  assail  you.  You  can  have  no 
conflict  without  being  yourselves  the  aggressors.  You  can 
have  no  oath  registered  in  heaven  to  destroy  the  Government  ; 
while  I  shall  have  the  most  solemn  one  to  'preserve,  protect, 
and  defend  it'"1160 


FIRST  YEAR  OF  THE   WAR,  APRIL,   1861,  TO  APRIL,  1862. 

449.  Anderson's  report ;  division  in  the  Cabinet ;  capture 
of  Fort  Sumter. — The  next  day  Major  Anderson  of  Fort 
Sumter  (§  444)  reported  that  he  had  but  a  month's  provisions 
left,  and  that  it  would  require  20,000  men  to  relieve  and  hold 
the  fort.1161  Anderson's  entire  force  consisted  of  128  men, 
half  of  whom  were  non-combatants. 

President  Lincoln  was  by  nature  a  man  of  peace.  His 
maxim  was  :  "  It  is  better  to  plough  round  the  log  than  to  try 
to  plough  through  it";  but  the  question  of  relieving  Anderson 
demanded  immediate  action,  and  such  action  seemed  likely  to 
precipitate  civil  war.  The  Cabinet  was  divided.  Seward 
thought  that  the  secession  difficulty  would  be  satisfactorily 
settled  within  "sixty  days,"  and  suggested  that  the  best  way  to 
reunite  the  North  and  the  South  would  be  to  declare  a  foreign 
war.1162  Chase,  on  the  other  hand,  thought  that  if  we  must 
choose  between  civil  war  and  peaceful  separation,  we  had  better 
accept  the  latter.1163  General  Scott,  as  the  President's  chief 


1S61.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  403 

military  adviser,  believed  that  it  would  be  best  to  compromise 
with  the  Southern  States  or  else  say  :  "  Wayward  sisters,  depart 
in  peace."  im 

At  a  consultation  of  the  Cabinet,  Chase  and  Blair  voted  to 
relieve  Fort  Sumter ;  the  remaining  five  members  voted  against 
it  as  inexpedient,  but  later  voted  for  it.1165  The  President 
decided  that  he  would  take  the  responsibility  on  himself  and 
"send  bread  to  Anderson."  This  decision  brought  matters  to 
a  crisis.  General  Beauregard  was  in  command  of  the  seces 
sion  forces  in  Charleston,  and  Jefferson  Davis  ordered  him 
to  demand  the  immediate  surrender  of  Fort  Sumter.  Major 
Anderson  declined  to  give  up  the  fort. 

At  daybreak  the  next  morning  (April  12,  1861)  Beaure- 
gard's  batteries  opened  fire.  Anderson's  guns  replied  as  best 
they  could.  The  artillery  duel  continued  thirty-four  hours. 
The  commander  of  Fort  Sumter  could  hold  out  no  longer. 
His  handful  of  men  were  utterly  exhausted,  and  his  provisions 
and  available  ammunition  were  used  up;  he  was  forced  to 
capitulate.  No  one  had  been  killed  on  either  side  —  it  was 
the  bloodless  beginning  of  the  bloodiest  civil  war  known  in 
modern  history. 

On  Sunday  morning  (April  14,  1861)  the  brave  defender  of 
Sumter  led  his  little  garrison  out  of  the  fort.  They  departed 
with  the  honors  of  war,  —  colors  flying  and  drums  beating. 
Major  Anderson  took  with  him  the  shot-torn  national  flag 
which  had  floated  above  the  fort ;  on  that  very  day,  four  years 
later,  it  was  triumphantly  restored  to  its  old  place.  He  and 
his  men  then  embarked  for  New  York. 

450.  The  President's  call  for  troops;  Davis  retaliates; 
the  blockade;  the  uprising  of  the  North;  the  first  blood 
shed. —  The  next  morning  (April  15,  1861)  the  President 
issued  a  proclamation  calling  for  75,000  "three-months  men" 
to  uphold  the  national  flag  and  defend  the  national  honor. 
Davis  retorted  by  calling  for  32,000  men,  and  by  inviting 
privateers  to  attack  Northern  merchant  vessels.  A  few  days 


404  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [isei. 

later  (April  19,  1861),  President  Lincoln  declared  the  ports  of 
the  Confederate  States  blockaded  against  foreign  commerce. 

The  North  responded  to  the  President's  call  with  an  alacrity 
and  enthusiasm  which  could  not  be  mistaken.  Over  90,000 
men  enlisted.  The  streets  of  the  great  cities  blazed  with 
patriotic  colors,  and  resounded  with  martial  music  and  with 
the  tramp  of  armed  men  hurrying  to  the  defence  of  the  Gov 
ernment.  Party  lines  were  thrown  down ;  everywhere  the  cry 
rose  :  "  Crush  the  rebellion  !  "  Stephen  A.  Douglas,  Lincoln's 
old  political  antagonist,  hastened  to  the  President  to  take  him 
by  the  hand  and  assure  him  of  his  support.  He  saw  that 
the  time  for  compromise  had  passed.  "Now,"  said  he,  "every 
man  must  be  for  the  United  States  or  against  it."  He  died 
soon  after  the  great  war  began,  but  he  used  his  voice  and  pen 
to  the  last,  in  behalf  of  the  Union.1166 

Pennsylvania  was  first  in  the  field,  but  the  Massachusetts 
Sixth  was  the  first  fully  armed  regiment  which  entered  the 
national  capital.  On  its  way  through  Baltimore  (April  19,  1861) 
the  regiment  was  attacked  by  a  mob  of  howling  "roughs"  ;  a 
number  of  the  soldiers  were  wounded  and  two  were  killed. 
It  was  the  anniversary  of  the  battles  of  Lexington  and  Con 
cord.  On  that  day,  sacred  to  the  cause  of  American  liberty, 
the  first  blood  was  shed  for  the  preservation  of  the  Union. 
The  following  day  the  garrison  at  Fort  Monroe  —  the  most 
important  stronghold  on  the  coast  —  was  reinforced,  and  the 
next  month  General  Butler  took  command  there. 

451.  The  uprising  of  the  South;  what  North  and  South 
fought  for ;  secession  of  four  more  States ;  the  < « border 
States. "  —  The  military  activity  of  the  South  equalled  that  of 
the  North  ;  thousands  of  volunteers  rushed  to  answer  Davis's 
call.  The  politicians  had  started  the  secession  movement 
(§  443)  purely  in  the  interest  of  slavery  and  of  their  own 
selfish  ambition.  The  first  gun  fired  at  Sumter  roused  the  mass 
of  the  Southern  people  to  wild  excitement,  and  they  were  ready 
to  move  even  faster  than  their  leaders  wished  them  to.1167 


1861.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  405 

The  Secession  Congress  at  Montgomery  declared  that  Presi 
dent  Lincoln's  call  for  troops  was  an  attempt  to  "overawe, 
oppress,  and  finally  subjugate  the  people  of  the  Confederate 
States."  The  rank  and  file  of  the  secession  army  doubtless 
believed  this  astonishing  assertion.  Most  of  them  were  men 
who  recognized  no  authority  higher  than  that  of  their  own 
State.  Misled  by  this  idea,  they  believed  that  the  North  threat 
ened  to  invade  and  destroy  their  homes. 

Lincoln  clearly  stated  the  issue  when  he  said  later :  "  Both 
parties  deprecated  war;  but  one  of  them  would  make  war 
rather  than  let  the  nation  survive,  and  the  other  would  accept 
war  rather  than  let  it  perish  ;  and  the  war  came."  1168 

The  call  of  the  national  Government  for  troops  compelled 
the  remaining  slave  States  to  decide  what  course  they  would 
take.  Virginia,  Arkansas,  North  Carolina,  and  Tennessee 
joined  the  Confederacy,  making  a  total  of  eleven  States.  This 
gave  the  seceding  section  an  area  nearly  equal  to  that  of  the 
entire  United  States  at  the  close  of  the  Revolution.  In  May 
(1861)  the  Confederate  capital  was  removed  to  Richmond. 

The  western  part  of  Virginia  had  but  few  slaves  ;  it  opposed 
secession,  and  later  (1863)  became  a  separate  State  under  the 
name  of  West  Virginia.  The  Governors  of  the  four  border 
slave  States  of  Delaware,  Maryland,  Kentucky,  and  Missouri 
refused  to  answer  the  President's  call  for  volunteers  to  defend 
the  national  flag ;  but  later,  all  of  these  States  contributed 
large  numbers  of  men  to  the  ranks  of  the  Union  army.  So, 
too,  did  Eastern  Tennessee,  which  was  strongly  loyal. 

452.  Mistakes  of  the  secessionists ;  the  situation ;  popu 
lation  of  the  North  vs.  the  South.  —  The  Southern  politicians 
who  incited  secession  made  three  serious  mistakes  in  the  out 
set  :  i.  They  believed  that  all  of  the  slave  States  would 
join  them,  and  so  form  a  "solid  South."  2.  The  utterances 
of  prominent  men  of  the  "  Peace  Party  "  at  the  North  led  the 
secessionists  to  think  that  the  North  would  be  in  danger  of 
civil  war  among  its  own  people,/  and  that  the  President  would 


406  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

be  powerless  to  prevent  the  dismemberment  of  the  Union.1169 
3.  Finally,  the  secessionists  thought  that  if  the  North  did  take 
up  arms  to  save  the  nation,  England's  need  of  cotton  and 
Napoleon's  desire  to  get  possession  of  Mexico  would  induce 
those  powers  to  interfere  and  recognize  Southern  independence. 
None  of  these  things  happened,  and  the  States  which  seceded 
had  to  accept  the  situation  as  best  they  could. 

The  condition  of  affairs  in  the  early  summer  of  1861  was  as 
follows  :  Of  the  thirty-four  States  then  constituting  the  Union 
eleven  had  seceded  and  four  were  divided  in  their  allegiance. 
Nineteen  States  stood  firmly  by  the  old  flag. 

The  census  of  1860  reported  the  total  population  of  the 
United  States  at  nearly  31,500,000.  Of  this  number  the 
seceded  States  had  somewhat  over  9,000,000,  including  about 
3,500,000  slaves  who,  though  non-combatants,  would  by  their 
labor  keep  many  combatants  in  the  field.  The  "  border  States  " 
had  a  population  of  somewhat  more  than  3,000,000  and  the 
free  States  about  19,000,000.  The  available  military  strength 
of  the  free  States  was  probably  three  times  greater  than  that 
of  the  South,  and  in  the  course  of  the  war  (1861-1865)  it  was 
increased  by  the  enlistment  of  negroes  and  by  the  arrival  of 
over  600,000  immigrants.1170  Lincoln  estimated  the  total  force 
which  the  Union  States  could  furnish  in  case  of  emergency  at 
4,000,000. 

453.  Material  resources  and  military  advantages  of  the 
two  sections.  —  The  wealth  of  the  North  was  immensely 
greater  than  that  of  the  South.  The  census  of  1860  reported 
the  assessed  valuation  of  the  North  in  round  numbers  at 
$7,750,000,000,  and  that  of  the  South  at  $4,330,000,000.  With 
few  exceptions  the  North  had  the  foundries,  factories,  work 
shops,  and  shipyards  —  in  a  word,  the  "machine-power"  of  the 
nation.  The  North,  too,  had  the  greater  part  of  the  railroads ; 
and  her  ports  remained  open  to  the  commerce  of  the  globe. 

The  South,  after  her  ports  were  once  fairly  blockaded,  was 
cut  off  from  getting  supplies  from  abroad.  It  was  difficult,  if 


1861.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  4O/ 

not  impossible,  for  her  to  repair  a  railroad  that  had  once  been 
destroyed  in  any  large  degree ;  and  after  reaching  a  certain 
point  every  man  killed  or  crippled  by  the  progress  of  the  war 
created  a  vacancy  that  she  could  not  fill. 

But  on  the  other  hand,  the  Southern  people  were  more  accus 
tomed  to  the  use  of  fire-arms  than  those  of  the  North.  They 
had  the  immense  advantage  of  fighting  mainly  on  the  defen 
sive,  on  inside  lines,  and  on  territory  where  they  —  and  they 
only  —  knew  every  foot  of  the  ground. 

The  North  was  forced  to  employ  colossal  armies,  for  the 
Union  troops  were  compelled  not  only  to  conquer,  but  to  hold 
an  ever-increasing  area.  In  nearly  every  instance  they  had  to 
carry  their  supplies  with  them  over  a  constantly  lengthening  line 
which  was  often  liable  to  be  broken  by  a  sudden  attack  in  the 
rear.  General  Grant  states  that  when  he  advanced  into  the 
"  Wilderness  "  in  his  campaign  against  Richmond,  his  wagon- 
train  extended  between  fifty  and  sixty  miles  in  a  straight  line, 
and  required  18,000  horses  and  mules  to  draw  it.1171 

All  things  considered,  Grant  thought  that  the  two  contend 
ing  forces,  in  a  military  point  of  view,  were  practically  about 
equal.1172  In  the  course  of  the  war  the  North  called  out  a 
total  force,  reenlistments  included,  of  nearly  3,000,000  men. 
All  were  volunteers,  except  a  small  number  obtained  by  draft. 
After  the  first  enlistments,  liberal  bounties  were  paid,  averaging 
as  high  as  $400  per  head,  and  amounting  in  the  aggregate  to 
about  $300,000,000,  besides  $100,000,000  devoted  to  helping 
soldiers'  families.1173  The  greatest  number  of  troops  in  the 
Union  service  at  any  one  time  was  a  little  over  1,000,000 ;  the 
greatest  number  in  the  Confederate  service  at  any  one  time  has 
been  estimated  at  about  470,000. 

No  trustworthy  statistics  of  Southern  enlistments  can  be 
had  ;  but  it  is  known  that  a  merciless  system  of  con 
scription  eventually  forced  their  entire  available  fighting 
population  —  from  boys  to  old  men  —  to  enter  the  Con 
federate  ranks. 


408  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

454.  The  Union  navy;    the    Confederate   cruisers  and 
privateers.  —  Shortly  before  the  war  broke  out  the  scanty  navy 
of  the  United  States  was  dispersed  in  foreign  waters,  and  a 
congressional  committee  reported  that  only  two  armed  vessels 
"  were  available  for  the  defence  "  or  blockade  of  the  Southern 
Atlantic  coast.1174      The  line  of   blockade  extended  for  3000 
miles  with  but  a  single  Union  port  of  refuge.     To  hold  this 
line,  and  to  conduct  naval  operations  along  the  coast  and  on 
the  western   rivers,   at   least   six   hundred   vessels   would   be 
required.     With  a  few  exceptions  all  of  these  had  to  be  built, 
bought,  or  hired  by  the  Government. 

The  Confederate  States  had  no  navy,  but  they  captured  the 
hulks  of  a  number  of  first-class  vessels  of  war  when  (1861)  they 
got  possession  of  the  Norfolk  navy  yard.  They  sent  out  a 
number  of  small  armed  cruisers  ;  they  built  several  formidable 
ironclads  at  home,  and  they  built  or  fitted  out  the  "  Florida," 
the  "  Shenandoah,"  and  the  "Alabama"  in  England.  These 
cruisers,  armed  with  British  guns  and  manned  largely  by  British 
sailors,  destroyed  Union  property  worth  many  millions  and  drove 
merchant  ships,  flying  the  Union  flag,  from  the  ocean. 

455.  The  financial  side  of  the  war.  —  The  national  Gov 
ernment  entered  upon  the  war  with  an  empty  Treasury,  but  loyal 
men  came  to  the  rescue  and  furnished  money  to  meet  the  most 
pressing  immediate  calls.     The  gigantic  contest  cost  the  loyal 
States  on  an  average  about  $2,000,000  a  day.    The  funds  to  meet 
this  enormous  demand  were  obtained  from  four  sources:  (i) 
duties  on  imports  under  the  Morrill  protective  tariff  of  1861,  and 
the  higher  tariffs  of  1862  and  1864;  (2)  internal  revenue  taxes; 
(3)  the  sale  of  interest-bearing  bonds  and  interest-bearing  Treas 
ury  notes;  (4)  the  issue  of  over  $430,000,000  of  the  Treasury 
notes  popularly  known  as  "  greenbacks."    The  chief  reliance  of 
the  Government  was  on  the  sale  of  bonds  ;  these  were  freely  taken 
by  all  classes  of  the  people  and  were  largely  purchased  abroad. 
To  further  stimulate  their  sale  at  home,  Congress  established 
(1863)  a  system  of  national  banks  which  were  required  to  buy  and 


1861.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  409 

hold  Government  bonds  as  security  for  the  notes  they  put  in 
circulation. 

The  enormous  issues  of  paper  money  caused  proportionate 
depreciation,  and  the  demand  for  gold  compelled  all  banks  to 
suspend  specie  payment.  In  spite  of  the  efforts  of  Congress 
to  prevent  it,  gold  kept  rising  until  it  finally  (1864)  touched 
285,  and  the  purchasing  power  of  the  "greenback"  dollar  fell 
to  thirty-five  cents.  Silver,  like  gold,  disappeared  from  circu 
lation,  and  to  meet  the  demand  for  "  change  "  the  Government 
had  to  issue  fractional  paper  currency  in  notes  ranging  in  value 
from  three  to  fifty  cents. 

The  Confederate  States  likewise  issued  bonds  and  Treasury 
notes.  At  first  they  were  able  to  sell  these  securities  abroad, 
and  to  export  considerable  quantities  of  cotton  in  exchange  for 
foreign  arms  and  supplies.  But  the  blockade  gradually  cut  off 
all  intercourse  with  Europe  and  the  sale  of  Confederate  bonds 
ceased.  After  the  first  year  of  the  war  the  paper  money  of 
the  South  rapidly  depreciated,  and  long  before  the  close  of  the 
contest  it  had  become  practically  worthless.1175 

456.  Extraordinary  powers  granted  to  the  President.  - 
In  order  to  successfully  prosecute  the  war  for  the  preservation 
of  the  Union  the  President  believed  it  necessary  to  do  a  number 
of  things  usually  considered  beyond  the  province  of  the  Execu 
tive.  In  emergencies  he  took  possession  of  railroad  and  tele 
graph  lines  ;  he  arrested  a  great  number  of  suspected  persons, 
temporarily  stopped  the  publication  of  several  newspapers,  and 
suspended  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus.  Congress  fully  sustained 
him  in  the  exercise  of  these  powers,  although  the  "Peace  Party," 
and  even  many  strong  Union  men,  loudly  protested.  The 
extreme  portion  of  that  party — nicknamed  "Copperheads" 
from  a  venomous  snake  which  strikes  without  giving  warning 
—  did  not  hesitate  to  avow  their  sympathy  with  secession. 
They  declared  that  the  President  deliberately  violated  the  Con 
stitution.  The  truth  is  that  no  written  frame  of  government 
has  ever  been  planned  which  could  meet  the  terrible  exigency 


4io  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [isei. 

of  a  great  civil  war,  and  cases  arose  when  the  President  felt 
that  it  was  necessary  to  bend  the  Constitution  in  order  to 
avoid  breaking  it.  At  the  South,  Jefferson  Davis  pursued  a 
still  more  arbitrary  course,  and  his  administration  seems  to 
have  become  an  absolute  military  despotism.1176 

457.  Attitude  of  foreign  powers.  —  In  the  spring  of  1861 
Queen  Victoria  issued  a  proclamation  of  neutrality  forbidding 
British  subjects  to  give  aid  to  the  combatants  of  either  side 
and  recognizing  the  Confederate  States  as  a  belligerent  power. 
This  proclamation  virtually  acknowledged  the  right  of  the 
United  States  to  blockade  the  Confederate  ports  and  to  cut 
off  their  supplies.  On  the  other  hand,  it  recognized  the  Con 
federate  flag  on  the  ocean,  and  so  made  the  Confederate  cruisers 
privateers  instead  of  pirates.  France  and  the  other  commer 
cial  powers  of  Europe  followed  the  example  of  Great  Britain. 
Later  in  the  war  Confederate  commissioners  attempted  to  ob 
tain  the  recognition  of  Southern  independence  by  the  Pope, 
but  the  head  of  the  Catholic  Church  simply  expressed  the 
wish  to  see  the  conflict  ended  and  "peace  restored."  lln 

The  English  press  with  few  exceptions  favored  the  cause 
of  disunion.  The  London  "  Times  "  hastened  to  declare  that 
"  American  institutions  "  had  "  collapsed."  English  "  society  " 
and  the  commercial  classes  generally  shared  this  feeling.  The 
former  accused  the  North  of  "fighting  for  empire";  the  latter 
saw  that  the  success  of  the  South  promised  to  secure  free 
trade  for  British  goods  in  exchange  for  cotton.  Notwithstand 
ing  the  Queen's  proclamation  of  neutrality,  English  capital 
furnished  fleet  steamers  to  run  the  blockade  and  to  supply  the 
Confederates  with  arms  of  the  latest  pattern.  But  the  great 
mass  of  the  English  people  never  lost  faith  in  the  ultimate 
triumph  of  the  North ;  no  hardships  or  privations  could  induce 
the  starving  cotton-spinners  of  Lancashire  to  lift  a  finger  in 
favor  of  opening  the  Confederate  ports  or  of  recognizing  Con 
federate  independence.1178  This  cordial  feeling  toward  the 
Union  has  since  gained  ground  among  all  classes ;  and  the 


1861.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  411 

relations  now  existing  between  the  two  great  English-speaking 
nations  of  the  globe  are  such  as  do  honor  to  both. 

458.  The  Sanitary  and  the  Christian  Commissions ;  the 
working  army  and  the  fighting  army.  —  Soon  after  the  war 
broke  out  the  Sanitary  and  the  Christian  Commissions  were 
organized  to  give  aid  and  relief  to  sick  and  wounded  Union 
soldiers,  to  furnish  them  books  and  newspapers,  and  to  minister 
to  their  spiritual  as  well  as  their  bodily  needs.  Both  did  a 
noble  work  in  a  noble  way. 

Throughout  the  war  there  were  two  armies  engaged  in  bat 
tling  for  the  Union.  One  fought  in  the  field  ;  the  other  worked 
at  home  to  maintain,  aid,  and  comfort  those  who  fought  in  the 
field.  In  this  home  work  women  took  a  leading  part.  They 
did  as  much  toward  saving  the  nation  as  the  men.  They  gave 
their  labor,  their  zeal,  their  tears,  their  prayers  —  in  a  deep 
and  true  sense,  they  laid  down  their  lives  for  the  cause.  They 
organized  and  carried  on  more  than  seven  thousand  local 
societies,  all  tributary  to  the  Sanitary  Commission,  and  they 
sent  many  millions  of  dollars'  worth  of  articles  to  be  dis 
tributed  by  that  Commission.  In  every  city  and  hamlet 
throughout  the  North  they  met  from  week  to  week  to  work 
for  their  husbands,  sons,  brothers,  and  friends  who  had  gone 
to  the  front.  They  rolled  bandages,  scraped  lint,  prepared 
delicacies  for  the  sick  and  wounded,  and  in  many  ways  made 
the  soldier  realize  that  his  welfare  held  the  highest  place  in 
their  hearts.  Without  the  efforts  of  the  grand  army  of  fighters 
the  Union  could  not  have  been  saved ;  without  the  efforts  of 
the  grand  army  of  workers  those  who  fought  could  not  have 
held  out  to  final  victory. 

At  the  South  the  same  intense  devotion  was  shown,  and  the 
sacrifices  which  the  people  made  in  behalf  of  the  Confederate 
forces  were  even  greater,  because  their  means  were  more 
limited.  To-day  the  South  is  glad  that  it  failed,  for  it  sees 
that  the  success  of  the  Union  did  not  mean  the  triumph  of  one 
section  over  the  other,  but  the  reconstruction  of  the  entire 


412  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

nation  on  broader  and  higher  lines  which  secure  the  welfare  of 
North  and  South  alike. 

459.  Recapitulation  of  the  object  of  the  war ;  Union  plan 
of  campaign.  —  The  South  began  the  contest  with  the  avowed 
object  of  breaking  away  from  the  Union   and  setting  up  an 
independent  slave-holding  Confederacy.    The  North  reluctantly 
accepted  the  challenge  hurled  by  the  batteries  which  fired  on 
Sumter.     The  object  of  the  national  Government  was  not  to 
subjugate  the  South,  not  to  liberate  her  slaves,  but  simply  and 
solely  "to  defend  and  maintain  the  supremacy  of  the  Consti 
tution  and  preserve  the  Union."  1179     The  issue  was  not  sought 
by  the  North,  but  was  forced  upon  it,  because,  as  Lincoln  said, 
secession  meant  "  immediate  dissolution  or  blood."  118° 

The  President  (May  3,  1861)  called  for  40,000  more  volun 
teers  and  directed  an  increase  of  20,000  in  the  regular  army. 
General  Scott  had  strengthened  the  garrison  at  Fort  Monroe 
(§  450)  and  was  encircling  Washington  with  earthworks.  His 
plan  was  to  surround  the  Confederate  States  and  attack  them 
simultaneously  at  every  point  by  land  and  sea ;  this  was  what 
the  newspapers  called  "Scott's  anaconda." 

Later,  the  plan  adopted  was:  (i)  to  maintain  a  strict  blockade 
along  the  Confederate  coast  and  at  the  same  time  force  open 
the  Confederate  ports ;  (2)  to  take  the  Confederate  capital, 
and  so  destroy  the  political  as  well  as  the  military  power  con 
centrated  there ;  (3)  to  open  the  Mississippi  and  its  southern 
iributaries  which  the  South  had  seized  and  fortified ;  (4)  to 
break  through  the  Confederate  line  in  the  West,  march  an 
army  to  the  Atlantic  and  thence  northward. 

460.  McClellan  in  West  Virginia ;  Bull  Run.  —  The  con 
test  opened  in  West  Virginia.     McClellan  drove  out  the  Con 
federates  (May-June,   1861)  and  reported  that  he  had  killed 
secession  in  that  region.    The  Union  line  (see  map  facing  page 
413)  extended  from  Fort  Monroe  along  the  southern  bank  of 
the    Potomac    to    Harper's    Ferry,    and    thence    southwesterly 
through  Kentucky  to  the  Mississippi  just  below  Cairo,  Illinois ; 


107   Lonpitude    102         West 


REFERENCE 

Approximate  limit  occupied  by 

U.S.  Troops  July  /,  /S6/ 
Sherman's  March 
Railroads  Q^J  Unfon  Stateg 
Blockade     |         ]  Early  Secessi 
Forts  r~~\  Later 


30          Longitude  25  West 


from         92    Greenwich    87 


L 


MAP  OF  THE 

UNITED  STATES,  18G1 

8CALE  OF  MILES 

.0          100         200         300 


15  Washington          10 


1861.] 


THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION. 


413 


thence  northwesterly  through  Missouri  to  Fort  Leavenworth, 
and  onward  toward  the  Pacific.  The  total  number  of  Union 
troops  was  about  180,000,  confronted  by  a  Confederate  army 
of  about  150,000. 

As  the  summer  wore  on  the  newspapers  became  impatient. 
The  Northern  press  cried:  "On  to  Richmond";  the  Southern, 
"  On  to  Washing 
ton."  Scott  was 
too  old  and  infirm 
to  take  the  field, 
-  he  did  not 
think  the  Union 
army  ready  to  ad 
vance;  but  yield 
ing  to  pressure, 
reluctantly  or 
dered  McDowell 
to  move  against 
Beauregard.  The 
Union  men  went 
out  as  if  on  a 
holiday  excursion, 
stopping  to  pick 
blackberries  as 
they  went  along. 
The  first  great 
battle  of  the  war 

L^^^^^^^  '^^^^^^^'  ' 

ensued  (July  21, 

1 86 1 )  at  Bull  Run.*    The  forces  engaged  were  of  equal  strength, 

but,  as  General  Joseph  E.  Johnston  admits,  the  Confederates  had 

*  Official  estimates  give  the  Union  forces  engaged  at  about  18,000  ; 
Confederate  forces  engaged  at  about  18,000;  Union  loss,  2896;  Con 
federate  loss,  1982.  No  absolutely  accurate  returns  are  obtainable.  See 
the  Century  Company's  "Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War,"  I.  194, 
195.  In  all  reports  of  battles  General  Grant's  statement  should  be  borne  in 


SCALE   OF    MILES. 


414  THE    STUDENTS    AMERICAN    HISTORY.  [1861. 

the  great  advantage  of  being  strongly  posted  and  of  fighting  on 
the  defensive.  The  beginning  of  the  battle  promised  the  suc 
cess  of  the  Union  troops ;  but  Johnston  brought  up  reinforce 
ments,  and  at  a  critical  moment  General  Jackson  —  whose 
stubborn  steadfastness  here  gained  him  the  name  of  "  Stone 
wall  "  Jackson  —  checked  the  federal  advance  by  a  bayonet 
charge.1181  Immediately  afterward  fresh  Confederate  reinforce 
ments  came  up  by  rail  from  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  struck  the 
Union  troops  a  sudden  and  terrible  blow  on  the  flank,  and  drove 
them  from  the  field.  Their  broken  ranks,  drenched  by  pouring 
rain  and  disheartened  by  defeat,  rushed  into  Washington  ;  but 
the  Confederates  made  no  attempt  to  follow.  In  fact,  many 
left  the  Southern  army  and  went  home,  thinking  that  they  had 
already  conquered  a  peace.  The  National  Government  did  not 
lose  heart,  but  rose  to  meet  the  emergency.  That  very  day 
(July  22,  1861)  Congress  voted  to  raise  500,000  three-years' 
men  to  prosecute  the  war. 

461.  "  Drill  anti  organize  I"  McClellan;  Missouri;  the 
Atlantic  coast.  — Throughout  the  North  the  cry  now  went  up  : 
"  Drill  and  organize !  "  and  McClellan  (§  460)  was  put  in  com 
mand  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac.  When  Scott  retired  in 
November  (1861)  McClellan  was  made  General-Commander  of 
the  land  forces  of  the  United  States.* 

mind.  He  says,  in  speaking  of  the  strength  of  the  Union  armies  in  the 
field,  all  present  were  generally  counted,  while  the  Confederates  counted 
none  but  the  actual  combatants  —  in  other  words,  the  effective  strength  — 
of  their  forces.  See  Grant's  Memoirs,  II.  290.  So,  too,  the  estimate  of 
losses  cannot  be  taken  in  any  instance  as  entirely  reliable.  See  Phisterer's 
"  Statistical  Record,"  in  "  Campaigns  of  the  Civil  War,"  p.  213. 

*  The  armies  of  the  United  States  were  commanded  by  the  President 
as  Commander-in-Chief  under  the  Constitution ;  and  under  him,  as  General- 
Commanders,  by  Lieutenant-General  Winfield  Scott  until  Nov.  6,  1861  ; 
followed  by  Major-General  George  B.  McClellan  until  March  n,  1862; 
(from  March  n  to  July  12,  1862,  there  was  no  General-Commander);  Major- 
General  Henry  W.  Halleck  from  July  12,  1862,  to  March  12,  1864;  Lieu 
tenant-General  U.  S.  Grant  from  March  12,  1864,  to  March  4,  1869.  On 
the  Confederate  side,  General  Braxton  Bragg  held  the  office  of  military 


DEFENCES   OF   WASHINGTON, 
showing  the  girdle  of  sixty  forts  which   protected  it  during  the  war. 


1861.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  415 

McClellan  spent  the  remainder  of  1861  in  converting  an 
army  of  civilians  —  many  of  whom  had  never  handled  a  gun 
in  their  lives  —  into  an  army  of  disciplined  soldiers.  In  this 
respect  he  did  a  great  work  and  prepared  the  way  for  Union 
success.  General  Meade,  the  victor  at  Gettysburg,  said: 
"Had  there  been  no  McClellan  there  could  have  been  no 
Grant."  1182 

Meanwhile  Confederate  forces  from  Arkansas  and  Texas  had 
invaded  Missouri  and  had  made  a  desperate  effort  to  carry  the 
State  over  to  secession.  General  Lyon,  succeeded  by  Frdmont 
and  Halleck,  gradually  drove  the  invaders  southward.*  They 
were  finally  routed  with  great  slaughter  at  Pea  Ridge,  Arkansas 
(March  7-8,  1862). 

On  the  Atlantic  coast,  Union  naval  expeditions  took  the  Con 
federate  forts  (1861)  at  Hatteras  Inlet,  Hilton  Head,  and  Port 
Royal  on  the  coast  of  the  Carolinas  ;  Roanoke  Island,  Newbern, 
and  other  points  were  captured  later.  These  victories  secured 
ports  of  refuge  for  the  blockading  squadron,  and  established 
important  bases  for  military  operations  against  the  interior. 

462.  The  " Trent "  affair;  seizure  of  Mason  and  Slidell.— 
In  the  autumn  of  1861  Jefferson  Davis  sent  Messrs.  Mason  and 
Slidell  to  Europe  as  Confederate  commissioners  to  obtain  aid 
for  the  Southern  cause.  They  ran  the  blockade  and  embarked 
as  "  missionaries "  at  Havana,  on  the  British  mail  steamer 
"  Trent."  Captain  Wilkes,  in  command  of  the  United  States 
sloop-of-war  "  San  Jacinto,"  lay  in  wait  for  the  "  Trent." 
When  she  hove  in  sight  he  forced  her  to  stop  (November  8, 
1861),  seized  the  Confederate  commissioners,  and  carried  them 
to  Fort  Warren  in  Boston  Harbor.  The  Secretary  of  the  Navy 

adviser  to  Jefferson  Davis  from  February  24,  1864,  to  November  of  that 
year ;  but  Robert  E.  Lee  was  the  first  General-in-Chief;  he  was  appointed 
February  6,  1865. 

*  The  chief  fighting  in  Missouri  was  at  Wilson's  Creek,  where  the  Union 
forces  were  overpowered  by  greatly  superior  numbers.  The  only  fighting  in 
Virginia  during  this  time  was  at  Ball's  Bluff  (October  22,  1861),  where  the 
national  forces  were  defeated. 


416  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

officially  congratulated  Captain  Wilkes  on  his  capture  of  "  these 
public  enemies,"  and  the  House  of  Representatives  requested 
the  President  to  present  him  with  a  gold  medal. 

The  President,  however,  said  he  feared  that  we  had  simply 
caught  a  couple  of  "white  elephants,"  and  added:  "We  fought 
Great  Britain  (in  1812)  for  insisting  ...  on  the  right  to  do 
precisely  what  Captain  Wilkes  has  done."  1183 

The  Queen's  proclamation  of  neutrality  (§  457)  expressly  for 
bade  her  subjects  carrying  "officers,  soldiers,"  or  "despatches" 
for  either  party  in  the  Civil  War;  but  the  English  Government 
denied  that  we  were  justified  in  seizing  the  Confederate  com 
missioners.  It  demanded  their  prompt  surrender  and  a  proper 
apology  for  the  affront  to  the  British  flag,  and  hurried  off  troops 
to  Canada  with  regimental  bands  gaily  playing  "  Dixie  "  as 
they  sailed.1184 

In  the  correspondence  that  ensued,  Secretary  Seward  stated 
in  the  smoothest  diplomatic  language  that  he  was  happy  to  find 
that  England  now  condemned  the  right  of  search,  hitherto  so 
stoutly  maintained  by  her.  He  congratulated  her  on  having  at 
length  become  a  convert  to  the  American  principle  which  had 
compelled  us  to  protest  against  the  exercise  of  such  a  pretended 
right.  He  closed  by  saying  that,  since  the  British  nation  now 
asked  us  to  do  to  her  just  what  we  had  always  insisted  all 
nations  ought  to  do  to  us,  we  could  not  consistently  refuse  to 
give  up  Mason  and  Slidell.1185  They  soon  sailed  for  England, 
but  the  London  "Times  "  gave  them  anything  but  a  compli 
mentary  welcome,  saying:  "  We  should  have  done  just  as  much 
to  rescue  two  of  their  own  negroes."1186  The  commissioners 
failed  to  obtain  the  official  recognition  of  any  European  power, 
and  accomplished  nothing  in  behalf  of  secession. 

463.  Fighting  at  the  West ;  Grant  takes  Fort  Henry  and 
Fort  Donelson.—  In  the  West,  in  the  autumn  of  1862,  the  Con 
federate  general  A.  S.  Johnston  held  an  irregular  line  extend 
ing  from  the  Cumberland  Mountains  through  Mill  Spring  and 
Bowling  Green,  Kentucky,  to  the  bluffs  at  Columbus  on  the 


1862.] 


THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION. 


417 


Mississippi.  Aside  from  Columbus,  the  two  points  of  supreme 
importance  on  this  line  were  Fort  Henry  and  Fort  Donelson  — 
about  twelve  miles  apart  —  on  the  Tennessee  and  the  Cumber 
land  Rivers.  Halleck,  with  his  headquarters  at  St.  Louis,  was 
then  in  command  of  the  department  of  the  Missouri  which 
embraced  western  Kentucky.  Grant  was  stationed  at  Cairo, 
Illinois;  and  Buell,  with  Thomas,  was  in  command  of  the  Union 
forces  directly  opposing  Johnston's  line. 

The  campaign   began  in  January,  1862,  by  a  battle  at  Mill 
Spring,  Kentucky,  in  which  Thomas  drove  back  the  Confeder 


ates.  General  Grant,  supported  by  Commodore  Foote's  gun 
boats,  then  moved  against  Fort  Henry  and  took  it  (February  6, 
1862).  He  next  moved  against  Fort  Donelson.  On  the  third 
day  of  the  battle  (February  16,  1862)  Buckner,  the  Confederate 
commander,  asked  what  terms  his  assailant  would  concede  in 
return  for  the  capitulation  of  the  fort.  Grant  at  once  replied : 
"No  terms  except  an  unconditional  and  immediate  surrender.' 
Buckner  could  not  help  himself,  and  promptly  accepted  Grant's 
ultimatum. 


4i 8  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

This  victory  was  the  most  important  which  the  national 
troops  had  thus  far  gained.  It  opened  the  Tennessee  and 
Cumberland  Rivers  for  a  long  distance,  and  compelled  the 
Confederates  to  abandon  their  stronghold  at  Columbus.  This 
gave  the  Union  army  the  control  of  the  Mississippi  as  far  south 
as  Island  Number  Ten. 

464.  The  battle  of  Pittsburg  Landing,  or  Shiloh ;  capture 
of  Island  Number  Ten  ;  Corinth.  —  Grant  now  moved  up  the 
Tennessee  River  for  the  purpose  of  capturing  the  great  Con 
federate  railway  center  at  Corinth,  Mississippi.  He  halted  at 
Pittsburg  Landing,  or  Shiloh,  for  Buell  to  come  up  from  Nash 
ville  and  join  him.  Before  that  general  could  arrive,  A.  S. 
Johnston,  with  superior  numbers,  suddenly  attacked  the  Union 
forces  (April  6,  1862).  Johnston  drove  back  Grant's  army, 
but  was  killed  in  the  thick  of  the  fight,  and  Beauregard  took 
command.  By  the  next  morning  Buell's  reinforcements  came 
up.  Grant  now  had  the  larger  force.  By  nightfall  (April  7, 
1862)  he  had  gained  the  day,  and  the  Confederates  were  in  full 
retreat.  In  his  report,  Grant  said:  "  I  am  indebted  to  General 
Sherman  for  the  success  of  that  battle.  It  was,"  he  said,  "the 
severest  engagement*  fought  at  the  West  during  the  war."  1187 
Grant  was  severely  blamed  for  his  management  of  the  first 
day's  battle,  and  the  President  was  urged  to  remove  him.  He 
deliberated  for  a  time,  and  then  said :  "  I  can't  spare  this  man ; 
he  fights."1188 

On  the  day  following  the  victory  at  Pittsburg  Landing  the 
Confederates  surrendered  Island  Number  Ten  to  the  federal 
forces  commanded  by  Commodore  Foote  and  General  Pope. 
This  opened  the  Mississippi  down  to  Vicksburg.  In  May, 
Halleck  moved  on  Corinth.  Beauregard  had  not  strength  to 
hold  it ;  he  withdrew,  and  the  Union  army  took  possession  of 
this  important  railway  center. 

*  Grant  says  his  effective  force  at  Pittsburg  Landing  on  April  6  was 
33,000;  Wallace  and  Buell  brought  him,  after  the  first  day's  battle,  25,000 
more.  The  Confederate  force  was  about  40,000.  Union  loss,  13,047  ; 
Confederate  loss,  10,669. 


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1862.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  419 

465.   Battle  of  the  "  Merrimac  "  and  the  "  Monitor."  — 

Shortly  after  Virginia  seceded  (§  451)  the  federal  officer  in 
charge  of  the  armory  at  Harper's  Ferry  destroyed  and  aban 
doned  it.  Following  his  example,  the  federal  officer  in  com 
mand  at  the  Norfolk  navy-yard  abandoned  that  important 
station  with  about  2000  cannon.  He  set  fire  to  the  govern 
ment  buildings  and  scuttled  and  sunk  the  national  war-vessels. 
Among  the  ships  thus  sunk  was  the  steam-frigate  "  Merrimac." 
The  Confederates  raised  the  hulk  and  converted  it  into  a 
powerful  ironclad  ram,  which  they  christened  the  "Virginia." 
Early  in  the  spring  (March  8,  1862)  this  formidable  floating 
fort,  under  command  of  Captain  Buchanan,  sallied  out  and 
attacked  the  federal  fleet  of  wooden  war-ships  lying  in  Hamp 
ton  Roads.  Making  a  dash  at  the  "  Cumberland,"  the  "Vir 
ginia  "  cut  that  vessel  nearly  in  two,  and  sent  her  to  the  bottom 
with  a  hundred  sick  and  wounded  men.  The  "Virginia  "  next 
captured  the  "  Congress,"  set  her  on  fire,  and  blew  her  up. 
The  Confederate  ironclad  then  retired  to  Norfolk,  intending  to 
complete  her  work  of  destruction  the  next  day. 

The  news  of  this  disaster  created  great  alarm  at  Washington. 
The  President  hastily  summoned  a  Cabinet  council.  Stanton, 
the  Secretary  of  War,  expressed  the  fear  that  the  "rebel 
monster"  might  even  then  be  on  her  way  up  the  Potomac.  "It 
is  not  unlikely,"  said  he,  "that  we  shall  have  a  shell  or  a  can 
non  ball  from  one  of  her  guns  in  the  White  House  before  we 
leave  this  room."  1189 

That  night,  lighted  by  the  flames  of  the  burning  "  Congress," 
Ericsson's  "  Monitor,"  under  the  command  of  the  gallant  Lieu 
tenant  Worden,  steamed  into  Hampton  Roads.  She  was  an 
iron  vessel  built  on  a  new  pattern,  having  a  revolving  turret  set 
on  a  deck  nearly  level  with  the  water.  On  Sunday  morning 
(March  9,  1862)  when  the  "Virginia"  appeared  she  found  the 
diminutive  "  Monitor "  waiting  for  her.  The  Confederates 
laughed  at  this  Yankee  "cheese  box  on  a  raft";  but  the 
"cheese  box"  fought  so  effectively  that  the  "Virginia"  finally 


42O  TtfE    STUDENTS    AMERICAN    HISTORY.          [1861-1862. 

retired  to  Norfolk,  leaving  Ericsson's  "  little  giant  "  practically 
master  of  the  situation.  When  McClellan  advanced  up  the 
peninsula  in  May  (1862),  the  Confederates  abandoned  Nor 
folk  and  blew  up  their  famous  but  discomfited  ironclad. 

The  "  Monitor  "  had  not  only  saved  the  remaining  vessels  of 
the  federal  fleet,  but  probably  saved  Washington.  Had  the 
"  Virginia"  come  off  victor,  she  might  have  steamed  up  the 
Potomac  and  shelled  the  national  capitol,  besides  doing  incal 
culable  damage  in  other  directions. 

This  conflict  between  the  two  ironclads  revolutionized  naval 
warfare  throughout  the  world.  It  sent  wooden  war-ships  to  the 
rear  and  brought  iron  vessels  to  the  front. 

466.  Summary  of  the  first  year  of  the  war  (April,  1861- 
April,  1862). — The  capture  of  Fort  Sumter  was  immediately 
followed  by  the  President's  call  for  troops,  the  uprising  of  the 
North,  and  the  organization  of  the  Confederate  force  in  the 
South.  The  Union  defeat  at  Bull  Run  led  to  a  call  for  500,000 
more  federal  soldiers. 

In  the  West  the  Confederates  were  driven  out  of  Missouri, 
and  their  line  of  defence  was  broken  in  Kentucky;  Grant  took 
Forts  Henry  and  Donelson.  This  compelled  the  evacuation  of 
Columbus  on  the  Mississippi.  Grant  then  defeated  Johnston 
at  the  terrible  battle  of  Pittsburg  Landing,  thus  preparing  the 
way  for  the  capture  of  Corinth.  Island  Number  Ten  was  next 
captured,  and  the  Mississippi  opened  down  to  Vicksburg. 

On  the  water,  we  have  the  seizure  of  Mason  and  Slidell, 
the  capture  of  important  Confederate  ports  on  the  Atlantic 
coast,  and  the  great  battle  between  the  "  Merrimac"  and  the 
"  Monitor." 


SECOND  YEAR  OF  THE   WAR,   APRIL,   1862,   TO  APRIL,   1863. 

467.    The  capture  of  New  Orleans,  and  its  results.  - 
President  Lincoln  declared  that  he  considered  the  Mississippi 
"the  backbone  of  the  rebellion."1190     In  the  spring  of  1862 


1862.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  421 

Captain  Farragut,  commanding  the  most  powerful  naval  expe 
dition  that  had  ever  sailed  under  the  United  States  flag,  started 
from  Fort  Monroe  to  capture  New  Orleans  and  fracture,  if  not 
break,  the  "  backbone."  The  land  forces  of  the  expedition 
were  under  General  Butler.  The  fleet  numbered  nearly  fifty 
wooden  vessels,  carrying  over  two  hundred  guns,  besides  a  fleet 
of  mortar-boats  under  Commander  Porter. 

Farragut  had  no  easy  task  before  him.  In  order  to  reach 
New  Orleans  he  must  break  through  a  line  of  hulks  chained 
together  across  the  Mississippi,  just  below  the  forts  of  St. 
Philip  and  Jackson;  he  must  next  run  past  the  guns  of  those 
forts,  steer  clear  of  the  fire-rafts  sent  to  destroy  his  wooden  ves 
sels,  and  finally  fight  a  fleet  of  gunboats,  which  included  two 
ironclad  rams  constructed  on  the  pattern  of  the  "  Virginia  " 
(§  465).  Porter  began  to  shell  the  forts  on  April  18  (1862), 
and  just  one  week  from  that  day  Farragut's  fleet,  "  silent,  grim, 
terrible,"  anchored  in  front  of  the  blazing  levees  of  New 
Orleans.  Four  days  later  the  city  formally  surrendered,  the 
stars  and  stripes  were  hoisted  above  the  custom-house,  and 
the  national  forces  triurnjphantly  held  the  gateway  of  the  river 
artery  of  the  American  continent.  Mason  and  Slidell  (§  462) 
wrote  from  Europe  that  the  fall  of  the  chief  port  of  the  Confed 
erate  States  had  probably  given  the  deathblow  to  European 
recognition  of  Southern  independence.1191 

Farragut,  having  accomplished  his  great  work,  moved  up  the 
Mississippi  against  the  Confederate  strongholds  at  Port  Hud 
son  and  Vicksburg;  but  the  situation  of  these  fortifications  on 
high  bluffs  made  it  impossible  for  him  to  attack  them  success 
fully  without  the  cooperation  of  a  powerful  land  force. 

468.  McClellan  begins  his  Peninsular  Campaign;  "  Stone 
wall  "  Jackson's  raid.  —  Meanwhile  *  McClellan  began  the 
second  advance  (§  460)  on  Richmond.  The  Confederate 
capital  was  protected  from  a  direct  movement  from  the  north 
by  several  rivers  and  many  small  streams,  and  by  a  dense 
tangled  forest  known  as  the  "Wilderness."  On  the  east  the 


422  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [isea. 

peninsula  between  the  York  and  the  James  Rivers  is  low  and 
swampy,  and  heavy  rains  make  it  almost  impassable ;  but  the 
distance  from  Fort  Monroe  on  the  peninsula  to  Richmond  is 
but  little  more  than  half  what  it  is  by  direct  march  from  Wash 
ington.  McClellan  decided  in  favor  of  the  short  eastern  route. 
Leaving  about  36,000  troops  to  hold  the  Shenandoah  Valley 
and  northern  Virginia,  and  McDowell  at  Fredericksburg  with 
40,000  troops  to  protect  the  national  capital,  he  transported 
his  superb  army  of  100,000  men  to  Fort  Monroe.  Early  in 
April,  1862,  he  began  to  move  up  the  peninsula.  A  part  of 
Joseph  E.  Johnston's  force  barred  the  way  at  Yorktown.  Here 
McClellan  spent  a  month  getting  his  siege  guns  in  position. 
Just  as  he  was  ready  to  open  fire  the  Confederates  abandoned 
their  works  and  fell  back  to  Williamsburg,  where  an  indecisive 
battle  was  fought  (May  5,  1862). 

McClellan  then  asked  the  War  Department  to  send  him 
every  man  that  could  be  spared.  The  President  promised  to 
send  him  McDowell's  army;  but  just  then  "  Stonewall"  Jack 
son  (§  460),  with  his  famous  "foot  cavalry,"  dashed  down  the 
Shenandoah  Valley,  and  "hustled"  Banjcs  out  of  it  and  across  the 
Potomac.*  Jackson's  sudden  movement  created  such  consterna 
tion  at  Washington  that  McDowell's  40,000  men  were  withheld 
from  McClellan  to  defend  the  national  capital.  Jackson  then 
turned,  and,  keeping  up  a  running  fight,  moved  with  such 
celerity  that  before  McDowell  could  get  a  chance  to  strike  him, 
he  had  joined  the  main  body  of  the  Confederate  forces  in  the 
vicinity  of  Richmond.  He  arrived  in  season  to  cooperate  with 
Lee  in  his  attack  on  McClellan,  whose  army  was  straddling  the 
Chickahominy  River  and  floundering  in  the  mud.  If  McClel- 
lan's  success  depended  on  his  getting  heavy  reinforcements, 
then  Jackson  had  completely  upset  his  plans. 

*  Official  estimate  :  The  strength  of  Jackson's  command  is  not  stated, 
but  Confederate  authorities  give  him  an  effective  force  of  from  16,000  to 
17,000.  The  effective  strength  of  Banks's  command  on  April  30  (1861) 
was  reported  at  9178. 


THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION. 


423 


469.  Fair  Oaks;  the  Seven  Days'  battles. — There  was 
sharp  fighting  (May  3i-June  i,  1862)  at  Fair  Oaks,  or  Seven 
Pines.  In  this  action  Joseph  E.  Johnston  was  severely  wounded, 
and  a  few  days  later  Robert  E.  Lee  was  put  in  command  of  the 
Confederate  forces  in  Virginia. 

McClellan  now  found  himself  cut  off  from  his  base  of  sup 
plies  on  York  River  and  was  forced  to  set  out  for  the  James 
River  to  establish  a  new  base.  After  seven  days  of  terrible 
fighting,  ending  with 
the  federal  victory  of 
Malvern  Hill  (July  i, 
1862),  the  Union  com 
mander  reached  Har 
rison  Landing  on  the 
James,  where  he  could 
receive  the  support  of 
the  fleet  of  federal  gun 
boats.  Later,  his  forces 
were  moved  back  to  the 
vicinity  of  Washington. 

McClellan  attributed 
his  failure  to  take  Rich- 
mond  to  Secretary 
Stanton.  He  accused 
him  of  wilfully  holding  back  reinforcements,  and  wrote  to  him  : 
"You  have  done  your  best  to  sacrifice  this  army."  1192  Military 
writers  give  McClellan  credit  for  one  of  the  most  "  brilliant 
retreats "  ever  executed  in  the  face  of  an  enemy.  Lincoln 
wrote  to  him:  "All  accounts  say  better  fighting  was  never 
done."  1193  But  the  Union  losses  in  the  campaign  had  been 
very  heavy;*  and,  though  the  Confederates  had  suffered  greater 
losses,  the  North  demanded  that  the  next  advance  against 
Richmond  should  be  led  by  a  new  commander. 

*  Official  estimate:  Effective  Union  force,  105,445;  Confederate  force, 
80,000  to  90,000;  Union  loss,  15,849;  Confederate  loss,  20,135. 


424  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 

470.  Pope  takes  the  reins ;  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run. 
-  Halleck  (§  463)  was  now  (July  12,  1862)  called  from  the 

West  and  made  General-in-Chief  of  the  Union  forces.  General 
Pope  had  done  good  service  in  the  campaign  against  Island 
Number  Ten  (§  464),  and  he  was  put  in  command  of  a  newly 
organized  force,  —  the  "  Army  of  Virginia," —  intended  to 
operate  against  Richmond.  It  was  understood  that  part  of 
McClellan's  army  would  be  taken  to  reinforce  Pope. 

Pope  proposed  to  move  straight  on  the  enemy,  and  declared 
that  he  should  establish  his  headquarters  "  in  the  saddle."  He 
issued  orders  to  his  army  to  subsist  on  the  country  through 
which  they  moved,  to  hold  the  people  responsible  for  Union 
property  destroyed  by  "rebel  raids,"  and  to  send  all  secession 
ists  out  of  the  federal  lines.  Pope  advanced  to  the  Rappa- 
hannock,  and  there  halted  for  reinforcements.  "  Stonewall  " 
Jackson  saw  his  opportunity;  aided  by  Stuart's  cavalry,  he  hur 
ried  down  the  Shenandoah  Valley,  passed  through  a  gap  in  the 
mountains,  got  into  the  federal  rear  at  Manassas,  and  captured 
or  destroyed  a  large  part  of  Pope's  stores  of  ammunition  and 
supplies. 

A  few  days  later  the  Union  commander  met  Lee's  army  near 
the  old  battlefield  of  Bull  Run,  or  Manassas  (§  460).  Pope  asked 
for  reinforcements  and  additional  supplies  of  ammunition,  but 
McClellan  could  not  or  would  not  send  them  to  his  rival 
in  arms.1194  Notwithstanding  this  disadvantage,  the  Confeder 
ate  General  Longstreet  admits  that  Pope  "  made  a  splendid 
fight"  (August  29-September  i,  1862);  but  he  was  badly 
beaten.*  He  fell  back  to  Washington  and  his  army  was  united 
with  the  "Army  of  the  Potomac,"  and  McClellan  received  the 
command. 

471.  Lee  enters  Maryland;  battles  of  Antietam  and  Fred- 
ericksburg. — Lee,  at  the  head  of  60,000  troops,  flushed  with 

*  Official  estimate:  Union  army,  not  less  than  64,000;  Confederate  army, 
about  54,000;  Phisterer  gives  the  Union  loss  (August  28-September  i)  at 
16,000,  and  the  Confederate  loss  at  11,500. 


1862.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  425 

victory,  advanced  northward.  Now,  while  the  "Copperheads" 
(§  456)  at  the  North  were  rampant  over  Pope's  defeat,  he  was 
confident  that  he  could  speedily  conquer  a  peace.1195  His  gaunt, 
barefooted  men,  "  flaunting  their  rags  in  the  sunshine," 1196 
crossed  the  Potomac  above  Washington  and  entered  Frederick 
City,  singing  "  Maryland,  my  Maryland";  but  Maryland  failed 
to  respond.  Lee  issued  a  proclamation  calling  on  the  people 
to  rise  and  throw  off  the  "  foreign  yoke"  of  federal  oppression; 
but  not  a  man  rose. 

Less  than  ten  days  later,  McClellan  met  Lee's  army  at 
Antietam,  or  Sharpsburg.  There  occurred  (September  17, 
1862)  the  "bloodiest  single  day  of  fighting  of  the  war."  Whole 
regiments  of  raw  recruits  went  to  their  graves,  and  the  cornfield 
where  the  chief  part  of  the  battle  raged  was  covered  with  wind 
rows  of  the  slain.  At  the  end  of  the  terrible  day,  Lee  retreated 
across  the  Potomac,  leaving  McClellan  in  possession  of  the 
field.*  The  President  begged  McClellan  not  to  let  Lee  get  off 
"without  being  hurt";1197  but  that  general  moved  so  slowly 
in  pursuit  that  Lincoln  finally  lost  all  patience,  and  gave  the 
command  of  the  Union  army  (November  5,  1862)  to  Burnside, 
who  reluctantly  accepted  the  perilous  honor  thus  thrust  upon 
him. 

When  Burnside  advanced  against  Richmond,  he  encountered 
Lee  at  Fredericksburg,  strongly  entrenched  along  the  hills  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Rappahannock.  The  Union  army  crossed 
the  river  and  attacked  him  (December  13,  1862);  but  neither 
the  "  superb  "  Hancock  nor  "  Fighting  Joe  Hooker  "  could 
carry  the  heights.  Burnside  lost  heavily  and  was  obliged  to 
retreat,  t 

*  Official  estimate:  McClellan  reported  the  Union  force  at  87,164,  but 
the  brunt  of  the  battle  was  borne  by  not  above  60,000  of  this  number.  Lee 
does  not  give  the  strength  of  his  army,  but  says  in  his  official  report  that 
less  than  40,000  men  on  his  side  took  part  in  the  battle.  Union  loss, 
12,410  ;  Confederate  loss,  11,172. 

t  Official  estimate  :  Effective  Union  force,  113,000  ;  effective  Confederate 
force,  about  60,000;  Union  loss,  12,653;  Confederate  loss,  5377. 


426  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [isei-isea. 

The  next  month  (January  25,  1863)  Hooker  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  but  he  did  not  make  any 
general  movement  against  Lee  until  late  in  the  spring. 

472.  Slavery  and  the  war;.»Butler's  "  contrabands/'  — 
The  winter  of  1863  was  one  of  the  dark  periods  of  the  contest 
for  the  Union.  The  "  Copperheads"  (§  456)  were  uttering  gloomy 
predictions  of  impending  disaster,  and  "  Bull  Run  "  Russell, 
the  correspondent  of  the  London  "  Times,"  was  busily  engaged 
in  Lee's  camp  in  gathering  material  for  a  history  of  the 
"  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  American  Republic."  At  this  period, 
on  New  Year's  Day,  1863,  the  President  issued  his  Proclamation 
of  Emancipation. 

Neither  the  President  nor  Congress  had  looked  forward  to 
this  decisive  action.  Events  had  forced  it.  Lincoln,  as  we 
have  seen  (§  448),  entered  office  making  the  explicit  declara 
tion  that  he  would  not  in  any  way  interfere  with  slavery  at 
the  South.  After  the  great  contest  in  behalf  of  the  nation's  life 
actually  began,  Secretary  Seward  told  our  Minister  at  Paris  that 
whatever  might  be  the  issue  of  the  war,  "the  condition  of 
slavery"  would  "remain  just  the  same."  1198 

A  few  months  later  (July  24,  1861)  Congress  resolved,  by  a 
nearly  unanimous  vote,  that  whatever  battles  they  might  be 
called  upon  to  fight,  they  would  not  touch  slavery.1199  This 
resolution  met  the  entire  approval,  not  only  of  the  great  body 
of  conservative  men  at  the  North,  but  of  military  men  as  well. 
Neither  McClellan  nor  any  other  of  the  prominent  early  leaders 
in  the  Union  army  had  any  intention  of  helping  the  negroes  to 
acquire  their  freedom.  Wendell  Phillips  said  with  truth  that, 
while  "  the  South  fought  to  sustain  slavery,  the  North  fought 
not  to  have  it  hurt."1200  The  Northern  people  felt  that  the 
Constitution  protected  slavery,  and  they  would  not  wilfully 
and  openly  violate  the  great  charter  of  the  Republic;  Mean 
while  they  acknowledged  the  inconsistency  of  battling  against 
secession,  and  yet  letting  the  secessionists  have  the  use  of  the 
negro  to  help  the  cause  of  disunion. 


1861-1862.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  42 / 

General  Butler  first  saw  how  to  cut  the  knot.  Three  fugitive 
slaves,  the  property  of  a  Confederate  officer,  fled  to  him  at  Fort 
Monroe  (May  23,  1861)  and  begged  for  protection.  Butler 
knew  that  if  he  returned  them  to  their  master  they  would  be 
sent  South  to  build  "rebel  fortifications."  The  law  (§  414) 
required  him  to  give  them  up  ;  but  he  refused  to  surrender 
them.  "These  men,"  said  he,  "are  contraband  of  war.  I 
will  hold  them  and  use  them  in  behalf  of  the  Union."  The 
word  "  contraband  "  struck  the  slave  system  a  staggering  blow. 
Butler  soon  had  nearly  a  thousand  "  contrabands  "  at  work  on 
the  national  defences  at  Fort  Monroe.1201  His  action  was  offi 
cially  approved  by  the  Secretary  of  War,  and  by  a  majority  of 
those  who  were  resolved  to  put  down  secession  if  it  cost  the 
North's  "  last  man  and  last  dollar." 

In  the  course  of  the  summer  Congress  passed  (August  6, 
1861)  an  act  setting  free  all  slaves  used  by  the  Confederates 
in  military  operations  within  the  seceded  States.  This  act, 
however,  did  not  apply  to  the  border  slave  States,  or  to  the 
great  mass  of  slaves  in  the  Confederate  States ;  and  when 
General  Fremont  issued  a  proclamation  of  emancipation  in 
Missouri  (1861),  and  General  Hunter  did  the  same  (1862) 
in  South  Carolina,  the  President  declared  both  proclamations 
void.1202 

473.  Lincoln's  scheme  of  compensated  emancipation ; 
District  of  Columbia^  the  Territories.  —  In  his  message  to 
Congress  in  the  spring  of  1862,  the  President  strongly  recom 
mended  a  scheme  of  compensated  emancipation.  He  urged  the 
nation  to  offer  to  "  cooperate  with  any  State  which  may  adopt 
gradual  abolition  of  slavery,"  and  to  give  "to  such  State 
pecuniary  aid."  A  resolution  passed  both  Houses  of  Congress 
to  that  effect,  but  nothing  came  of  it,  for  the  South  had  no 
intention  of  giving  up  African  servitude.  A  little  later  (April 
1 6,  1862)  Congress  purchased,  at  an  expense  of  nearly  a  mil 
lion  dollars,  the  slaves  held  in  the  District  of  Columbia  —  about 
4000  in  all  —  and  gave  them  their  liberty. 


428  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [isea. 

Congress  next  (June  19,  1862),  applied  the  principle  of  the 

Wilmot  Proviso  (§  404)  to  the  Territories.     This  act  set  aside 

"  Popular  Sovereignty"  (§  422)  and  the  Dred  Scott  decision 

(§  434)  by  prohibiting  slavery  forever  within  any  part  of  the 

public  domain. 

474.  Lincoln's  reply  to  Greeley's  letter  on  emancipation. 
-  Thaddeus  Stevens,  one  of  the  great  Republican  leaders  in 

Congress,  had  urged  the  Government  to  begin  the  work  of  eman 
cipation  and  had  offered  a  bill  to  that  effect.  Late  in  the  sum 
mer  of  1862  Horace  Greeley  addressed  an  open  letter  to  the 
President.  He  entitled  it  "The  Prayer  of  Twenty  Millions," 
and  begged  him  to  enforce  the  acts  of  Congress  granting 
"freedom  to  the  slaves  of  rebels  coming  within  our  lines."1203 

No  one  detested  negro  bondage  more  than  Lincoln  did.  "  If 
slavery  is  not  wrong,"  said  he,  "  nothing  is  wrong."  1204  No  one 
saw  more  clearly  than  he  that  the  negro  question  was  the  tap 
root  of  the  Civil  War.  "  Without  slavery,"  said  he,  "  the  rebel 
lion  could  never  have  existed;  without  slavery  it  could  not 
continue."  1205 

But  the  President  was  still  uncertain  whether  it  would  be 
wise  for  him  to  take  the  course  which  Stevens  and  Greeley 
urged.  In  reply  to  the  latter's  letter,  he  wrote  (August  22, 
1862):  "My  paramount  object  in  this  struggle  is  to  save  the 
Union,  and  is  not  either  to  save  or  destroy  slavery.  If  I  could 
save  the  Union  without  freeing  any  slave  I  would  do  it;  and  if 
I  could  save  it  by  freeing  all  the  slaves  I  would  do  it;  and  if  I 
could  save  it  by  freeing  some  and  leaving  others  alone  I  would 
also  do  that."  He  felt  then  that  the  times  were  critical,  and 
that  if  he  should  issue  a  proclamation  of  emancipation,  it  might 
alienate  the  border  States  and,  as  he  said,  send  "  50,000  bayo 
nets  "  from  those  States  "  over  to  the  rebels."  1206 

475.  Proclamation  of  warning. — When   Lee  first  entered 
Maryland  (§  471)  the  President  made  a  solemn  vow  that  if  the 
invader  should  be  driven  back  he  would  send  the  proclamation 
after  him.     Lee  was  driven  back  (§   471)   and  Lincoln  issued 


1862-1863.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  429 

(September  22,  1862)  a  proclamation  warning  the  seceded 
States  that  if  they  did  not  lay  down  their  arms  and  return  to 
their  allegiance  within  one  hundred  days,  —  namely,  on  January 
I?  1863,  —  he  should  declare  all  of  their  slaves  "  forever  free." 
The  Governors  of  thirteen  loyal  States,  at  a  meeting  held  at 
Altoona,  Pennsylvania,  hailed  this  action  with  "  heartfelt  grati 
tude."  1207  At  midnight  of  the  last  day  of  the  year  (1862) 
thousands  of  negroes,  both  bond  and  free,  prayed  that  God 
would  take  pity  on  them  and  would  strengthen  the  hands  of 
Abraham  Lincoln  to  carry  out  his  great  purpose  on  the  follow 
ing  day.1208 

476.  The    Proclamation    of    Emancipation     (1863).  - 
Promptly  on  the  first  day  of  the  New  Year  (1863),  the  Presi 
dent  issued  his   final   proclamation.      It  set  free  forever  all 
slaves  held  in  the  sections  then  fighting  against  the  Union. 
For  the  first  time  in  the  history  of  the  war  the  Government 
had  struck  secession  at  its  root,  and   had  struck  it  a  death 
blow.     The  President  declared  that  this  "  act  of  justice  "  was 
warranted  "  by  the  Constitution  upon  military  necessity  "  ;  he 
invoked  for   it   "  the   considerate    judgment   of    mankind   and 
the  gracious  favor  of  Almighty  God." m9      Two  years  later 
(1865)   the   thirteenth    amendment   to    the   Constitution    con 
firmed  this  act,  and  extended  it  to  all  slaves  held  in  any  part 
of  the  United  States.     (See  Appendix,  p.  xvii.) 

The  system  of  African  servitude  which  the  Southern  people 
had  inherited  from  the  colonial  period  victimized  master  and 
slave  alike.  Lincoln  emancipated  both.  He  completed  the 
great  work  of  the  "Fathers  of  the  Republic"  by  including  the 
negro  in  that  Declaration  of  Independence  which  affirms  that 
all  men  are  created  with  an  equal  right  to  "  life,  liberty,  and 
the  pursuit  of  happiness." 

477.  Economic,  political,  and  military  results  of  emanci 
pation  ;   prisoners  of  war.  —  From  an  economic  point  of  view, 
the  act  wrought  an  industrial  revolution.     The  South  estimated 
that  it  had  $2,000,000,000  invested  in  negroes;  the  proclama- 


43O  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [isea. 

tion  did  not  destroy  this  investment,  but  simply  transferred  it 
to  a  new  owner,  giving  the  slave  possession  of  himself. 

Politically  speaking,  the  proclamation  changed  the  whole 
character  of  the  war.  Hitherto,  the  North  had  been  fighting 
to  restore  the  Union  as  it  stood  before  secession,  —  a  "house 
divided  against  itself,"  half  free  and  half  slave.  Henceforth, 
the  national  forces  would  fight  to  perfect  the  Union  by  making 
it  wholly  free.  Abroad,  the  proclamation  strengthened  the 
cause  of  the  Union,  and  practically  destroyed  the  possibility  of 
the  foreign  recognition  of  the  Confederacy. 

Furthermore,  emancipation  had  an  important  military  result. 
It  cleared  the  way  for  the  enlistment  of  the  negro.  Before 
1863  came  to  a  close,  50,000  "  freedmen  "  had  entered  the  army 
and  navy  of  the  United  States  ;  this  number  was  eventually  in 
creased  to  about  180,000.  Grant  praised  the  gallant  behavior 
of  these  new  recruits.  At  Vicksburg,  Mobile,  Fort  Wagner, 
Fort  Pillow,  and  other  points  they  mingled  their  blood  with  that 
of  the  white  soldiers  who  gave  their  lives  for  the  Republic.1210 

The  Confederate  authorities  refused  (May  i,  1863)  to  ex 
change  negro  prisoners  of  war  or  their  white  officers  captured 
in  battle.  As  the  United  States  felt  obliged  to  protect  all, 
whether  black  or  white,  who  entered  its  service,  the  national 
Government  refused  to  exchange  at  all  until  the  South  would 
recede  from  the  stand  it  had  taken.  This  deadlock  led  to  the 
frightful  overcrowding  and  terrible  mortality  at  Andersonville 
and  other  Confederate  prisons.*  Later,  the  need  of  men  forced 

*  There  is  no  accurate  report  of  the  number  of  Union  prisoners  who 
died  in  Confederate  prisons  and  prison-pens  at  the  South  ;  but  it  is  esti 
mated  that  out  of  about  188,000  federal  soldiers  captured  by  the  Con 
federates,  half  were  paroled,  and  that  36,000  of  the  remaining  half  died  in 
captivity.  The  Union  armies  captured  476,000  Confederates  ;  of  these 
227,000  were  retained  as  prisoners  ;  of  these  30,000  died.  The  rate  of 
mortality  in  the  Northern  prisons  was  13  in  100  ;  that  in  Southern  prisons 
was  38  in  100,  or  nearly  three  times  greater.  See  Nicolay  and  Hay's  "  Lin 
coln,"  VII.  444,  and  Congressional  Report  on  "  Treatment  of  Prisoners," 
No.  45,  4Oth  Congress.  A  comparison  of  the  two  prison  systems  shows 


REDUCED   COPY   OF  A   PART  OF  THE   EMANCIPATION    PROCLAMATION 
(Jan.   I,   1863). 


J 


1862.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  431 

the  secession  authorities  to  offer  to  exchange  black  soldiers 
for  white ;  but  as  the  Union  forces  were  then  nearing  the  point 
of  final  victory,  General  Grant  refused  to  consider  the  offer. 
He  said  that  he  "  did  not  deem  it  advisable  or  just  to  the  men 
who  had  to  fight  our  battles  to  reinforce  the  enemy  with  thirty 
or  forty  thousand  disciplined  troops  at  that  time."1211  Like 
Washington  in  the  Revolution,  Grant  took  this  stand  respect 
ing  exchange  in  order  not  to  prolong  the  contest.  The  sooner 
the  war  ended,  the  sooner  all  prisoners  would  be  set  at  liberty. 
478.  Operations  in  the  West;  Bragg  invades  Kentucky; 
battle  of  Perryville. — Late  in  the  summer  of  1862  Bragg, 
the  successor  of  Beauregard  (§  464)  started  from  Chattanooga 
on  an  expedition  northward.  He  invaded  Kentucky,  hoping  to 
get  supplies  for  his  hungry  men  and  to  get  possession  of  the 
State  for  the  Confederates.  Buell  (§  463)  held  Tennessee. 
Finding  that  Bragg  was  hurrying  to  get  into  Louisville,  the 
chief  city  of  Kentucky,  Buell  set  off  with  all  speed  for  the  same 
place,  won  the  race,  and  then  turned  on  Bragg.  The  Con 
federate  general  retreated  as  far  as  Perryville.  When  Buell 
came  up  a  sharp  battle  ensued  (October  8,  1862),  in  which 
both  sides  lost  heavily.*  The  next  morning  Bragg  retreated 

that  the  deaths  in  the  Southern  prisons  were  caused  in  large  degree  by 
want  of  proper  food,  overcrowding,  filth,  and  exposure  to  the  weather.  At 
Anderson ville  35,000  prisoners  were  huddled  together,  without  shelter,  in  a 
field  of  27  acres,  the  center  of  which  was  a  pestilential  swamp.  The  Con 
federate  inspector  reported  that  the  prison-pen  was  a  "  disgrace  to  civiliza 
tion."  At  the  end  of  the  war  Henry  Wirz,  the  Swiss  commandant  at 
Andersonville,  was  convicted  by  court-martial  of  cruel  treatment  of  Union 
prisoners,  and  was  hanged  Nov.  10,  1865.  The  greater  part  of  the  deaths 
in  the  Northern  prisons  appear  to  have  been  caused  by  the  fact  that  the 
prisoners  were  often  not  in  good  physical  condition  when  they  entered  them, 
and  next  because  they  were  poorly  clad  and  not  able  to  bear  the  rigor  of 
the  Northern  winter.  All  the  reports  agree  that  the  Confederate  prisoners 
were  not  overcrowded  and  that  they  had  good  and  sufficient  rations. 

*  Official  estimate :  Union  force,  54,000,  but  perhaps  not  more  than 
half  of  these  actually  took  part  in  the  battle.  Bragg .  reports,  the  Con 
federate  force  at  only  15,000;  but  he  appears  to  hate 'ha^rxrt  Jess  thai 
68,000  in  the  field.  Union  loss,  4211 ;  Confederate  loss*  3396. 


432  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

through  the  Cumberland  Gap  on  his  way  back  toward  Chatta 
nooga.  He  succeeded  in  getting  off  with  a  long  wagon-train  of 
plunder.  Buell  was  censured  for  letting  Bragg  escape  him,  and 
his  command  was  turned  over  to  General  Rosecrans. 

479.  Battles  of  luka  and  Corinth ;  Grant's  first  attack 

on  Vicksburg ;  battle  of  Murfreesboro' Meanwhile  the 

Confederates  made  a  desperate  effort  to  drive  the  Union  force 
out  of  Corinth  (§  464)  ;  but  in  the  battles  of  luka  (September 
19,  1862)  and  Corinth  (October  3,  4,  1862)  they  met  with  a 
severe  repulse. 

In  November,  Halleck  (§  463),  who  was  now  General-in-Chief, 
put  General  Grant  in  command  of  about  50,000  troops,  and 
told  him  to  fight  the  enemy  where  he  pleased.  Grant  deter 
mined  to  move  against  Vicksburg,  the  most  important  strong 
hold  held  by  the  Confederates  on  the  Mississippi.  He  ordered 
Sherman,  then  at  Memphis,  to  move  down  the  river,  and  with 
the  help  of  Porter's  gunboats,  attack  the  city  from  the  rear. 
Grant  himself  undertook  to  prevent  Pemberton  and  his  Con 
federate  force  in  northern  Mississippi  from  going  to  the  aid  of 
Vicksburg.  Suddenly  a  troop  of  Confederate  cavalry  swooped 
down  on  Grant's  base  of  supplies  at  Holly  Springs,  burned  them 
(December  20,  1862),  and  so  compelled  the  Union  commander 
to  fall  back.  Meanwhile  Sherman,  who  knew  nothing  of  Grant's 
misfortune,  advanced  (December  27,  1862),  but  encountered 
natural  obstacles  which  prevented  his  accomplishing  anything. 

In  the  meantime  Rosecrans  (§  478)  was  preparing  to  move 
from  his  headquarters  at  Nashville  against  Bragg  (§  478)  at 
Chattanooga.  Bragg  came  out  to  meet  him.  '  At  Murfrees 
boro'  on  Stone's  River,  Tennessee,  one  of  the  most  hotly  con 
tested  battles  of  the  war  was  fought  (December  31,  1862- 
January  2,  1863).  Sheridan  and  Thomas  saved  the  day  for  the 
Union  army,  and  the  Confederate  general  retreated  in  the  night 
to  Tullahoma.*  The  battle  of  Murfreesboro'  compelled  the 

•  *  Official  estimate  :  Effective  Union  force,  43,400  ;  Confederate  force, 
37,712*;  Union  los1?  (in  the  campaign),  13,249  ;  Confederate  loss,  10,266. 


1862-1863.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  433 

Confederate  commander  to  give  up  his  attempt  to  break  through 
the  Union  line  which  defended  the  free  States  against  invasion. 

480.  Summary  of  the  Second  Year  of  the  War  (April, 
i862-April,  1863).  —  The  second  year  of  the  war  opened  with 
Farragut's  capture  of   New  Orleans.     This  was  the  great  mili 
tary  success  of  the  year  in  the  Southwest.     It  was  followed  by 
Bragg's   raid   into   Kentucky,  Grant's   unsuccessful   attack  on 
Vicksburg,  and  Bragg's  repulse  at  Murfreesboro'. 

In  the  East,  McClellan's  indecisive  Peninsular  Campaign  was 
followed  by  Pope's  defeat  at  the  second  battle  of  Bull  Run. 
Lee  then  advanced  into  Maryland,  but  was  driven  back  at 
Antietam.  Burnside  attacked  him  at  Fredericksburg  and  was 
forced  to  retreat.  On  New  Year's  Day,  1863,  the  President 
issued  his  Proclamation  of  Emancipation.  This  gave  the  war 
a  new  character  —  henceforth  it  was  to  be  a  contest  not  to 
restore  the  nation  with  slavery  untouched,  but  to  make  it 
wholly  free. 

THIRD   YEAR   OF  THE   WAR,   APRIL,    1863,    TO   APRIL,    1864. 

481.  Battle  of  Chancellor sville.  —  In  the  spring  of  1863, 
"Fighting  Joe  Hooker,"  Burnside's  successor  (§  471),  moved 
against   Lee,-  who   was   entrenched   at  Fredericksburg  on  the 
Rappahannock.     Hooker  established  his  headquarters  at  the 
farm-house  of  Chancellorsville  on  the  edge  of  the  "Wilderness" 
(§  468).     There  (May  2,  1863)  the  fighting  began.     Lee  sent 
"  Stonewall  "  Jackson  round  with  a  force  20,000  strong  to  fall  on 
Hooker's  rear.     Jackson's  attack  was  a  complete  surprise,  and 
threw  the   federal   army  into   confusion.      The   coming  on  of 
night  saved  it  from  defeat.1212     After  the  battle  Jackson,  while 
reconnoitering,  was  fired  upon,  and  fell  mortally  wounded.     In 
losing  him  Lee  had  lost  his  "  right  arm." 

The  battle  was  resumed  the  next  day.  At  a  critical  moment, 
a  cannon-ball  struck  a  pillar  of  the  farm-house  against  which 
Hooker  was  leaning,  and  the  concussion  knocked  him  sense 
less  to  the  ground.  When  he  fully  recovered,  the  day  was  lost, 


434  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [isea. 

and  that  night  the  national  forces  retreated  across  the  Rappa- 
hannock.* 

482.  Lee's  advance  into  Pennsylvania;  discontent  at  the 
North  ;  first  day's  battle  at  Gettysburg.  —  The  President 
wrote  to  Hooker  (June  10,  1863):  "If  he  (Lee)  stays  where 
he  is,  fret  him  and  fret  him."  1213  But  Lee  had  already  deter 
mined  to  make  a  second  invasion  of  the  North  (§  471).  He 
is  reported  to  have  said,  that  he  believed  he  "would  swap 
queens,"1214  —  in  other  words,  let  Hooker  take  the  Confederate 
capital,  if  he  could,  while  he  moved  on  the  checker-board  of 
war  against  Washington. 

Many  events  seemed  to  unite  in  encouraging  Lee  to  take 
this  step.  Burnside  and  Hooker  had  been  defeated  in  the 
East  (§§471,  481);  Grant  had  failed  in  his  attempt  to  take 
Vicksburg  (§  479) ;  the  desertions  from  the  Union  army  aver 
aged,  at  one  time,  two  hundred  a  day ;  one  prominent  North 
ern  man  had  been  arrested  for  treasonable  utterances  against 
the  Government  and  sent  into  the  Confederacy,  and  several 
other  well-known  men  were  denouncing  the  President  as  a 
"tyrant"  and  the  war  as  "wicked  slaughter."  In  order  to  fill 
the  ranks  the  Government  had  been  compelled  to  order  a 
draft.  Resistance  to  this  measure  was  openly  threatened. 
When,  a  little  later  (July  13-16),  an  attempt  was  made  in  New 
York  to  enforce  the  draft,  a  mob  set  fire  to  buildings,  attacked 
newspaper  offices,  hanged  negroes,  and  for  four  days  held  the 
city  at  their  mercy.  The  police  were  powerless  to  check  the 
rioters;  but  a  body  of  regular  troops  speedily  dispersed  them, 
though  not  until  about  a  thousand  were  killed. 

The  knowledge  of  this  element  of  discontent  and  turbulence 
at  the  North  greatly  encouraged  Lee  in  his  invasion  ;  but  he 
made  the  mistake  of  supposing  that  it  represented  the  attitude 
of  the  majority  of  the  people. 

*  Official  estimate:  Effective  Union  force,  130,000;  effective  Con 
federate  force,  not  less  than  60,000;  Union  loss,  12,145;  Confederate  loss, 
12,463. 


1863.] 


THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION. 


435 


Concealed  by  the  mountain  wall  of  the  Shenandoah  Valley, 
he  advanced,  crossed  the  Potomac,  and  entered  Pennsylvania. 
Hooker  followed,  but  at  this  juncture  he  was  relieved  of  his 
command  (June  28,  1863)  and  General  Meade  was  placed  at 
the  head  of  the  army  of  the  Potomac.  On  the  same  day,  Lee 
began  his  advance  upon  Harrisburg,  the  capital  of  Pennsyl 
vania  ;  but  hearing  that  the  Union  army  was  in  his  rear,  and 
fearing  that  his  communication  with  Richmond  might  be  cut, 
he  ordered  his  entire  army  to  move  on  Gettysburg,  where  he 
could  threaten  either  Harrisburg  or  Baltimore.1215 

Gettysburg  lies  on  a  slope  at  the  foot  of  two  ridges.  The 
nearer  one,  shaped  like  a  fish-hook,  is  known  as  Cemetery 
Ridge.  It  is  about  five  miles  in  length,  and  is  marked  by 
three  elevations  :  Gulp's  Hill,  at  the  barb  of  the  hook,  and 
Little  Round  Top,  followed  by  Round  Top  at  the  extremity  of 
the  shank.  Opposite,  a  little  more  than  a  mile  away,  rises 
Seminary  Ridge.  Neither  army  origin 
ally  thought  of  fighting  here,  but  at  this 
point  the  first  and  last  great  battle  on 
free  soil  was  to  be  fought. 

On  the  morning  of  July  i  (1863)  the 
Confederate  force  struck  the  Union  ad 
vance  at  Gettysburg.  The  brave  Rey 
nolds  was  killed  while  forming  the  Union 
line  of  battle,  and  his  men  were  driven 
back  through  the  town  to  Cemetery 
Ridge.  There  they  took  up  a  very 
strong  position  where  the  crest  of  the 
ridge  would  hide  their  movements  from  the  observation  of  the 
enemy.  Lee's  whole  army  as  it  arrived  took  possession  of  the 
opposite  height  of  Seminary  Ridge. 

483.  The  second  day's  battle  at  Gettysburg.  —  Hancock 
reached  the  field  that  evening,  and  on  hearing  his  report, 
Meade  ordered  the  entire  Union  force  to  advance  to  Gettys 
burg.  The  Union  commander  resolved  to  hold  Cemetery 


436  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [isea. 

Ridge  and  fight  a  defensive  battle.  This  gave  him  a  decided 
advantage,  since  he  not  only  had  the  greater  force,  but  Lee's  men 
in  order  to  attack  him  must  move  across  the  broad,  open  valley, 
where  they  would  be  the  target  of  the  Union  fire.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Confederates  held  ground  which  enabled  them 
to  employ  their  batteries  with  much  greater  effect  than  the 
Union  men  could  use  theirs.1216 

On  the  second  day  of  the  battle  the  Confederates  drove 
back  General  Sickles  from  a  position  he  had  taken  just  in 
front  of  Cemetery  Ridge.  They  then  made  a  determined 
movement  to  get  possession  of  Little  Round  Top,  which  the 
Union  forces  had  neglected  to  occupy.  By  desperate  fighting 
Meade's  men  secured  and  held  the  coveted  height  —  the  true 
key  of  the  battlefield.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Confederates 
pierced  Meade's  center,  and  a  detachment  got  a  foothold  on 
a  part  of  Gulp's  Hill  ;  but  they  were  driven  out  early  the  next 
morning. 

484.  The  final  battle  at  Gettysburg ;  Pickett 's  charge 
(July  3>  1863).  —  On  the  third  and  last  day  (July  3,  1863) 
Lee,  against  Longstreet's  advice,  decided  to  make  a  grand 
assault  on  the  Union  center  —  held  by  Hancock.  At  one 
o'clock  the  Confederate  batteries  opened  a  terrific  artillery  fire, 
which  was  kept  up  for  nearly  two  hours.  The  guns  of  the 
national  forces  hurled  back  defiance,  and  the  whole  valley 
between  the  two  ridges  was  alive  with  shot  and  shell.  While 
this  furious  cannonade  was  going  on,  Lee  sent  Stuart's  cavalry 
round  to  attack  the  Union  rear  ;  but  Meade's  cavalry  met 
them  in  a  "  sabre  fight "  and  defeated  them. 

After  a  time  the  Union  commander  ordered  the  artillery  to 
cease  firing,  in  order  that  their  guns  might  cool.  Lee  believed 
he  had  silenced  the  national  batteries,  and  at  three  o'clock 
gave  the  order  for  General  Pickett  to  charge.  Pickett  started 
at  the  head  of  a  magnificent  triple  line  of  troops,  a  mile  long, 
numbering  15,000.  Hancock's  men,  intrenched  behind  a  stone 
wall,  awaited  the  attack.  Both  sides  realized  that  this  was  to 


MAP  OF  THE 

Battle  of 
T       GETTYSBURG 

—      Showing  the  Positions  held 

July  3d,  1863. 
N  ==  Union  Lines 

Confederate  Lines 

,     SCALE      . 


, 

The  High-Water  Mark  Monument 

Stands  on  the  ground  held 

by  Gibbon's  men 


1863.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  437 

be  the  death-grapple.  The  Confederate  force  —  the  flower  of 
Virginia  —  had  to  cross  a  level  space  over  a  mile  in  width.  As 
they  advanced,  the  Union  batteries  opened  upon  them,  and  tore 
great  gaps  in  their  ranks.  But  the  main  body  of  the  assailing 
column  pressed  steadily  forward,  without  themselves  firing  a 
shot  or  uttering  a  sound.  As  they  dashed  up  to  the  Union 
line,  a  terrific  front  and  flank  fire  swept  great  numbers  of  the 
"men  in  grey"  out  of  existence,  and  drove  others  to  turn  and 
fly  or  throw  down  their  arms. 

General  Armistead  led  the  remnant  of  Pickett's  column. 
Holding  up  his  cap  on  the  point  of  his  sword,  as  a  guide  to  his 
men,  he  leaped  over  the  stone  wall,  crying  :  "  Boys,  give  them 
the  cold  steel !  "  The  next  instant  he  fell  riddled  with  bullets. 
A  brief  hand-to-hand  fight  ensued,  then  all  was  over.  Here  — 
at  a  point  since  marked  by  an  appropriate  monument  —  the 
great  wave  of  attack  reached  its  high-water  mark  ;  here  its 
terrible  force  was  spent  and  the  tide  turned,  never  to  rise 
again.  One  look  at  the  field  of  battle  showed  that  the  Union 
force  had  won;  it  showed,  too,  the  truth  of  Wellington's  words: 
"  A  great  victory  is  the  saddest  thing  in  the  world,  except  a 
great  defeat."  * 

Meade's  losses  were  so  heavy  that  he  judged  it  best  not  to 
pursue  the  retreating  Confederates  and  bring  on  another  battle. 
Lee  crossed  the  Potomac  unmolested,  and  once  more  took  up 
his  line  of  defence  before  Richmond.  A  few  months  later 
a  part  of  the  field  at  Gettysburg  was  dedicated  as  a  national 
military  cemetery  ;  and  the  President,  standing  on  the  battle- 
consecrated  height,  delivered  that  address  which  will  live  as 
long  as  the  memory  of  the  conflict  that  inspired  it. 

*  Official  estimate:  Effective  Union  force  (June  30),  101,679;  Con 
federate  force,  77,518.  The  actual  Union  force  in  the  field  was  probably 
about  93,500,  and  the  Confederate  at  least  70,000.  Union  loss,  23,003 ; 
Confederate  loss,  20,451.  No  two  authorities  agree  as  to  the  number  of 
men  in  Pickett's  column.  Longstreet  ("Manassas  to  Appomattox,"  p.  314) 
says  15,000. 


438  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1863. 

485.  News  of  the  capture  of  Vicksburg;  how  Grant 
accomplished  it.  —  From  a  military  point  of  view,  the  Fourth 
of  July,  1863,  was  the  most  memorable  day  in  our  national 
history  since  the  close  of  the  Revolution.  On  that  day  the 
telegraph  flashed  the  news  of  the  victory  of  Gettysburg 
throughout  the  loyal  North  ;  on  that  day,  too,  Grant  entered 
the  Confederate  stronghold  of  Vicksburg. 

Vicksburg  was  the  "Gibraltar  of  the  West."  Standing  on  a 
clay  bluff  rising  perpendicularly  two  hundred  feet  above  the 
Mississippi,  it  defied  attack  in  front.  On  the  north  it  was  pro 
tected,  as  Sherman  had  found  to  his  cost  (§  479),  by  a  network 
of  almost  impassable  bayous  and  swamps.  On  the  south  and 
rear  it  could  only  be  approached  by  climbing  steep  ridges  cut 
by  deep  ravines. 

Grant  arrived  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi  just 
above  Vicksburg  in  January,  1863.  He  made  up  his  mind 
that  the  true  way  to  attack  the  place  would  be  to  go  back 
to  Memphis,  a  distance  of  about  two  hundred  miles,  make 
that  city  his  base  of  supplies,  and  then  move  his  army  down 
along  the  line  of  railroad  to  the  rear  of  Vicksburg.  But  politi 
cal  reasons,  he  says,  forbade  his  adopting  this  course.  It  was 
a  period  of  gloom  and  doubt  at  the  North.  McClellan's  move 
ment  on  Richmond  had  failed ;  Pope  had  been  defeated  at  Bull 
Run.  Lee  had  got  away  from  Antietam,  and  was  once  more 
defiant.  The  election  of  1862  had  gone  against  the  vigorous 
prosecution  of  the  contest  against  secession.  "  Many  strong 
Union  men,"  says  Grant,  "believed  that  the  war  must  prove  a 
failure."  "  Voluntary  enlistments  had  nearly  ceased,  and  the 
draft  was  resisted."  1217  Under  these  circumstances  he  feared 
that  the  North  would  regard  any  backward  movement  as  a 
retreat;  for  this  reason  he  finally  determined  to  move  down 
the  western  bank  of  the  river,  cross  over,  and  then  attack 
Vicksburg  from  the  rear. 

Grant  had  to  solve  the  problem:  (i)  of  getting  his  army 
of  over  40,000  men  past  the  Vicksburg  batteries,  and  (2)  of 


FACSIMILE   OF    MR.    LINCOLN'S    AUTOGRAPHIC     COPY    OF     THE    GETTYSBURG    ADDRESS,    MADK 
BY    HIM    FOR    THE   SOLDIERS'    AND   SAILORS*    FAIR    AT    BALTIMORE,    IN    1864. 

From  Nicolay  and  Hay's  "Lincoln,"  by  permission  of  the  Authors. 


Sf0 


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1863.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  439 

crossing  the  Mississippi  and  securing  a  base  of  operations 
south  of  the  city.  The  land  on  which  the  long  line  of  Union 
forces  was  encamped  was  low  and  swampy,  and  incessant  rains 
made  it  difficult  for  the  troops  to  find  ground  on  which  to  pitch 
their  tents. 

The  winter  was  spent  in  endeavoring  to  turn  the  Mississippi 
from  its  course  by  digging  a  canal  across  the  peninsula  oppo 
site  Vicksburg  so  that  the  army  might  be  moved  south  by  water. 
This  work,  with  other  attempts  of  a  similar  character,  failed  ; 
but  as  Grant  says,  it  served  the  important  end  of  diverting  the 
attention  of  the  enemy,  keeping  a  part  of  the  troops  busy,  and 
pacifying  the  impatience  of  the  press.1218 

486.  Grant  crosses  the  river ;  campaign  against  John 
ston  and  Pemberton.  —  When  spring  came  and  the  water  had 
receded  so  that  marching  became  practicable,  Grant  gave 
orders  to  move.  Porter,  having  protected  his  gunboats  with 
bales  of  cotton  and  hay,  ran  past  the  Vicksburg  batteries  in 
the  night  (April  16,  1863).  Grant's  army  then  marched  down 
the  west  bank  a  distance  of  about  seventy  miles,  and  on  the 
last  of  April  (1863)  Porter's  fleet  began  to  ferry  the  men  across 
the  river.  Pemberton,  the  Confederate  general,  had  a  force 
about  40,000  strong  in  and  around  Vicksburg.  He  attempted 
to  prevent  the  Union  army  from  landing,  but  without  success. 

General  Joseph  E.  Johnston  (§  468)  hurried  up  to  Jackson, 
the  capital  of  Mississippi,  with  reinforcements  from  Tennessee 
for  Pemberton.  Grant  at  once  moved  eastward  on  Jackson, 
and  drove  Johnston  out  of  the  place  (May  14,  1863).  He 
then  destroyed  the  railroads  centering  there  and  the  manu 
factories  of  military  goods,  and  so  cut  off  Pemberton's  sup 
plies,  all  of  which  had  come  through  Jackson. 

Grant  next  turned  on  Pemberton,  who  had  come  out  from 
Vicksburg  to  join  Johnston.  He  whipped  the  Confederate  com 
mander  in  the  battle  at  Champion  Hills  (May  16,  1863),  and 
the  next  day  at  the  bridge  over  the  Big  Black  River.  Pember 
ton  then  fled  back  to  Vicksburg  and  shut  himself  up  in  that 


440 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


[1863. 


E    E 


stronghold  with  his  army,  reduced  to  about  28,000  men.  Grant 
followed  and  made  two  attempts  to  take  the  city  by  assault. 
Failing  to  force  an  entrance,  he  fortified  his  rear  against  John 
ston,  and  towards  the  last  of  May  (1863)  sat  down  to  begin 
the  famous  siege  of  Vicksburg. 

487.   Siege  and  capture  of  Vicksburg ;  fall  of  Port  Hud 
son.  —  The  "  boys  in  blue  "  set  to  work  with  a  will.     They 

dug  trenches  by  the 
mile  and  set  up  bat 
teries  by  the  score. 
For  nearly  seven 
weeks,  Porter's  fleet 
on  one  side,  and  the 
Union  army  on  the 
other,  kept  up  an 
incessant  fire  on  the 
doomed  city.  Mean 
while  the  opposing 
forces  were  digging 
mines  and  counter 
mines  to  blow  each 
other  up.  The  piti 
less  storm  of  shells 
drove  many  of  the 
inhabitants  of 
Vicksburg  from 
their  homes.  They 

burrowed  in  the  sides  of  the  hills  for  safety  until  the  place  was 
so  honeycombed  with  caves  that  the  streets  looked  like  avenues 
of  tombs  in  a  cemetery.1219  Late  in  June  (1863)  the  Union 
men  blew  up  a  fort  they  had  mined,  and,  rushing  into  the 
breach,  tried  again  to  take  Vicksburg  by  assault,  but  they  met 
with  a  decided  repulse. 

The   provisions   in   the  city  were   getting   dangerously  low. 
The  Chief  Engineer  of  the  Vicksburg  defences  says  that  mule 


Port  Hud 


SCALE   OF   MILES. 


Union  forces  surrounding  — ' •  Track  of  Gen.  Grant 

Vicksburg Track  of  Admiral  Porter 

Union  Victories 


SIEGE   OF   VICKSBURG. 


1863.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  44! 

meat  and  rats  were  regarded  as  "delicacies  "  ;  12*°  meanwhile  the 
sick  and  wounded  were  increasing  so  fast  that  they  at  length 
reached  6000.  Many  of  Pemberton's  men  began  to  lose  heart, 
and  said  to  him  in  a  written  appeal :  "  If  you  can't  feed  us, 
you  had  better  surrender  us."  1221 

Finally,  the  Confederate  commander  decided  to  hang  out 
the  white  flag.  He  knew  that  Grant  was  making  preparations 
for  a  grand  assault  ;  he  knew,  too,  that  even  if  his  worn-out 
men  could  repulse  the  attack,  they  could  not  repulse  starva 
tion.  Negotiations  were  completed  at  the  very  time  that 
Meade's  forces  were  driving  back  Lee  at  Gettysburg  (§  484). 
The  victorious  Union  army  entered  the  town  on  the  Fourth  of 
July  (1863),  and  were  soon  sharing  their  provisions  with  those 
whom  they  had  so  recently  been  engaged  in  "starving  out." 

Nearly  32,000  prisoners  (non-combatants  included)  were 
taken,  besides  many  cannon  and  great  quantities  of  small 
arms.*  General  Badeau  says  it  was  "the  largest  capture  of 
men  and  material  ever  made  in  war,"  —  Napoleon's  campaigns 
not  excepted.1222 

Port  Hudson  (§  467)  below  Vicksburg  capitulated  to  General 
Banks  a  few  days  later  (July  9,  1863).  The  South  no  longer 
held  a  fort  or  a  battery  on  the  Mississippi.  The  Confederacy 
was  fairly  and  finally  cut  in  two,  and  the  "  Father  of  Waters," 
as  Lincoln  declared,  once  more  rolled  "  unvexed  to  the  sea."  1223 

488.  Battle  of  Chickamauga.  —  While  Grant  was  besieg 
ing  Vicksburg  (§  487),  Rosecrans  (§  479),  in  his  brilliant 
Tullahoma  campaign  (June  24-July  7,  1863),  drove  Bragg 
across  the  Tennessee  into  Chattanooga,  and  then,  by  threaten 
ing  his  communications,  drove  him  out  across  the  Georgia 
line.  Bragg,  having  received  reinforcements,  turned  on  his 
pursuer  at  Chickamauga.  Two  severe  battles  were  fought 

*  Official  estimate :  Union  force  at  the  beginning  of  the  Vicksburg 
campaign,  43,000 ;  at  its  close,  75,000.  Confederate  force  under  Pemberton, 
over  40,000 ;  reduced  before  the  siege  of  Vicksburg  to  28,000.  Union  loss, 
9362;  Confederate  loss,  probably  over  10,000. 


442  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [isea. 

(September  19,  20,  1863),  in  which  Rosecrans  was  badly 
beaten.  Thomas  saved  the  Union  army  from  destruction.  He 
held  his  ground,  repulsed  a  force  much  larger  than  his  own, 
and  then  fell  back  in  good  order  to  Chattanooga.  In  admira 
tion  of  the  stubborn  courage  of  their  Commander,  the  Union 
troops  named  Thomas  the  "Rock  of  Chickamauga."  He  now 
superseded  Rosecrans  and  took  command  of  the  army  he  had 
saved. * 

489.  Bragg  besieges  Chattanooga;  battles  of  Lookout 
Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge.  —  Bragg  pursued  the  Union 
forces  to  Chattanooga,  and  entrenched  himself  on  the  heights 
of  Lookout  Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge  above  the  town. 
He  then  destroyed  the  railway  connecting  Chattanooga  with 
Nashville ;  this  cut  off  Thomas  from  his  base  of  supplies. 
Grant  saw  that  the  situation  was  fast  getting  desperate,  and 
sent  word  to  Thomas  to  hold  on  if  possible  until  he  could  bring 
him  help.  The  "  Rock  of  Chickamauga  "  replied  :  "  I  will 
hold  on  till  we  starve."  12'24 

Meanwhile  Bragg,  feeling  confident  that  he  held  the  Union 
army  in  a  trap,  sent  off  part  of  his  forces  under  Longstreet  to 
capture  Burnside  in  Knoxville.  Longstreet  failed  to  compel 
Burnside  to  surrender,  and  withdrew  to  strengthen  Lee  at 
Richmond. 

Grant,  with  Sherman,  Sheridan,  and  Hooker,  hastened  to 
the  assistance  of  Thomas,  and  ordered  Thomas  to  open  the 
Chattanooga  campaign  (No'vember  23,  1863).  The  next  day, 
Hooker  swept  Bragg's  force  from  Lookout  Mountain,  in  the 
famous  "  Battle  above  the  Clouds"  (November  24,  1863),  and 
planted  the  stars  and  stripes  on  the  crest  of  the  height. 

The  day  following  (November  25,  1863),  Sherman,  sup 
ported  by  Thomas  and  Sheridan,  led  the  attack  on  Missionary 
Ridge.  When  the  Union  men  had  stormed  the  first  line  of 
Confederate  rifle-pits,  the  order  to  halt  was  given.  But  instead 

*  Official  estimate:  Union  force,  56,965;  Confederate  force,  71,551; 
Union  loss,  16,179  ;  Confederate  loss,  17,804. 


1863.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  443 

of  stopping,  the  men  with  ringing  cheers  started  up  the  steep 
sides  of  the  Ridge  and,  scrambling  over  bowlders  and  fallen 
trees,  charged  Bragg's  flying  forces  with  irresistible  fury.*  Bragg 
fell  back  across  the  Georgia  line  to  Dalton,  to  protect  Atlanta; 
here  he  was  superseded  by  Joseph  E.  Johnston  (§  486). 

490.  Sherman's  raid  on  Meridian  ;  Grant  made  General- 
in-Chief.  —  Early  in  February  (1864),  Grant  despatched  Sher 
man  westward  to  destroy  Meridian,  Mississippi.  It  was  a 
place  of  great  importance  to  the  Confederates  on  account  of 
the  railways  centering  there.  Sherman  set  10,000  men  at  the 
work  of  destruction.  They  labored  with  all  their  might  for 
nearly  a  week.  Nothing  was  left  of  the  town  that  axes  or 
sledge-hammers  could  smash,  or  that  fire  could  burn.  When 
the  work  of  devastation  was  completed,  Sherman  could  truth 
fully  report :  *  Meridian  no  longer  exists.' 1225  This  liberated  a 
large  Union  force,  hitherto  on  guard  in  Mississippi,  and  so 
strengthened  the  army  which  could  be  used  in  advancing  against 
Johnston. 

The  President  had  observed,  as  he  said,  that  wherever 
Grant  was,  "things  moved,"  and  he  was  anxious  to  give  him  a 
chance  against  Richmond.  Congress  revived  the  grade  of 
Lieutenant-General,  and  Lincoln  now  (March  12,  1864)  con 
ferred  the  honor  upon  the  man  who  had  taken  Vicksburg  and 
beaten  Bragg.  He  was  the  first  officer  of  the  army  who  had 
regularly  received  the  title  since  Washington.!  Thus,  the 
"  Unconditional  Surrender  "  Grant  of  Fort  Donelson  (§  463) 
came  into  command  of  all  the  Union  forces.  Leaving  Sher 
man  at  the  head  of  the  Western  army,  Grant  went  East  to  pre 
pare  for  the  great  final  campaign  against  the  Confederate 
capital.  Sherman  on  his  part  made  ready  to  move  against 
Joseph  E.  Johnston  (§  489)  at  Atlanta,  or  wherever  he  should 
find  him. 

*  Official  estimate  :  Union  force  (effective  strength),  60,000  ;  Con 
federate  force,  probably  about  45,000  ;  Union  loss,  5815  ;  Confederate  loss, 
6687.  t  Scott  held  it  only  by  brevet. 


444  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.  [1864. 

491.  Summary  of  the  third  year  of  the  war  (April,  1863- 
April,  1864).  —  The  third  year  of  the  war  opened  with  Lee's 
defeat  of  Hooker  at  Chancellorsville,  but  also  with  the  Con 
federate  loss  of  "  Stonewall  "  Jackson.     On  July  3,  Lee  was 
driven  back  at  Gettysburg,  and  the  next  day  Grant  entered 
Vicksburg;   the  surrender  of  Port  Hudson  followed,  opening 
the  Mississippi  and  cutting  the  Confederacy  in  two. 

In  the  autumn  Rosecrans  drove  Bragg  out  of  Tennessee, 
but  was  defeated  at  Chickamauga  and  driven  to  take  refuge 
in  Chattanooga.  Grant's  army  came  to  the  relief  of  the  Union 
forces  shut  up  in  Chattanooga,  and  in  the  battles  of  Lookout 
Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge  compelled  Bragg  to  retreat 
into  Georgia.  Sherman  annihilated  Meridian,  and  Grant  was 
soon  afterwards  put  in  command  of  all  the  Union  armies,  and 
called  East  to  move  against  Richmond. 

FOURTH   AND  FINAL   YEAR   OF  THE   WAR,   APRIL,   1864, 
TO   APRIL,    1865. 

492.  Grant's   " hammering    campaign";    the    twofold 
advance;   the  battle  of  the   " Wilderness. "  —  Up  to  the 
spring  of  1864  the  Union  armies  of  the  East  and  West  had 
acted,    said   Grant,   "  like  a  balky  team  "  —  never  pulling  to 
gether.12-6     The  new  General-in-Chief  resolved  that  in  future 
both  should  start  at  the  word  "Go!"     He  was  determined 
to  "  hammer  "  the  Confederates  day  and  night  until  he  should 
literally  pound  them  to  pieces.1227     His  plan  was  to  keep  Lee 
so  busy  that  he  could  not  send  help  to  Johnston,  while  Sher 
man  kept  Johnston  so  busy  that  he  could  not  help  Lee. 

On  May  4,  1864,  Grant  crossed  the  Rapidan  just  above 
Fredericksburg  and  entered  the  tangled  forest  of  the  "  Wilder 
ness,"  •  —  a  region  filled  with  a  gloom  like  that  of  the  "shadow 
of  death."  Seated  on  a  log  in  that  desolate  region,  Grant 
telegraphed  to  Sherman  to  advance  at  once  against  Johnston 
(§  490). 


1864.] 


THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION. 


445 


Meanwhile  Grant  had  sent  General  Butler  with  a  force 
nearly  40,000  strong  up  the  James  River  to  threaten  Richmond 
from  the  south,  while  another  Union  army  of  20,000  men 
commanded  by  General  Hunter  was  sent  up  the  Shenandoah 
Valley  to  threaten  the  Confederate  capital  from  the  west.  The 
enemy  "  bottled  up  "  Butler  on  a  peninsula  on  the  James  River, 
and  drove  out  the 
Union  force  from 
the  Shenandoah 
Valley,  so  that  in 
the  end  Grant  had 
to  rely  entirely  on 
his  own  army. 

Grant  had  an 
effective  force  of 
118,000  men,  or 
nearly  twice  as 
many  as  Lee's  en 
tire  force,  count 
ing  the  reserve 
held  at  Rich 
mond  ; im  but  Lee 
had  the  immense 
ad  vant  age  of 
knowing  every 
foot  of  the  diffi 
cult  ground,  and 
as  fast  as  he  was  ""** so""  Too 

driven  from  one  line  of  intrenchments  he  had  another  ready  to 
fall  back  upon.1229 

The  battle  of  the  "Wilderness"  (May  6-7,  1864)  was  a 
desperate  two  days'  encounter,  in  which  neither  side  could 
show  any  positive  gain.  The  combatants  fought  in  a  laby 
rinth  of  woods  where  they  scarcely  saw  each  other.  The 
losses  on  both  sides  were  frightful. 


SCALE   OF   MILES. 


446  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1864. 

493.  Spottsylvania ;    Cold    Harbor ;    change    of    base ; 
Petersburg.  —  Two  days  later,  Grant,  in  making  the  attempt  to 
get  between  Lee   and   Richmond,  had  to  fight  the  battle  of 
Spottsylvania    Court    House   (May  9,  10,    1864).      Again  the 
Union  army  suffered  terribly  ;  but  the  Union  commander,  in  no 
wise  discouraged,  telegraphed  to  Washington :   "  I  propose  to 
fight  it  out  on  this  line,  if  it  takes  all  summer."  123°     But  even 
the  conqueror  of  Vicksburg  found  that  he  could  not  continue  to 
advance  on  that  line  further  than  the  North  Anna  River.   He  then 
swung  round  to  the  Pamunkey  and  advanced  to  Cold  Harbor. 
There,  within  sight  of  the  outer  circle  of  the  fortifications  of 
Richmond,  the  "  boys   in  blue "   charged   on   Lee's  intrench- 
ments,  and  lost  about  10,000  men  in  twenty  minutes.1231     Grant 
himself  said  that  he  always  regretted  ordering  that  assault.1232 

He  now  found  the  swamps  of  the  Chickahominy  (§  468) 
such  a  serious  obstacle  to  his  further  advance  that  he  crossed 
over  to  the  south  side  of  the  James  River.  Lee  fell  back 
behind  the  line  of  works  which  extended  around  Richmond. 
Petersburg,  on  a  tributary  of  the  James,  formed  part  of  that 
circle  of  defence.  Grant  tried  in  vain  to  storm  the  city  ; 
failing  to  do  this,  he  resolved  to  carry  it  by  siege  as  he  had 
Vicksburg,  but  it  proved  to  be  a  ten  months'  job. 

During  the  six  weeks  of  fighting  (May  5-June  15,  1864) 
in  which  the  Union  army  had  been  engaged  since  they  left 
the  Rapidan,  Grant  had  lost  nearly  55,000  men,  or  almost  as 
many  as  Lee's  entire  force  in  the  field.1233  Lee's  losses  were 
only  partially  reported,  but  he  must  have  suffered  terribly. 
He  knew  that  the  Confederacy  was  fast  exhausting  its  force, 
and  that  it  could  not  replace  the  men  that  had  fallen.  Lee 
had  succeeded  in  shaking  off  every  other  general  that  had  at 
tacked  him,  but  now  he  felt  a  grip  that  he  could  not  shake  off. 

494.  Early's  raid;  the  burning  of  Chambersburg  ;  Sheri 
dan  retaliates.  —  In  the  vain   hope  of  compelling  Grant  to 
relax  his  hold  on  Petersburg,  Lee  in  June  despatched  Early 
with  about   20,000    men  on  a  raid  northward.1234     He  moved 


1864.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  447 

down  the  Shenandoah  Valley  —  that  convenient  Confederate 
avenue  of  attack  —  and  threatened  the  national  capital  itself. 
The  alarm  at  Washington  was  so  great  that  the  President 
appealed  to  Grant  to  come  to  the  rescue,  and  the  convales 
cents  from  the  hospitals  and  the  clerks  in  the  Government 
departments  were  mustered  into  service.1235  Had  Early  moved 
promptly  (July  n,  1864),  "he  might  have  entered  the  cap 
ital";1236  but  he  delayed  action  just  long  enough  to  give  Grant 
time  to  throw  reinforcements  into  that  fort-girdled  city.  The 
Confederate  general  then  fell  back,  carrying  off  many  thousand 
horses  and  cattle,  with  other  plunder.  Finding  that  he  was 
not  pursued,  he  sent  a  detachment  of  cavalry  into  Pennsylvania 
to  levy  a  contribution  on  Chambersburg.  The  citizens  were 
called  on  to  furnish  $100,000  in  gold,  or  $500,000  in  "green 
backs."  They  could  not  or  would  not  comply  with  the 
demand,  and  the  raiders  laid  the  town  in  ashes,  leaving  3000 
non-combatants  without  food  or  shelter. 

Grant  resolved  to  retaliate  by  cleaning  out  the  Shenandoah 
Valley  so  that  the  Confederates  could  no  longer  draw  provis 
ions  from  it  to  feed  their  armies.  He  selected  Sheridan,  who 
had  distinguished  himself  in  his  raids  on  the  enemy's  supplies, 
to  do  the  work  of  destruction.  Grant  says  that  the  only  order 
this  energetic  soldier  required  was  the  simple  command  : 
"Go  in  !"  Sheridan,  with  an  effective  force  of  about  26,000 
men, 1237  "  went  in."  He  started  from  the  lower  part  of  the 
Valley  at  Harper's  Ferry  (September  19,  1864)  and  moved 
slowly  up  to  the  top,  driving  the  last  armed  Confederate  out 
of  the  region. 

Then  (October  6,  1864)  he  turned  and  moved  down  the 
Valley,  devastating  it  as  he  advanced.  He  slaughtered  or  drove 
off  thousands  of  cattle  and  sheep,  burned  more  than  seventy 
grist-mills  and  more  than  two  thousand  barns  filled  with  hay 
and  grain.  When  he  had  finished  he  had  stripped  the  Valley 
so  bare  of  food  supplies  that  it  was  said,  a  crow  could  not  fly 
through  it  unless  he  carried  his  provisions  with  him. 


448  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1864. 

495.  "  Sheridan's  ride";   the   Petersburg   mine.  —  Lee 
now  ordered  Early  to  make  an  attempt  to  recover  the  desolated 
Valley,  which,   though  destitute  of  supplies,  still  remained  a 
most  convenient  thoroughfare  for  raids  on  the  North.     Early 
moved   cautiously,  and  under  cover  of  darkness  attacked  and 
nearly  defeated  the  Union  forces  at  Cedar  Creek  (October  19, 
1864). 

Sheridan  had  just  returned  to  Winchester  from  Washington. 
Hearing  heavy  firing  in  the  direction  of  Cedar  Creek,  and  sus 
pecting  something  wrong,  he  mounted  his  horse  and  rode 
toward  that  point.  The  retreating  Union  men  when  they 
met  their  commander  turned  of  their  own  accord  and 
started  for  the  front.  Sheridan's  arrival  on  the  field  was 
greeted  with  cheer  after  cheer.  Swinging  his  hat,  he  dashed 
along  the  line  of  battle  shouting:  "Never  mind,  boys,  we'll 
whip  them  yet."1238  The  "boys"  responded  by  throwing  up 
their  caps  and  hurrahing  with  the  wildest  joy.  Before  night 
set  in  they  drove  Early  out  of  the  Valley.  The  Confederates 
never  entered  it  in  force  again,  and  never  attempted  to  make 
another  raid  through  it. 

Meanwhile  Grant  had  burrowed  beneath  the  defences  of 
Petersburg  (§  493),  and  on  the  last  of  July  (1864)  he  exploded 
a  gigantic  mine  under  one  of  the  Confederate  forts.  A  detach 
ment  of  Union  troops  rushed  into  the  "  crater  "  to  force  their 
way  into  the  city.  The  commander  did  not  act  promptly,  and 
the  attacking  party  were  caught  in  a  death-trap.  The  enemy's 
guns  opened  upon  the  struggling  mass  of  men  in  the  "crater," 
and  about  4000  brave  fellows  were  killed  or  taken  prisoners. 
In  his  report,  Grant  called  the  Petersburg  mine  a  "  stupendous 
failure."  1239 

496.  Sherman  advances  on  Atlanta.  —  On  May  4,  1864, 
the  day  on  which  Grant  advanced  into  the  "  Wilderness "  (§ 
492),  Sherman,  in  obedience  to  orders,  moved  against  Joseph 
E.  Johnston   (§  490).     Sherman  had  an  army  nearly  100,000 
strong.     Johnston  had  only  about  half  as  many  men,  but  he  was 


1864.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  449 

strongly  intrenched  among  the  hills  at  Dalton,  Georgia,  and  he 
knew  the  country.  Again,  Sherman  had  to  draw  his  supplies 
over  a  single-track  line  of  railroad,  open  to  guerrilla  raids, 
while  Johnston  was  exposed  to  no  such  danger.1240 

By  a  skillful  flank  movement,  Sherman  compelled  Johnston 
to  abandon  Dalton  (May  13,  1864)  and  fall  back  to  Resaca. 
From  this  point  Sherman,  in  a  series  of  battles,  forced  his 
antagonist  back  to  Allatoona,  then  to  Dallas,  then  to  Kenesaw 
Mountain.  He  continued  to  push  him  step  by  step  until  he 
drove  him  across  the  Chattahoochie  River  (July  9,  1864),  and 
the  Union  army  caught  sight  of  the  spires  of  Atlanta, — the  most 
important  center  in  the  Confederacy  for  the  manufacture  of 
military  supplies  and  for  their  distribution  by  rail. 

497.  Sherman  takes  Atlanta.  —  Jefferson  Davis  thought 
Johnston  was  too  slow.  He  now  relieved  him  from  his  com 
mand,  and  put  the  impetuous  Hood  at  the  head  of  the  Con 
federate  forces  in  Georgia.  Hood  was  a  "  fighter."  He  made 
a  furious  attack  (July  20-24,  1864)  on  the  Union  army,  but 
the  "battle  of  Atlanta"  went  against  him,  and  Hood  had  to 
retreat  and  seek  shelter  within  the  intrenchments  of  the  city. 

Sherman,  fighting  his  way,  worked  round  to  the  right,  in 
order  to  cut  the  railroad  on  which  Hood  depended  for  his  sup 
plies.  The  Confederate  general  seeing  that  he  could  not 
continue  to  hold  the  city,  blew  up  his  works  and  decamped  in 
the  night  (September  i,  1864).  The  next  morning  the 
Union  forces  entered  Atlanta  in  triumph.* 

Jefferson  Davis  then  ordered  Hood  to  move  northward  and 
threaten  Nashville.  The  Union  commander  heard  with  joy 
that  Hood  was  advancing  in  that  direction,  and  sent  Thomas 
to  look  after  him.  It  is  reported  that  Sherman  said :  "  If 
Hood  will  go  to  Tennessee,  I  will  give  him  rations  to  go 
with"  ; mi  could  he  have  forseen  the  result  of  the  conflict  with 

*  Official  estimate  :  Union  force  nearly  100,000  ;  Confederate  force  not 
reported,  but  estimated  at  60,000  ;  Union  loss  in  the  advance  from  Chatta 
nooga  to  Atlanta  about  40,000  ;  Confederate  loss  about  the  same. 


45O  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.  [1864. 

Thomas,  he  would  have  promised  his  adversary  double  rations. 
But  Jefferson  Davis  declared  that  Sherman  was  lost.  Hood, 
he  said,  was  now  in  his  rear,  while  Johnston  was  in  front ;  he 
predicted  that  these  two  Confederate  millstones  would  grind 
the  Union  army  to  powder. 

498.  Sherman   removes  the  citizens  of   Atlanta —  Sher 
man  had  decided  to  make  Atlanta  "  a  pure  military  garrison  or 
depot,  with  no  civil  population  to  influence  military  measures." 
The  reasons  he  gave  for  coming  to  that  decision  were  :  (i)  that 
if  he  permitted  the  inhabitants  to  remain,  he  would  have  to 
feed  them,  and  he  felt  that  he  had  all  he  could  do  to  feed 
his  army ;  and  (2)  he  would  have  to  maintain  a  strong  force 
"to  guard  and  protect  the  interests  of  a  hostile  population."  124a 

He  therefore  ordered  (September  12,  1864)  the  inhabitants 
to  leave  the  place,  offering  to  provide  free  transportation  for 
all,  either  northward  or  southward.  Hood  and  the  authorities 
of  Atlanta  protested  against  the  "heartless  cruelty"  of  this 
order.  Sherman  replied :  "  War  is  cruelty,  and  you  cannot 
refine  it ;  and  those  who  brought  war  into  our  country  deserve 
all  the  curses  and  maledictions  a  people  can  pour  out."  "We 
don't  want  your  negroes  or  your  horses  or  your  houses  or 
your  lands  or  anything  you  have ;  but  we  do  want,  and  will 
have,  a  just  obedience  to  the  laws  of  the  United  States."  "  I 
want  peace,  and  believe  it  can  only  be  reached  through  union 
and  war  .  .  .  when  peace  does  come,  you  may  call  on  me  for 
anything.  Then  I  will  share  with  you  the  last  cracker,  and 
watch  with  you  to  shield  your  homes  and  families  against  dan 
ger  from  every  quarter."  1243 

499.  Admission  of  two  new  States ;  the  presidential  elec 
tion  (1864).  —  During  the  progress  of  the  war,  two  new  States, 
West  Virginia    (1863)   and   Nevada  (1864),  were  admitted  to 
the  Union,  making  the  total  number  of  States  thirty-six. 

While  Grant  was  besieging  Petersburg  and  Sherman  was 
holding  Atlanta,  the  presidential  election  took  place.  Origi 
nally  three  candidates  were  in  the  field.  The  Radical  Repub- 


1864.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  451 

licans,  who  thought  Lincoln  moved  too  slowly  and  dealt  too 
tenderly  with  "the  rebellion,"  had  nominated  John  C.  Fremont 
(§  472)-  In  September  (1864)  Fremont  withdrew  his  name 
and  the  Radicals  then  united  with  the  regular  Republicans. 
They,  in  connection  with  many  War  Democrats,  united  in 
renominating  Lincoln,  with  Andrew  Johnson,  a  War  Demo 
crat  of  Tennessee,  for  Vice-President.  The  Union  Convention 
warmly  endorsed  the  measures  of  the  administration.  They 
voted  the  thanks  of  the  American  people  to  the  army  and  navy 
that  had  vindicated  the  honor  of  the  country's  flag,  and  they 
pledged  the  national  faith  for  the  payment  of  the  public  debt. 

The  Democratic  Convention,  under  the  control  of  the  Peace 
Democracy,  declared  that  the  object  of  the  party  was  "  to  pre 
serve  the  federal  Union  and  the  rights  of  the  States  unim 
paired."  They  accused  the  administration  of  violating  the 
Constitution  under  plea  of  military  necessity.  They  further 
declared  that  "  after  four  years  of  failure  to  restore  the  Union 
by  the  experiment  of  war,"  the  public  welfare  demanded  "that 
immediate  efforts  be  made  for  a  cessation  of  hostilities."  Like 
the  Republicans,  they  acknowledged  the  debt  they  owed  to 
"the  brave  soldiers  and  sailors  of  the  Republic,"  and  pledged 
themselves  to  secure  to  them  the  care  and  protection  that  they 
had  so  "  nobly  earned."  1244 

The  Convention  nominated  General  McClellan  for  the  presi 
dency.  McClellan  virtually  repudiated  the  platform  on  which 
he  was  nominated.  He  said  :  "  The  Union  must  be  preserved 
at  all  hazards.  I  could  not  look  in  the  face  of  my  gallant 
comrades  of  the  army  and  navy,  who  have  survived  so  many 
bloody  battles,  and  tell  them  that  their  labors  and  the  sacri 
fices  of  so  many  of  our  slain  and  wounded  brethren  had  been 
in  vain."  1245 

Twenty-five  States  voted  at  the  election,  and  of  these  thirteen 
cast  an  army  vote  as  well  as  a  home  vote.  McClellan  received 
21  electoral  votes;  Lincoln  received  212,  carrying  every  State 
which  took  part  in  the  election  except  New  Jersey,  Delaware, 


45 2  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1864. 

and  Kentucky.     The  popular  Democratic  vote  stood  1,808,725, 
to  2,216,067  cast  for  the  Republican  candidate. 

500.  Allatoona ;  Sherman  burns  Atlanta  and  sets  out  for 
the  sea.  —  Meanwhile  a  Confederate  force  had  attacked  Alla 
toona,  Sherman's  secondary  base  of  supplies.     General  Corse 
fought  desperately  to  hold  the  place.     He  lost  nearly  a  third 
of  his  little  force,  and  reported  himself  "short  a  cheek  and  an 
ear,"  but  he  held  out  until  help  arrived  and  the  attacking  party 
withdrew.      Sherman  issued  a  general  order  giving  Corse  high 
praise  for  his  gallant  defence  of  this  important  position.1246 

But  the  Union  commander  saw  that  he  could  hardly  hope  to 
advance  into  the  heart  of  the  Confederacy  and  at  the  same 
time  keep  his  lines  of  communication  open  in  the  rear.  His 
supplies  of  food,  ammunition,  arms,  and  clothing  —  amount 
ing  to  150  car-loads  a  day — had  to  come  all  the  way  from 
Nashville  by  a  single-track  road,  which  might  be  cut  at  any 
time. 

With  Grant's  consent  Sherman  now  decided  on  the  boldest 
move  of  the  war.  He  resolved  to  abandon  Atlanta,  sever  all 
communication  with  the  North,  and  strike  out  across  the  country 
for  the  sea —  "  smashing  things  "  as  he  went. 

He  first  destroyed  the  railroad  and  telegraph  lines  in  his 
rear,  so  that  the  enemy  could  not  use  them.  He  next  applied 
the  torch  to  Atlanta,  burning  all  factories,  machine  shops,  and 
other  works,  so  that  they  could  be  no  longer  useful  to  the  Con 
federate  forces,  in  case  they  should  reoccupy  the  city. 

Then  (November  15,  1864),  with  60,000  "as  good  soldiers 
as  ever  trod  the  earth,"  1247  he  set  off  on  his  great  march.  As 
the  Union  army  left  the  smoking  ruins  of  Atlanta,  a  band  struck 
up  "  John  Brown's  soul  goes  marching  on  ; "  and  regiment 
after  regiment  spontaneously  broke  out  into  the  "  Hallelujah  " 
chorus  of  that  famous  song. 

501.  Sherman's  "  bummers  "  ;  the  "  freedmen."  —  Sher 
man  carried  a  goodly  store  of  provisions  with  him,  but  he  pur 
posed  to  draw  largely  from  the  region  through  which  he  passed. 


1864.] 


THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION. 


453 


His  orders  were  :  "Forage  liberally."  Every  morning  a  body 
of  men  nicknamed  "  bummers "  set  out  to  obtain  supplies. 
They  started  on  foot,  scouring  the  country  for  many  miles  in 
every  direction  ;  at  night  they  came  back  mounted  on  horses 
or  mules  or  riding  in  some  family  carriage,  laden  down  with 
pigs,  chickens,  hams,  bags  of  sweet  potatoes,  and  jugs  of  mo- 


lsbor(fe 


ilmington 

0 


Sherman's  March  — Chattanooga  to  Atlanta  ;  Atlanta  to  Savannah  ; 
Savannah  to  Raleigh. 

lasses.  What  with  his  cavalry  and  his  foraging  parties,  Sher 
man  cut  a  swath  not  far  from  sixty  miles  in  width.  The  Con 
federate  forces  were  not  strong  enough  to  oppose  him,  and 
retired  as  he  advanced.  Their  "  bummers  "  —  for  they,  like 
Sherman,  lived  off  the  country  —  were  quite  as  greedy  for  good 
things  as  the  Union  men.  Between  the  ravages  of  the  two  the 
plantations  were  stripped  bare. 

As  Sherman  advanced  he  systematically  destroyed  all  lines 
of  railroad,  in  order  to  cripple  the  Confederate  means  of  trans 
portation.  The  soldiers  not  only  tore  up  the  rails,  but  heated 
them  red-hot  in  huge  fires,  and  then  twisted  them  round  trees. 

The  negroes  welcomed  the  "  boys  in  blue  "  with  frantic  joy. 
They  shouted,  hugged  the  regimental  colors,  and  crowded  round 


454  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1864. 

Sherman  with  prayers  and  tears  that  he  says  "would  have 
moved  a  stone."  To  them  the  stern  destroyer  was  the  "angel 
of  the  Lord  "  who  had  come  to  set  them  free.1248 

502.  Milledgeville ;  Savannah;  Thomas  vs.  Hood.  —  Sher 
man  reached  Milledgeville,  the  capital  of  Georgia,  late  in  No 
vember  (1864),  and  burned  all  buildings  which  the  Confederates 
could  use  for  military  purposes.  He  then  moved  forward  by 
way  of  Millen  to  Savannah.  Early  in  December  (1864),  twenty- 
four  days  after  leaving  Atlanta,  he  reached  the  sea,  and  put  him 
self  in  communication  with  the  federal  gunboats.  He  stormed 
Fort  McAllister,  entered  the  port  which  it  guarded,  and  sent 
word  to  the  President :  "  I  beg  to  present  you  as  a  Christmas 
gift  the  city  of  Savannah."  The  message  reached  the  "  White 
House"  on  Christmas  eve  (1864). 

Sherman  remained  at  Savannah  more  than  a  month  in  order 
to  rest  his  army.  In  his  great  march  of  300  miles  through  the 
heart  of  the  Confederacy,  he  had  lost  less  than  800  men. 

At  the  battle  of  Franklin,  Tennessee,  Hood  (§  497)  was 
repulsed  by  a  part  of  Thomas's  force,  which  then  retired  to 
Nashville.  The  Confederate  general  next  moved  against  the 
"  Rock  of  Chickamauga  "  himself  (§  488),  but  on  that  rock  he 
was  dashed  to  pieces.  The  battle  of  Nashville  (December  15, 
1 6,  1864)  ended  in  the  utter  rout  of  Hood's  army  as  an  effec 
tive  force.  The  great  mass  of  his  men  were  reduced  to  a 
"disheartened  and  disorganized  rabble,"  glad  to  throw  down 
their  arms  in  order  to  end  their  sufferings.  But  Hood's  famous 
rear  guard  never  flinched,  and  Thomas  gladly  paid  them  the 
tribute  of  respect  that  a  brave  man  never  grudges  to  brave  men 
—  no  matter  how  mistaken  their  cause  may  be.1249  The  victory 
at  Nashville  was  far-reaching.*  It  put  an  end  to  all  thoughts 
of  the  invasion  of  the  North,  and  left  only  one  strong  Confed 
erate  army  in  the  field,  and  that  was  gathered  about  Richmond. 

*  Official  estimate:  Union  force,  70,272;  available  force  in  and  about 
Nashville,  December  15,  1864,  at  least  55,000.  Confederate  force,  nearly 
39,000.  Union  loss,  3057  ;  Confederate  loss,  15,000. 


1864.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  455 

503.  The  "Kearsarge"  vs.  the  " Alabama";  Farragut 
enters  Mobile  ;  capture  of  Fort  Fisher.  —  While  these  stirring 
events  were  taking  place  on  land,  the  Union  navy  was  doing 
its  full  part  at  sea  and  along  the  coast.  Of  the  score  of  Con 
federate  cruisers  (§  454)  which  roamed  the  ocean  "seeking 
what  they  might  devour,"  none  was  so  much  dreaded  as  the 
notorious  "Alabama."  She  was  built  (1862)  in  a  British  ship 
yard,  armed  with  British  guns,  and  manned,  in  great  part,  by 
British  sailors,  under  the  command  of  Captain  Semmes.*  In 
less  than  two  years  Semmes  captured  nearly  seventy  American 
merchantmen  and  destroyed  property  worth  $10,000,000. 

Captain  Winslow  of  the  United  States  man-of-war  "  Kear 
sarge,"  after  vainly  cruising  for  months,  at  length  encountered 
the  "  Alabama "  off  Cherbourg,  France.  After  a  memorable 
battle  (June  19,  1864)  the  Union  commander  sent  this  scourge 
of  the  ocean  to  the  bottom. 

Late  in  the  summer  (1864),  Farragut,  f  the  hero  of  New 
Orleans  (§  467),  entered  Mobile  Bay.  He  said  it  was  "one 
of  the  hardest-earned  victories  of  his  life."  The  entrance 
to  the  bay  was  defended  by  forts  on  opposite  sides,  by  a  thickly 
rammed  line  of  piles,  and  by  a  triple  line  of  torpedoes,  which 
left  only  a  narrow  opening  into  the  harbor.  Inside  the  bay 

*  The  "  Alabama"  was  built  by  the  Lairds  of  Birkenhead,  England,  for 
the  Confederate  States.  Hon.  Charles  Francis  Adams,  our  Minister  to 
England,  urged  the  English  Government  not  to  permit  her  to  sail ;  after 
much  delay  the  law-officers  of  the  crown  recommended  her  seizure,  but 
on  that  very  day  (July  29,  1862)  she  escaped  and  began  her  career  of  de 
struction.  The  following  year  the  Lairds  built  two  powerful  ironclad  rams 
for  the  Confederate  States.  Mr.  Adams  asked  the  English  Government  to 
detain  them.  The  head  of  the  Foreign  Office  replied  that  the  legal  evi 
dence  was  insufficient.  Mr.  Adams  rejoined  with  a  despatch,  in  which  he 
said  :  "  It  would  be  superfluous  in  me  to  point  out  to  your  lordship  that 
this  is  war."  Shortly  after  the  receipt  of  this  letter,  the  English  authorities 
issued  orders  to  seize  and  hold  the  rams. 

t  Farragut,  Scott,  and  Thomas  were  all  Southerners  by  birth  ;  but  they 
felt  that  they  owed  their  first  duty  to  the  Union,  instead  of  to  their 
State. 


456  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1864-1865. 

the  "Tennessee,"  a  formidable  ironclad  ram,  stood  ready  to 
receive  the  attacking  party. 

Farragut  fully  realized  the  desperate  work  before  him.  The 
day  preceding  the  battle  he  wrote  home  :  "  I  am  going  into 
Mobile  in  the  morning,  if  God  is  my  leader,  as  I  hope  he  is." 

The  Union  commander's  favorite  maxim  was:  "To  hurt  your 
enemy  is  the  best  way  to  keep  him  from  hurting  you."  mo  He 
acted  on  that  maxim  at  Mobile.  Lashed  in  the  rigging  of  the 
"  Hartford,"  Farragut,  with  his  fleet  of  four  ironclads  and 
fifteen  wooden  vessels,  fought  his  way,  foot  by  foot,  into  the 
harbor  (August  5,  1864).  The  forts  soon  afterward  surren 
dered  to  the  attack  of  a  land  force,  and  the  last  important  port 
on  the  Gulf  coast  was  occupied  by  the  Union  forces. 

In  recognition  of  Farragut's  distinguished  service,  Congress 
created  the  office  of  vice-admiral  for  him  (December,  1864), 
and  later  (1866)  that  of  admiral.  He  had  fairly  won  them 
both. 

Near  the  close  of  1864  Porter's  fleet,  aided  by  a  land  force 
under  Butler,  made  an  attack  on  Fort  Fisher,  which  guarded 
the  entrance  of  the  harbor  of  Wilmington,  North  Carolina.  It 
was  the  last  port  in  the  Confederacy  which  remained  open 
to  blockade-runners.  The  attack  failed.  The  next  month 
(January  13-15,  1865)  a  second  assault  was  made  by  Porter 
and  Terry.  The  garrison  of  the  fort  fought  bravely,  but  none 
the  less  they  had  at  last  to  haul  down  the  stars-and-bars,  and 
see  the  stars-and-stripes  hoisted  in  their  place. 

504.  Sherman  advances  northward ;  arrival  at  Columbia. 
—  It  was  Grant's  intention  to  transport  Sherman's  army  from 
Savannah  (§  502)  to  Virginia  by  sea  ;  but  Sherman  believed  that 
if  he  marched  through  the  Carolinas  he  could  render  the  cause 
of  the  Union  more  effective  service.  He  consulted  Grant  on 
this  point  and  received  permission  to  carry  out  his  plan.  The 
march  through  Georgia  was  regarded  as  something  like  a  "mil 
itary  picnic,"  but  the  forward  movement  presented  many  for 
midable  obstacles.  It  would  be  necessary  for  the  men  to  build 


FLAG  SHIP. 

WESTERN  GULF  BLOCKADING  SQUADRON. 


FARRAGUT'S    LETTER, 


1865.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  457 

bridges  over  many  swollen  streams,  to  wade  at  times  breast- 
deep  in  water,  to  hew  their  way  through  dense  forests,  to  con 
struct  scores  of  miles  of  "corduroy"  road  over  treacherous 
soil  and  swamp,  and  finally  to  hold  themselves  in  readiness  to 
fight  Johnston's  army.  That  the  men  did  their  work  thoroughly 
is  evident  from  the  fact  that  Johnston  himself  complimented 
Sherman's  veterans  by  saying,  "  there  had  been  no  such  army 
since  the  days  of  Julius  Caesar."  1251 

Sherman  began  his  march  from  Savannah  on  February  i 
(1865),  and  in  less  than  three  weeks  he  entered  Columbia,  the 
capital  of  South  Carolina.  He  found  the  city  on  fire.  When 
Wade  Hampton,  the  Confederate  general,  retreated,  he  set  fire 
to  a  quantity  of  cotton,  and  the  flames  spread  to  the  houses. 
Sherman  ordered  his  men  to  endeavor  to  stop  the  progress  of 
the  conflagration ;  but  a  high  wind  made  this  impossible,  and 
the  heart  of  the  city  was  burned  out.  Meanwhile  the  Union 
soldiers  helped  themselves  to  the  old  wines,  silverware,  and 
rich  carpets,  which  the  wealthy  secessionists  of  Charleston  had 
sent  to  Columbia  for  safe  keeping.  Had  Sherman  deliberately 
plundered  and  then  burned  the  city  he  would  have  done  no 
more  than  Early's  cavalry  had  done  at  Chambersburg  (§  494). 
On  the  contrary,  when  the  Union  commander  left  Columbia  he 
gave  the  mayor  generous  supplies  of  food  to  feed  the  desti 
tute.1252 

505.  Capture  of  Charleston;  battles  of  Averysboro'  and 
Bentonville ;  Conference  at  Hampton  Roads ;  Lincoln's  second 

inauguration Now  that  Sherman's  army  had  got  in  the  rear 

of  Charleston,  and  by  breaking  up  the  railroad  had  cut  off 
supplies,  the  Confederates  gave  up  the  attempt  to  hold  the 
city.  The  Union  forces  when  they  entered  it  (February  18, 
1865)  found  it  on  fire,  but  by  hard  work  they  saved  it  from 
entire  destruction. 

By  the  middle  of  March  (1865)  Sherman  was  far  on  his  way 
to  Raleigh,  the  capital  of  North  Carolina.  He  encountered 
Johnston's  army  near  Kinston,  and  at  Averysboro'  and  Benton- 


458  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1865. 

ville  (March  14,  16,  19-21,  1865).  After  some  sharp  fighting, 
especially  at  Bentonville,  the  Confederates  retreated,  and 
Sherman  entered  Goldsboro'  (March  23,  1865).*  Here  the 
great  march  virtually  ended.  Sherman  then  went  to  City 
Point  to  meet  the  President,  General  Grant,  and  Rear-Admiral 
Porter  and  to  complete  arrangements  for  beginning  the  last 
campaign  of  the  war. 

Meanwhile  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  with  two  other  Confed 
erate  commissioners,  met  President  Lincoln  and  Secretary 
Seward  at  Hampton  Roads  (February  3,  1865)  and  made  over 
tures  for  peace.f  The  commissioners  "  were  not  authorized  to 
concede  the  reunion  of  the  States."  The  President  would  not 
treat  on  any  other  basis,  and  so  the  Conference  ended  without 
accomplishing  anything. 

The  next  month  (March  4,  1865),  Lincoln  entered  upon  his 
second  term  of  office.  He  finished  fyis  inaugural  address  with 
these  words:  "  Fondly  do  we  hope  —  fervently  do  we  pray  — 
that  this  mighty  scourge  of  war  may  speedily  pass  away.  Yet  if 
God  will  that  it  continue  until  all  the  wealth  piled  by  the  bond 
man's  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  of  unrequited  toil  shall  be 
sunk,  and  until  every  drop  of  blood  drawn  with  the  lash  shall 
be  paid  by  another  drawn  with  the  sword  ;  as  was  said  three 
thousand  years  ago,  so  still  it  must  be  said,  '  The  judgments 
of  the  Lord  are  true  and  righteous  altogether.'  With  malice 
toward  none,  with  charity  for  all,  with  firmness  in  the  right  as 

*  Official  estimate :  Union  force,  about  58,000  ;  Confederate  force,  re 
ported  by  Johnston,  less  than  20,000.  Union  loss  at  Bentonville,  1646; 
Confederate  loss  reported  by  Johnston,  2606. 

t  In  July,  1864,  certain  Confederates  in  Canada  wrote  to  Horace  Greeley 
proposing  a  Peace  Conference  at  Niagara.  Greeley  urged  the  President  to 
respond  favorably  to  it,  saying  :  "  It  may  save  us  from  a  Northern  insur 
rection."  The  President  deputed  Greeley  to  meet  the  Confederates  in 
Canada,  but  explicitly  declined  to  consider  any  terms  proposed  unless 
responsibly  accredited  agents  of  the  Confederate  Government  would  come 
to  Washington  and  present  their  case.  The  whole  matter  terminated  in 
failure.  See  Greeley's  "  American  Conflict,"  II.  664. 


1865.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  459 

God  gives  us  to  see  the  right,  let  us  strive  on  to  finish  the  work 
we  are  in,  to  bind  up  the  nation's  wounds,  to  care  for  him  who 
shall  have  borne  the  battle,  and  for  his  widow  and  orphans,  — 
to  do  all  which  may  achieve  and  cherish  a  just  and  a  lasting 
peace  among  ourselves  and  with  all  nations."  ^ 

506.  Sheridan's  raid;  fall  of  Petersburg  and  of  Rich 
mond  ;  surrender  of  Lee  and  Johnston ;  assassination  of 
Lincoln.  —  In  the  field  of  war,  events  now  moved  rapidly 
toward  the  final  crisis.  Sheridan's  cavalry  destroyed  (March 
19,  1865)  a  part  of  the  James  River  Canal  and  the  Lynchburg 
Railroad  which  furnished  supplies  for  Richmond.  He  then 
pushed  on  to  Five  Forks,  twelve  miles  southwest  of  Petersburg, 
overwhelmed  the  Confederate  garrison  at  that  important  road 
center  (April  i,  1865),  and  took  nearly  6000  prisoners.  The 
capture  of  Five  Forks  cut  off  Lee's  supplies  for  Petersburg. 
The  Confederate  general  saw  that  he  must  abandon  the  town  ;1254 
but  to  give  up  Petersburg  meant  giving  up  Richmond. 

The  next  day  (April  2,  1865),  Grant  ordered  the  final  assault 
on  Petersburg.  It  was  gallantly  defended,  but  it  fell.  That 
night  Lee  retreated  from  both  Petersburg  and  Richmond,  and 
Jefferson  Davis  fled,  but  was  soon  afterward  captured.*  On  the 
following  day  (April  3,  1865),  the  Union  forces  entered  the 
Confederate  capital. 

Lee's  only  hope  of  escape  now  lay  in  moving  southward  and 
uniting  with  Johnston.  But  Lee's  men  were  in  a  starving  con 
dition,  and  many  threw  away  their  arms  and  took  to  the  woods. 
Sheridan  intercepted  the  remnant  of  the  Confederate  leader's 

*  Jefferson  Davis  was  imprisoned  in  Fort  Monroe  ;  he  was  indicted  for 
treason;  but  was  released  on  bail  in  1867.  On  Christmas  Day,  1868,  Presi 
dent  Johnson  granted  a  full,  unconditional  pardon  to  all  persons  who  had 
been  engaged  "in  the  late  insurrection  or  rebellion."  The  Government, 
therefore,  took  no  further  action  against  Davis ;  with  the  single  exception 
of  disability  to  hold  office,  imposed  by  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  to  the 
Constitution  (which  Congress  refused  to  remove),  Davis  was  relieved  from 
all  penalties  for  his  attempt  to  destroy  the  Union.  He  died  at  New  Orleans 
in  1889. 


460  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [ises. 

force  before  he  could  reach  Johnston.  On  April  9,  1865,  Lee 
surrendered  to  Grant  at  Appomattox  Court  House.  Grant 
treated  his  fallen  foe  with  characteristic  magnanimity.  He 
simply  stipulated  that  Lee's  army  should  lay  down  their  arms 
and  pledge  themselves  to  obey  the  laws  of  the  United  States. 
He  allowed  the  men  to  take  their  horses  home  with  them  "  to 
work  their  little  farms."  1255  The  Union  commander  then  issued 
an  order  to  furnish  Lee's  half-famished  army  with  25,000 
rations.*  Meanwhile  the  "  men  in  blue  "  and  the  "  men  in 
gray"  were  mingling  as  friends.  The  Union  soldiers  made 
haste  to  share  their  provisions  with  their  former  antagonists ; 
and  the  officers  of  both  armies  greeted  each  other  with  the 
heartiness  of  fellow-countrymen  who  felt  that  they  were  no 
longer  foes,  but  that  henceforth  they  would  fight  under  the 
same  flag. 

Less  than  three  weeks  later,  Johnston  surrendered  his  army 
(April  26,  1865)  to  Sherman  near  Raleigh.  But  in  the  midst 
of  the  nation's  joy  a  terrible  crime  had  been  committed.  On 
the  very  day  (April  14,  1865)  that  the  Union  flag  was  restored 
on  Fort  Sumter  (§  449),  President  Lincoln  fell  by  the  hand  of 
an  assassin,  t  Many  of  the  people  of  the  South  mingled  their 
tears  with  those  of  the  North  over  the  bier  of  one  whom  "  they 

*  In  speaking  of  Lee's  surrender  Grant  says  :  "  I  felt  like  anything 
rather  than  rejoicing  at  the  downfall  of  a  foe  who  had  fought  so  long  and 
valiantly,  and  had  suffered  so  much  for  a  cause,  though  that  cause  was,  1 
believe,  one  of  the  worst  for  which  a  people  ever  fought,  and  one  for  which 
there  was  the  least  excuse.  I  do  not  question,  however,  the  sincerity  of  the 
great  mass  of  those  who  were  opposed  to  us."  Grant's  "  Personal 
Memoirs,"  II.  489. 

t  The  President  was  shot  by  John  Wilkes  Booth,  an  obscure  half-crazed 
actor.  He  died  the  following  morning  (April  15).  Booth  was  one  of  a 
number  of  conspirators  who  formed  a  plot  to  assassinate  the  President,  the 
Vice-President,  Secretary  Seward,  and  General  Grant.  The  plot  had  no 
political  significance  and  the  Southern  leaders  had  no  knowledge  of  its 
existence.  Booth  escaped,  but  was  soon  afterwards  shot  in  his  hiding- 
place  ;  the  remaining  conspirators  were  tried  by  military  commission,  and 
four  were  convicted  of  murder  and  hanged. 


JL  VLfart~-  <Lc>L^ 


til 


6k, 


LEE'S    LETTER    OF    SURRENDER. 


1865.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  461 

knew  to  have  wished  them  well."     The  work  of  reconstruction 
which  Lincoln  had  begun  now  devolved  on  President  Johnson. 

507.  Summary  of  the  fourth  and  last  year  of  the  war.  — 
In  the  spring  of  1864,  Grant  began  his  famous  "hammering 
campaign  "  against  Richmond,  while  at  the  same  time   Sher 
man  (by  his  orders)  moved  against  Atlanta.     After  the  capture 
of  Atlanta,  Sherman  set  out  on  his  great  march  for  Savannah. 
Thence  he  moved  northward  to  Goldsboro',  North  Carolina, 
beating  back  Johnston  as  he  advanced. 

Meanwhile  Farragut  had  entered  Mobile  Bay,  and  Grant, 
after  a  series  of  terrible  battles,  had  moved  round  to  the  south 
side  of  the  James  River  and  begun  the  siege  of  Petersburg, 
sending  Sheridan  to  drive  the  Confederates  out  of  the  Shenan- 
doah  Valley. 

In  the  spring  of  1865,  Grant  took  Petersburg  and  Rich 
mond,  and  forced  Lee  to  surrender  at  Appomattox  Court 
House.  A  few  weeks  later,  Johnston  surrendered  to  Sherman. 
Meanwhile  the  national  flag  had  been  restored  at  Fort  Sumter, 
but  the  President  had  been  assassinated  and  the  work  of  recon 
struction  had  fallen  to  President  Johnson. 

508.  The  two  decisive  forces ;  the  blockade  ;  total  num 
ber  of  battles ;  cost  of  the  war  in  life  and  treasure.  —  The 
Union  armies  and  the  blockading  squadrons  worked  together 
like  upper  and  nether  mill-stones.     While  Grant  and  Sherman's 
immense  land-forces  crushed  all  organized  resistance,  the  sea- 
forces  hemmed  the  South  in,  and  eventually  cut  off  all  help 
from  abroad. 

The  work  which  the  fleet  accomplished  attracted  hardly  any 
attention  when  compared  with  the  military  operations  on  land, 
but  in  its  way  it  was  equally  effectual.  Few  coasts  are  more 
tempestuous  than  the  Southern  Atlantic,  and  the  men  who  for 
four  years  stood  at  their  posts  of  duty  along  that  storm-swept 
line  braved  hardships  and  perils  that  would  have  appalled  any 
but  the  stoutest  hearts. 

When  President  Lincoln  declared  the  thirty  or  more  ports  of 


462  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [ises. 

the  Confederate  States  sealed  up,  foreign  powers  looked  upon 
it  as  a  mere  "  paper  blockade,"  which  any  daring  vessel  might 
break  through  at  will.  But  gradually  upwards  of  three  thou 
sand  miles  of  coast  were  brought  under  patrol,  and  more  than 
1500  blockade-runners  were  captured,  destroyed  or  driven 
ashore  and  wrecked. 

In  time  the  blockade  had  a  twofold  effect ;  first,  it  shut  out 
foreign  supplies  and  so  threw  the  Confederates  entirely  upon 
their  own  limited  resources.  Next,  it  made  it  impossible  for 
them  to  export  their  cotton,  and  it  converted  the  slaves,  who 
had  been  wealth  producers,  into  mere  food  producers.  This 
prevented  Jefferson  Davis  from  getting  money  to  keep  up  the 
contest,  so  that  when  the  war  ended,  cotton  worth  $300,000,- 
ooo  in  gold  was  found  stored  away  in  different  parts  of  the 
South. 

On  land  military  operations  never  stopped,  and  fighting  was 
taking  place  somewhere  along  the  line  every  day. 

The  total  number  of  engagements,  great  and  small,  count  up 
over  2000.  On  the  Union  side  the  loss  of  life  reached  a  total 
of  over  360,000,  of  whom  the  greater  part  are  buried  in  the 
national  cemeteries  at  Gettysburg  and  elsewhere.  Probably 
the  South  lost  as  many  as  the  North  ;  if  so,  we  have  a  total 
of  over  72o,ooo.1256  At  the  North  more  than  two-thirds  of  the 
men  *  who  entered  the  ranks  were  American-born  ;  at  the 

*  The  total  number  of  men  who  entered  the  Union  army  and  navy  is 
given  by  Phisterer,  in  his  "  Statistical  Record  "  of  the  Civil  War,  at  some 
what  over  2,850,000  (counting  those  who  reenlisted,  and  including  186,097 
colored  troops).  The  border  States  of  Delaware,  Maryland,  Missouri,  and 
Kentucky  furnished  no  less  than  252,122  men  to  the  Union  Army;  Ten 
nessee  (mainly  eastern  Tennessee)  31,092;  and  West  Virginia  32,068.  On 
April  15,  1861,  President  Lincoln  called  for  75,000  three-months'  men; 
between  May  and  July,  1861,  he  called  for  500,000  men  for  from  six  months 
to  three  years;  in  July,  1862,  he  called  for  300,000  three-years'  men,  and  in 
August,  1862,  for  300,000  militia  for  nine  months'  service,  but  obtained  only 
87,588  ;  in  June,  1863,  a  call  for  militia  for  six  months'  service  brought 
16,361.  In  October,  1863,  and  February,  1864,  he  called  for  500,000  men, 


1865.]  THE    WAR    OF    SECESSION.  463 

South  nearly  all  were  so.  The  average  age,  at  enlistment,  of 
those  who  entered  the  Union  army  is  said  to  have  not  exceeded 
twenty-two.1257  The  expense  of  the  war  to  the  national  Govern 
ment,  above  the  ordinary  expenses,  was  about  $3,25o,ooo,ooo;1258 
but  allowance  must  be  made  for  the  fact  that  the  Government 
settled  most  of  its  bills,  including  those  due  the  army  and 
navy,  in  "  greenbacks  "  which  were  worth  much  less  than 
gold. 

The  United  States,  says  Colonel  Dodge,1259  paid  its  sol 
diers  more  liberally  than  any  other  nation  ever  did  before  ; 
besides  this  they  received  $300,000,000  in  bounties,  and  the 
Government  has  since  paid  them  over  $2,000,000,000  in  pen 
sions  (§  554)  ;  including  the  pensions  still  to  be  disbursed,  the 
sum  may  reach  a  total  of  nearly  $3,000,000,000.  If  we  should 
add  the  amounts  spent  by  States  and  towns  for  the  war,  the 
grand  total  would  probably  exceed  $8,000,000,000  —  or  more 
than  the  entire  assessed  valuation  of  the  loyal  States  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  contest  (§  453). 

The  expenditure  on  the  secession  side  cannot  be  reckoned ; 
but  it  may  be  said  with  entire  truth  that  the  people  of  the 
South  stripped  themselves  bare,  and  spent  their  last  dollar  in 
their  desperate  effort  to  tear  the  Union  asunder.  In  addition 
to  these  losses,  the  Union  armies  destroyed  property  in  that 
section  to  an  incalculable  amount. 

509.  Results  of  the  war.  —  But  however  enormous  the 
expenditure  of  life  and  treasure,  the  economic,  political,  and 
moral  results  of  the  war  for  the  Union  have  fully  justified  the 
cost.  It  is  true  that  it  entailed  serious  evils  on  the  country, 
for  it  begot  extravagance,  speculation,  gigantic  frauds,  and 
political  corruption  ;  it  disorganized  regular  labor  to  a  consider 
able  extent,  and  temporarily  increased  pauperism  ;  but  in  the 
end  the  good  it  achieved  far  outbalanced  these  evils. 

in  the  aggregate  for  three  years.  In  these  calls  the  men  raised  by  draft 
in  1863  are  included.  In  March,  1864,  he  called  for  200,000  three-years' 
men  ;  in  July,  1864,  for  500,000;  and  finally  in  December,  1864,  for  300,000. 


464  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [ises. 

1.  The  war  freed  not  only  the  South,  but  the  whole  country, 
from  the  burden  and  curse  of  slavery.     It  made  it  possible  to 
develop  the  immense  natural  resources  of  that  section,  which 
had  in  great  measure  lain  dormant   since  colonization  began. 
New  energy,  new  life,  new  enterprises  have  sprung  up,  which 
have  stimulated  industry,  disseminated  education,  and  re-created 
the  South.     These  influences  are  fast  making  it  one  of  the 
most    prosperous   and  wealthy  parts  of  the    Republic.     The 
negro  shares  in  this  new  life.     A  little  more  than  a  generation 
ago,  he  was  so  poor  that  he  did  not  own  himself ;  to-day  he  is 
a  free  laborer  —  the  maker  of  his  own  future,  and  the  possessor 
of  property  assessed  at  many  millions. 

2.  The  war  not  only  saved  the  Union,  but  perfected  it.     It 
prohibited  the  secession  principle  forever,  and  stamped  that 
prohibition  ineffaceably  upon  the  Constitution  "by  blood  and 
iron."  12GO     The  South  accepts  this  fact,  and  nine  of  the  States 
which  seceded  have  adopted  new  constitutions  or  amended  old 
ones,  repudiating    disunion   as  treason.1261     Thus  the  terrible 
struggle  completed  the  work  of  the  founders  of  the  Republic, 
and,  in  the  words  of  the  Supreme  Court  (1868),  it  made  the 
nation  "  an  indestructible  Union  "  of  "  indestructible  States."  1262 
In  doing  this  the  war  showed  the  world  that  there  is  nothing 
stronger  or  more  stable  than  what  President  Lincoln  called 
"Government  of  the  people,   by  the  people,"   and  "for  the 
people." 

3.  Finally,  the  contest  lifted  the  whole  nation  to  a  higher 
moral  level.     In  doing  away  with  slavery  and  with  the  evils 
which  slavery  inflicted  on  black  and  white  alike,  it  made  the 
Declaration  of  Independence  true,  not  of  one  favored  race,  but 
of  all  who  to-day  claim  the  name  and  the  rights  of  American 
citizens.     By  accomplishing  this  great  work,  the  war  has  made 
North  and  South  one  in  purpose,  in  patriotism,  in  brotherhood. 
It  has  established  a  Union  resting  on  mutual  respect,  and  on 
heart  and  conscience,  which  will  stand  as  long  as  heart  and 
conscience  are  obeyed. 


VII. 

RECONSTRUCTION,  THE  NEW  NATION. 
( 1  865  to  the  Present  Time.) 

For  Authorities  for  this  Chapter,  see  Appendix,  page  xxiv.        The  small  figures  in  tJtt. 
text  refer  to  A  uthorities  cited  on  Page   xxx    of  the  Appendix. 


510.  President  Johnson;  his  previous  record;  attitude 
toward  the  South.  —  A  few  hours  after  the  death  of  Lincoln 
(April  15,  1865),  Vice-President  Johnson  took  the  oath  of  office 
which  made  him  head  of  the  Republic.  Like  Lincoln,  Johnson 
sprang  from  the  class  then  known  at  the  South  as  "  Poor 
Whites."  He  began  the  practical  work  of  life  at  the  tailor's 
board  in  a  log-cabin  in  eastern  Tennessee.  He  had  never 
attended  school,  but  taught  himself  to  read,  and  his  wife  taught 
him  to  write.  His  ambition  and  force  of  character  led  him  to 
enter  the  field  of  local  politics.  He  became  one  of  the  leaders 
of  the  workingmen  in  his  section  in  their  contest  with  the  slave- 
holding  aristocracy.  He  rose  step  by  step  until  he  became 
Governor  of  his  State  ;  soon  afterward  the  Democrats  elected 
him  (1857)  to  the  United  States  Senate.  He  was  the  only 
Southern  man  in  the  Senate  who  stood  resolutely  by  the  Union 
and  openly  denounced  secession  as  "  unholy  rebellion."  1263 

In  the  spring  of  1862  President  Lincoln  appointed  Senator 
Johnson  military  governor  of  Tennessee.  He  greatly  strength 
ened  the  Union  cause  in  that  State,  and  when  the  Republicans 
renominated  Lincoln  to  the  presidency  (1864),  they  recognized 
the  services  of  the  "  War  Democrats  "  by  putting  Johnson  on 
the  ticket  as  Vice-President.  When  the  assassination  of  the 


466  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [ises. 

President  raised  Johnson  to  the  highest  office  in  the  nation,  he 
entered  upon  its  duties  with  the  declaration  :  "  The  American 
people  must  be  taught  to  know  and  understand  that  treason  is 
a  crime."  "  It  must  not  be  regarded  as  a  mere  difference  of 
political  opinion.  "12&*  Again  he  said  :  "  Treason  must  be  made 
infamous,  and  traitors  must  be  impoverished."  I265 

511.     The  "  freedmen  "  ;  plans  for  reconstruction Two 

political  questions  of  prime  importance  pressed  for  settlement : 

1.  What  should  be  done  to  aid  and  protect  the  "freedmen"? 

2.  What  action  should  be  taken  respecting  the  restoration  or 
reconstruction  of  the  seceded  States  ? 

At  the  close  of  the  war  the  Government  was  confronted  with 
the  stupendous  problem  of  providing  for  several  millions  of 
negroes.  Tens  of  thousands  of  them  had  followed  the  Union 
armies  and  had  been  gathered  into  camps  at  different  points. 
These  poor  people  were  legally  free ;  but  that  was  all.  They 
were  "  landless,  homeless,  helpless,"  and  there  was  danger 
that  many  of  them  would  sink  into  a  state  of  permanent  pau 
perism.  One  of  President  Lincoln's  last  acts  was  to  sign  a 
bill  (March  3,  1865)  creating  the  "  Freedmen's  Bureau."  The 
bureau  was  to  continue  for  one  year  ;  its  object  was  to  place 
the  freedmen,  as  far  as  practicable,  on  abandoned  or  confis 
cated  lands  at  the  South,  and  render  them  self-supporting. 
General  O.  O.  Howard  was  appointed  commissioner,  and  was 
invested,  he  says,  with  "  almost  unlimited  authority." 

The  second  problem  —  that  of  reconstruction  —  was  even 
more  formidable  than  the  negro  question,  which  was  neces 
sarily  closely  bound  up  with  it. 

The  Constitution  was  silent  in  regard  to  secession  and  civil 
war  ;  it  threw  no  light  on  the  delicate,  difficult,  and  dangerous 
work  of  restoring  or  reconstructing  the  Southern  States.  Three 
questions  arose:  i.  What  was  the  condition  of  the  seceded 
States,  —  were  they  still  members  of  the  Union,  as  a  dislocated 
arm  is  still  a  member  of  the  body,  or  had  secession  put  them 
wholly  out  of  the  Union  and  were  they  now  simply  conquered 


1863-1865.]         RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  467 

territory?  2.  Did  the  power  to  restore  or  reconstruct  rest  with 
the  President  or  with  Congress  ?  3.  What  action  should  be 
taken  respecting  the  negro  ?  Should  he  be  made  a  citizen  and 
a  voter  or  simply  left  free  ?  If  the  ballot  was  put  in  his  hands 
he  might  swamp  the  white  vote  in  the  South  by  force  of  num 
bers  ;  if  simply  left  free,  his  presence  would  increase  the  basis 
of  representation  and  so  increase  the  power  of  the  South  in 
Congress.  On  the  other  hand,  if  he  could  not  protect  himself 
he  might  be  virtually  reenslaved. 

President  Lincoln,  in  accordance  with  his  inaugural  address 
(§  448),  took  the  position  that  the  Union  and  the  States  ware 
alike  indestructible  and  that  secession  had  simply  thrown  cer 
tain  States  temporarily  out  of  gear  with  the  rest.  He  believed 
that  it  was  his  work  to  set  them  right  again.  His  plan  was 
essentially  that  of  restoration.  Toward  the  last  of  1863  he 
issued  a  proclamation  of  amnesty.  By  it  he  granted  "  a  full 
pardon  "  to  "  all  persons,"  except  the  leaders  of  secession,  who 
had  been  engaged  in  the  "  existing  rebellion,"  provided  they 
should  take  an  oath  to  support  the  Constitution  and  all  acts  of 
Congress  to  date.  He  furthermore  declared  that  whenever 
one-tenth  or  more  of  the  loyal  voters  of  1860  in  the  seceded 
States  should  reestablish  a  State  Government  in  accordance 
with  the  Constitution  and  the  oath  of  allegiance,  he  would 
recognize  it  as  "the  true  government  of  the  State." 

President  Lincoln  added,  however,  that  the  admission  of 
such  reconstructed  States  to  representation  did  not  rest  with 
him  but  with  Congress.1266  In  this  plan  no  provision  was  made 
for  negro  suffrage. 

The  radical  Republicans  in  Congress  denounced  President 
Lincoln's  policy  as  dangerous  to  the  welfare  of  the  nation,  and 
the  next  spring  (1864)  Henry  Winter  Davis  introduced  a 
reconstruction  bill  which  put  the  whole  control  of  the  late 
Confederate  States  in  the  hands  of  Congress  ;  but  like  the 
President's  method,  it  was  silent  in  regard  to  negro  suffrage. 
President  Lincoln  killed  the  bill  by  a  "  pocket  veto  "  (§  365), 


468  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1865. 

mainly  on  the  ground  that  it  was  too  rigid  in  its  character.1267 
The  angry  radicals,  under  the  leadership  of  Senators  Davis  and 
Wade,  issued  an  address  "  to  the  supporters  of  the  Govern 
ment,"  in  which  they  charged  Lincoln  with  deliberately  strik 
ing  "  a  blow  at  the  friends  of  the  administration,  at  the  rights 
of  humanity,  and  at  the  principles  of  Republican  Govern 
ment."  ^ 

The  President  did  not  lose  his  temper  ;  but  in  the  last  words 
which  he  spoke  in  public  (April  n,  1865)  declared  his  adher 
ence  to  his  own  plan  of  restoration  or  reconstruction.  He 
earnestly  advocated  a  policy  of  conciliation  toward  the  seceded 
States,  saying  :  "  We  shall  sooner  have  the  fowl  by  hatching  the 
egg  than  by  smashing  it."  12(i9 

512.  President  Johnson's  plan  of  reconstruction  vs.  Con 
gress.  —  Johnson  declared  that  he  held  the  view  of  reconstruc 
tion  which  Lincoln  had  defended.  His  idea  of  liberty  for  the 
negro  was  that  it  gave  him  the  right  to  work  for  himself,  but 
did  not  include  the  right  to  vote.  He  believed  that  this  is 
a  "white  man's  Government"  and  must  remain  such.  He 
insisted  that  the  question  of  negro  suffrage  rested  solely  with 
the  people  of  the  Southern  States.1270 

Congress  was  divided ;  a  few  members  held  with  Senator 
Sumner  that  the  Southern  States  had  committed  political  sui 
cide,  and  that  the  Government  should  proceed  to  deal  with 
them  as  conquered  territory.  Thaddeus  Stevens  went  further 
still  and  proposed  to  confiscate  the  "  estates  of  rebels  "  worth 
more  than  $10,000,  to  give  forty  acres  of  land  to  each  "  f reed- 
man,"  and  to  use  the  remainder  in  paying  off  the  national  war 
debt.1271  But  the  great  majority  of  Congress  held  that  the 
States  still  existed  as  States,  and  that  the  Constitution,  though 
suspended,  was  still  in  force  in  that  section.  They  insisted, 
however,  that  Congress,  and  Congress  only,  should  decide  on 
the  readmission  of  the  seceded  States  to  their  political  rights. 
This  view  was  confirmed  later  (1868)  by  a  decision  of  the 
Supreme  Court  (Texas  vs.  White)™ 


1865.]  RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  469 

Johnson  had  none  of  Lincoln's  tact;  he  stood  up  stubbornly 
in  defence  of  his  theory.  Congress  was  equally  determined; 
the  result  was  a  prolonged  battle  between  the  Executive  and 
Legislative  power.  In  that  battle  Secretary  Seward  stood 
firmly  by  the  President. 

513.  The  grand  review;  disbanding  the  army;  the  war 
debt;  condition  of  the  South.  —  The  struggle  between  the 
Executive  and  Congress  over  reconstruction  did  not  begin 
at  once.  The  close  of  the  war  called  for  a  grand  military 
review  at  Washington.  The  parade  of  even  a  part  of  the  Union 
armies  occupied  two  entire  days  (May  23,  24,  1865).  On  the 
first  day  the  "  Army  of  the  Potomac,"  with  General  Meade  at 
the  head,  marched  from  the  national  capitol  down  Pennsyl 
vania  Avenue  to  the  "White  House."  The  following  day 
General  Sherman  at  the  head  of  the  "Army  of  the  West" 
passed  over  the  same  ground.  These  men  were  no  "holiday 
troops,"  but  a  great  body  of  war-worn  veterans,  "  who  had  not 
slept  under  a  roof  for  years."  They  bore  the  shot-torn  ban 
ners  which  they  had  carried  on  a  hundred  hard-fought  fields. 
On  those  fields  they  had  left  dead  comrades,  far  more  numer 
ous  than  the  throngs  who  now  joined  with  them  in  celebrating 
the  final  victory  of  peace. 

The  muster-out  of  the  Union  forces  —  more  than  a  million  in 
number- —  had  already  begun.  It  continued  at  the  rate  of  about 
250,000  a  month,  until  all  but  a  comparatively  small  force  of 
regular  troops  had  been  disbanded.  At  the  same  time  the  Govern 
ment  began  to  pay  off  the  war  debt,  and  before  all  the  soldiers 
had  been  discharged  the  debt  had  been  reduced  $30,000,000. 
The  European  press  predicted  that  men  who  had  so  long  been 
accustomed  to  the  use  of  arms  would  not  return  peacefully  to 
their  homes  ;  but  they  went  back  as  quietly  as  they  came.  The 
Confederates  did  the  same ;  they,  like  the  Union  forces,  had 
that  American  sense  of  self-respect  which  forbade  disorder. 

But  the  "  men  in  blue  "  and  the  "  men  in  gray  "  returned 
to  widely  different  fields.  The  devastating  hand  of  war  had 


47<3  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [ises. 

hardly  touched  the  North  in  a  material  sense.  No  invading 
armies  had  ravaged  the  loyal  States.  In  that  section,  through 
out  the  terrible  contest,  trade,  commerce,  agriculture,  and  manu 
facturing  flourished,  and  thousands  prospered  and  grew  rich. 

At  the  South  everything  was  different.  The  followers  of 
Lee  and  Johnston,  "  ragged,  half-starved,  heavy-hearted,"  went 
back  to  find  practically  everything  gone.  Their  money  was 
worthless,  their  States  bankrupt,  their  railroads  and  manu 
factories  destroyed,  their  houses  in  ruins,  their  barns  empty, 
their  plantations  stripped,  their  slaves  set  free. 

But  though  the  people  of  the  South  had  little  left  but  the 
land  and  their  hands  with  which  to  work  it,  yet  they  did  not 
despair.  Alexander  H.  Stephens  spoke  for  multitudes  when 
he  said :  "  We  should  accept  the  issues  of  the  war  and  abide 
by  them  in  good  faith."  "  The  whole  United  States  is  now 
our  country,  to  be  cherished  and  defended  as  such  by  all 
our  hearts  and  all  our  arms."  The  speaker  claimed  "full  pro 
tection"  for  the  negroes,  so  that  they  should  "stand  equal 
before  the  law  in  the  provision  and  enjoyment  of  all  rights  of 
person,  liberty,  and  property."1273 

Lee  exhibited  the  same  loyal  purpose.  He  applied  to  the 
Government  for  pardon  in  order  to  encourage  others  to  do 
likewise.  When  Johnston  bade  farewell  to  his  men  he  urged 
them  to  devote  all  their  energies  "  to  discharge  the  duties  of 
good  and  peaceful  citizens."1274  Out  of  this  spirit  and  the  life 
and  labor  it  has  inspired  a  "  new  South  "  has  arisen,  progres 
sive,  prosperous,  patriotic. 

514.  Proclamations  respecting  the  South ;  ratification  of 
the  XHIth  Amendment.  —  Before  Congress  met,  the  Presi 
dent  issued  a  proclamation  (1865)  opening  the  Southern  ports 
east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  removing  all  restrictions  on  trade 
and  intercourse.  He  next  offered  free  and  full  pardon  to  all 
save  the  leaders  in  the  "  late  rebellion,"  on  the  same  general 
conditions  as  those  offered  by  Lincoln  (§  511).  President 
Johnson  soon  afterward  declared  the  insurrection  over  in  Ten- 


1865-1866.]         RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION. 

nessee.  The  following  spring  (1866)  he  made  the  same  dec 
laration  respecting  all  the  Southern  States  except  Texas.  A 
few  months  later  he  proclaimed  that  peace  and  civil  author 
ity  existed  "  throughout  the  whole  of  the  United  States  of 
America."1275 

When  Congress  met  (1865)  it  omitted  the  names  of  the  late 
Confederate  States  from  its  roll-call,  and  appointed  a  committee 
to  inquire  into  their  condition.  The  announcement  was  made 
by  the  Secretary  of  State  that  the  Xlllth  Amendment  (§  476) 
—  the  first  constitutional  amendment  which  had  been  adopted 
for  sixty  years  —  had  been  duly  ratified  (Appendix,  p.  xvii).  It 
clinched  and  extended  the  Emancipation  Proclamation  so  that 
it  covered  all  the  States  (§  476)  and  made  the  reestablishment 
of  slavery  impossible. 

515.  Veto  of  the  second  Freedmen' s  Bureau  Bill  and  of 
the  Civil  Rights  Bill ;  the  XlVth  Amendment.  —  The  origi 
nal  Freedmen's  Bureau  Act  was  about  to  expire  by  limitation 
(§  511).  Congress  therefore  (February  6,  1866)  passed  a  bill 
renewing  that  act.  It  extended  the  powers  of  the  commis 
sioner  and  provided  military  protection  'for  the  "  freedmen." 
President  Johnson  vetoed  it.  His  grounds  were:  (i)  that  the 
bill  was  a  war  measure  which  was  uncalled  for  in  time  of 
peace ;  (2)  that  it  took  land  from  former  owners  without  due 
process  of  law,  and  gave  it  to  the  destitute  "  freedmen  "  and 
"refugees  "  ;  *  (3)  finally,  he  objected  that  the  bill  was  uncon 
stitutional,  because  it  had  been  passed  by  a  Congress  from 
which  "  all  the  people  of  eleven  States  "  were  excluded.1276 

The  veto  killed  the  proposed  act,  but  later  (July  16,  1866) 
Congress  passed  a  similar  bill  over  a  second  veto. 

Meanwhile  the  President  bitterly  denounced  Congress  in  a 
public  speech,  and  declared  that  two  prominent  members,  whom 
he  called  by  name,  were  laboring  to  destroy  the  Government.1277 
Congress  retaliated  by  passing  the  Civil  Rights  Bill.  This  bill 

*  The  Southern  Union  white  men  who  took  refuge  with  the  Union 
armies  were  called  "  refugees  "  ;  many  of  them  had  lost  everything. 


472  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [isee. 

gave  the  negro  the  full  benefit  of  all  laws  for  the  security  of 
person  and  property  which  are  enjoyed  by  white  citizens.  It 
made  the  recently  liberated  slave  the  equal  of  his  former  master 
in  the  courts. 

The  President  vetoed  the  bill,  mainly  on  the  ground  that 
since  many  of  the  Southern  States  were  still  unrepresented  in 
Congress,  that  body  had  no  constitutional  right  to  declare 
several  millions  of  ignorant  negroes  citizens  of  the  Republic. 
This  stirred  the  temper  of  Congress,  and  both  Houses  united 
in  promptly  passing  the  bill  over  the  veto.  From  this  time 
the  President  and  the  majority  in  Congress  were  openly  at 
war.  Johnson  broke  more  completely  with  the  Republicans 
who  had  elected  him  than  even  Tyler  did  (§  378)  with  the 
Whigs  a  quarter  of  a  century  earlier. 

A  few  months  later  Congress  enacted,  by  joint  resolution, 
the  XlVth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution  (Appendix,  p. 
xviii).  This  amendment  did  four  things:  (i)  it  confirmed 
the  Civil  Rights  Act ;  (2)  it  reduced  the  basis  of  representa 
tion  of  any  State  which  excluded  the  negro  from  the  polls  ; 
(3)  it  declared  that  'no  prominent  person  who  had  been  en 
gaged  in  the  rebellion  should  be  eligible  to  election  to  Con 
gress,  should  be  a  presidential  elector,  or  should  hold  any  civil 
or  military  office  under  the  United  States,  or  under  any  State, 
unless  Congress  removed  such  disability ;  (4)  it  declared  that 
the  validity  of  the  Union  war  debt  must  not  be  questioned ; 
and  that  neither  the  United  States  nor  any  State  should  pay 
any  portion  of  the  Confederate  debt,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss 
or  emancipation  of  the  slaves.  The  President  protested  against 
submitting  this  amendment  to  the  States  for  ratification  until 
all  the  Southern  States  had  been  readmitted  to  Congress. 

516.  Contest  between  the  President  and  Congress;  re- 
admission  of  Tennessee ;  negro  suffrage  in  the  District  of 
Columbia;  "  swinging  round  the  circle."  —  In  the  long  contest 
which  ensued  between  the  President  and  Congress,  each  re 
solved  to  defeat  and  humiliate  the  other.  Johnson  henceforth 


1866-1867.]         RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  4/3 

regularly  vetoed  every  bill  —  eleven  in  all  —  which  favored  the 
Republican  reconstruction  policy ;  Congress,  on  the  other  hand, 
just  as  regularly  "  vetoed  his  veto." 

Meanwhile  Tennessee  had  adopted  a  State  constitution  which 
abolished  slavery  and  all  ordinances  and  laws  of  secession ; 
repudiated  the  Confederate  debt,  and  ratified  the  XHIth  and 
XlVth  Amendments  to  the  federal  Constitution.  Tennessee 
was  therefore  readmitted  (July  24,  i86'6).  It  was  the  first 
seceded  State  which  was  fully  restored  to  all  its  former  rights 
and  privileges  as  a  member  of  the  Union.  The  next  winter 
(1866-1867)  the  remaining  seceded  States  rejected  the  XlVth 
Amendment,  and  South  Carolina  enacted  laws  which  seemed 
intended  to  reduce  the  freedmen  to  a  state  of  subjection  not 
far  removed  from  slavery  itself.  Toward  the  close  of  1866 
Congress  passed  an  act  over  the  President's  veto  which  granted 
suffrage  to  the  negroes  of  the  District  of  Columbia.  They  were 
the  first  freed  slaves  who  obtained  the  ballot  directly  from  the 
hands  of  the  nation.* 

Meanwhile  the  President  had  been  making  a  Northern  tour, 
or  "swinging  round  the  circle."  He  spoke  in  a  number  of 
the  principal  cities  and  made  bitter  attacks  on  Congress.  He 
declared  that  it  was  not  a  true  Congress  since  it  did  not  repre 
sent  all  the  States,  that  it  was  "  trying  to  break  up  the  Govern 
ment,"  and  that  the  Freedmen's  Bureau  was  simply  a  swindle 
and  a  disguised  form  of  slavery.1278 

517.  New  proclamation  of  amnesty;  action  of  Congress; 
admission  of  Nebraska ;  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act ;  the  Mili 
tary  Reconstruction  Act ;  readmission  of  States.  —  In  the 
autumn  of  1867  the  President  issued  a  proclamation  of  gen 
eral  amnesty,  by  which  pardon  was  extended  to  a  large  class 
hitherto  excepted. 

When  Congress  met  (1867)  it  adopted  a  series  of  retaliatory 
measures :  (i)  it  made  provision  for  an  almost  continuous 

*  The  form  of  government  of  the  District  of  Columbia  has  since  been 
changed,  and  none  of  the  inhabitants  have  the  right  of  suffrage. 


474  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.  [1867. 

session  ;  (2)  it  took  from  the  President  the  power  of  issuing 
general  proclamations  of  pardon ;  (3)  it  virtually  deprived 
him  of  the  command  of  the  military  forces  of  the  United 
States,  by  requiring  that  all  orders  respecting  them  should  pass 
through  General  Grant ;  (4)  it  set  aside  his  power  to  suspend 
the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  ;  (5)  it  admitted  the  State  of  Nebraska 
(1867),  the  thirty-seventh  State,  over  the  President's  veto,  and 
granted  negro  suffrage  in  the  new  State  ;  (6)  it  passed  the 
Tenure  of  Office  Act  over  the  Executive  veto.  The  object  of 
this  act  was  to  prevent  the  President  from  carrying  out  his  threat 
of  removing  public  officers  who  sided  with  Congress  and  op 
posed  his  reconstruction  policy.  It  deprived  the  President  of 
the  right  of  removing  such  officers,  even  when  they  were  mem 
bers  of  his  Cabinet,  without  the  consent  of  the  Senate.1279 

Congress  next  proceeded  to  deal  with  the  seceded  States  by 
passing  the  Military  Reconstruction  Bill  (March  2,  1867). 
This  bill  provided  that :  i.  The  ten  "rebel  States  "  should  be 
divided  into  five  military  districts,  each  to  be  placed  under  the 
command  of  a  general  of  the  army  appointed  by  the  President. 

2.  Under  the  supervision  of  these  military  authorities,  each 
State  was  to  hold  a  convention  to  frame  a  State  constitution. 

3.  Negroes  were  to  have  the  right  to  vote  for  delegates  to  this 
convention  and  to  act  as  delegates  in  it ;  but  all  prominent  ex- 
Confederates  were  excluded.     4.  If  the  constitution  so  framed 
was   accepted  by  the  duly  qualified  voters  of  the  State   and 
approved  by  Congress,  the  State  might  then  be  readmitted  to 
representation,  provided  its  Legislature  had  ratified  the  XlVth 
Amendment,    which    gave    the    "freedmen"   full    civil    rights, 
repudiated  the  Confederate  debt,  acknowledged  the  validity  of 
the  Union  war  debt,  and  renounced  all  claim  for  emancipation 
of  slaves  (§  515).     This  bill  set  aside  the  provisional  govern 
ments  which  President  Johnson  had  created,  and  put  the  whole 
work  of  reconstruction  in  the  hands  of  Congress. 

The  President  vetoed  the  bill,  on  the  ground  that  its  object 
was  to  coerce  the  people  of  the  Southern  States  by  military 


1867-1870.]         RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  475 

force  into  adopting  measures  to  which  they  were  known  to  be 
opposed,  and  that  such  a  measure  was  "  in  palpable  conflict  with 
the  plainest  provision  of  the  Constitution."  Congress  at  once 
passed  the  bill  over  the  veto.  128°  The  United  States  Supreme 
Court  (Texas  vs.  White,  1868)  virtually  confirmed  the  consti 
tutionality  of  this  act,  though  it  also  declared  in  this  case,  and 
later  (Slaughter-House  Cases,  1872),  that  the  power  of  the 
Southern  States  as  States  remained  in  all  respects  unim 
paired.1281 

Under  this  stringent  Reconstruction  Act,  the  six  States  of 
Alabama,  Arkansas,  Florida,  Louisiana,  and  North  and  South 
Carolina  were  readmitted  in  1868.  Georgia  ratified  the  XlVth 
Amendment  in  1868,  but  was  not  fully  and  finally  readmitted 
until  1870.  Mississippi,  Texas,  and  Virginia  refused  to  accede 
to  the  conditions  laid  down  by  Congress,  and  held  out  until 
1870,  when  they  accepted  them  and  were  readmitted.* 

518.  Johnson  removes  Stanton;  impeachment  of  the 
President.  —  Meanwhile  the  President,  in  disregard  of  the 
Tenure  of  Office  Act  (§  517),  which  he  considered  unconstitu 
tional,  resolved  to  remove  Secretary  Stanton,  with  whom  he  had 
long  been  at  swords'  points.  He  accordingly  (August  5,  1867) 
sent  the  Secretary  this  brief  note  :  "  Sir,  —  Public  considera 
tions  of  a  high  character  constrain  me  to  say  that  your  resigna 
tion  as  Secretary  of  War  will  be  accepted."  Mr.  Stanton,  in 
his  almost  equally  brief  reply,  said:  "Sir, —  .  .  .  I  have  the 
honor  to  say  that  public  considerations  of  a  high  character, 
which  alone  have  induced  me  to  continue  at  the  head  of  this 
department,  constrain  me  not  to  resign  the  office  of  Secretary 
of  War  before  the  next  meeting  of  Congress."  128'2 

The  President  thereupon  suspended  the  Secretary  from  office, 
but  Congress  promptly  reinstated  him.  The  President  then 
ordered  the  Secretary  to  resign.  Instead  of  doing  so,  Mr. 

*  Congress  required  that  they  should  ratify  the  XVth  Amendment, 
passed  subsequently  to  the  readmission  of  the  first  six  reconstructed 
States. 


476  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

Stanton  sent  the  order  to  the  House  of  Representatives.  There 
upon  that  body  resolved  by  a  vote  of  126  to  47  to  impeach  the 
President  for  "  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors."  The  offences 
with  which  he  was  charged  were  :  (i)  the  removal  of  Secretary 
Stanton  in  direct  violation  of  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act  (§  517)  ; 

(2)  commanding  General  Emory  not  to  obey  the  law  (§517)  re 
quiring  all  military  orders  to  be  issued  through  General  Grant ; 

(3)  attempts  to   excite  the  resentment  of  the  people  against 
Congress,  by  declaring  that  it  was  not  a  true  Congress  (§  516) 
and  that  the  President  was  not  bound  by  its  laws.1283 

The  impeachment  trial  began  the  last  of  March  (1868),  be 
fore  fifty-four  Senators,  representing  twenty-seven  States; 
Chief-Justice  Chase  presided.  The  trial  ended  toward  the  last 
of  May.  Thirty-five  Senators  voted  "guilty"  and  nineteen 
"  not  guilty."  A  two-thirds  vote  was  required  to  secure  con 
viction  ;  the  President,  therefore,  escaped  removal  by  the 
narrow  margin  of  a  single  vote. 1284 

519.  The  presidential  election  (1868).  —  The  campaign  was 
fought  on  two  questions  :  i.  Should  the  presidential  or  the 
congressional  plan  of  reconstruction  be  adopted?  2.  Should 
the  national  debt,  in  cases  not  specified  on  the  face  of  the 
bonds,*  be  paid  in  coin  or  in  "greenbacks"  ? 

The  Republicans  adopted  a  platform  which  heartily  endorsed 
the  reconstruction  policy  of  Congress  ;  at  the  same  time  they 
commended  the  "  spirit  of  magnanimity  and  forbearance  shown 
by  the  recent  secessionists,"  and  asked  for  the  removal  of  the 
disqualifications  and  restrictions  imposed  upon  the  "  late 
rebels  "  as  far  as  might  be  "  consistent  with  the  safety  of  the 
loyal  people." 

They  resolved  that  the  national  honor  required  the  payment 
of  the  national  debt,  "  not  only  according  to  the  letter,  but  the 
spirit  of  the  laws  under  which  it  was  contracted." 

*  The  Republicans  held  that  the  bonds  should  be  paid  in  coin  unless 
paper  had  been  agreed  upon  ;  the  Democrats  that  they  should  be  paid  in 
paper  unless  coin  had  been  agreed  upon. 


The  Tote  of  ike  Senate,  sitting  as  alii  '-ill  Court  of  Impeach 
ment  for  the  trial  of  j^Xilia^^JOll^^OI^Presidonf  oi  the 


FiutedSMes,iipoiithellth,2ndaiid3rdArticles. 


VOTE   ON    THE    IMPEACHMENT   TRIAL. 


1868.]  RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION. 

They  nominated  General  Grant  for  President,  with  Schuyler 
Colfax  of  Indiana  for  Vice-President. 

The  Democrats  charged  Congress  with  subjecting  ten  States, 
in  time  of  peace,  to  "  military  despotism  and  negro  supremacy." 
They  condemned  the  Tenure  of  Office  Act  (§  517)  and  the 
Reconstruction  Act  (§  517)  as  "  unconstitutional,  revolutionary, 
and  void."  They  demanded  "  complete  "  amnes'ty  for  all  past 
political  offences  and  the  regulation  of  the  elective  franchise  in 
the  States  by  their  citizens. 

They  resolved  that,  except  in  cases  where  coin  was  stipulated 
in  the  bond,  the  obligations  of  the  Government  "  ought  in  right 
and  justice  to  be  paid  in  the  lawful  money  of  the  United 
States." 

They  nominated  Governor  Horatio  Seymour  of  New  York 
for  President,  with  General  F.  P.  Blair  of  Missouri  for  Vice- 
President.  Grant  and  Colfax  were  elected  by  214  electoral 
votes,  against  80  cast  for  Seymour.  The  popular  vote  stood 
3,012,833  for  Grant  to  2,703,249  for  Seymour. 

The  States  of  Virginia,  Mississippi,  and  Texas  (§  517)  were 
excluded  from  taking  part  in  the  election. 1285 

520.  Proclamation  of  general  amnesty;  the  Atlantic 
telegraph  ;  purchase  of  Alaska ;  China ;  Mexico ;  the  XVth 
Amendment.  —  Notwithstanding  the  prohibition  of  Congress 
respecting  proclamations  of  pardon  (§  517),  the  President 
issued  on  Christmas  Day  (1868)  a  final  proclamation  of  am 
nesty,  by  which  he  granted  a  full  and  unconditional  pardon 
"to  every  person  who  directly  or  indirectly  participated  in  the 
late  insurrection  or  rebellion."  1286 

Meanwhile  Cyrus  W.  Field  of  New  York  had  accomplished 
a  remarkable  work  destined  to  have  a  lasting  influence  on  both 
America  and  Europe.  About  ten  years  after  Morse  opened  the 
first  line  of  telegraph  in  the  world  (§  386),  Mr.  Field  organized 
a  company  to  establish  a  line  between  England  and  the  United 
States.  In  1858  a  cable  was  laid,  and  for  a  few  weeks  mes 
sages  were  sent  over  it ;  then  it  ceased  to  act.  A  large  amount 


478  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

of  money  had  been  sunk  in  the  enterprise,  but  the  originator  of 
it  at  once  began  the  work  anew,  and  millions  more  were  spent. 
Finally,  after  thirteen  years  of  labor,  and  after  crossing  the 
ocean  more  than  forty  times,  Mr.  Field  succeeded  (July  27, 
1866)  in  laying  a  permanent  Atlantic  telegraph  cable,  which, 
as  John  Bright  said,  "  moored  the  New  World  alongside  the 
Old." 

From  a  political,  diplomatic,  and  commercial  point  of  view, 
the  success  of  the  cable  was  of  great  significance.  It  brought 
the  most  highly  civilized  nations  of  the  globe  into  electric 
touch  with  each  other. 

Such  events  change  the  whole  current  of  history.  When  at 
the  close  of  the  War  of  1812,  the  United  States  Commissioners 
signed  the  Treaty  of  Ghent,  it  took  a  fast-sailing  sloop  seven 
weeks  to  bring  the  intelligence  to  our  shores ;  when,  in  the 
next  generation,  the  Indian  mutiny  broke  out,  we  did  not  hear 
of  it  for  a  fortnight,  although  the  news  was  sent  forthwith  by  a 
Cunard  steamer;  but  when  the  Franco-Prussian  War  began, 
the  Atlantic  cable  flashed  the  news  to  us  a  few  minutes  after 
the  first  gun  was  fired. 

To-day  London  and  New  York  are  such  near  neighbors  that 
a  rise  or  fall  in  the  English  stock  market  or  the  passage  of  an 
important  bill  in  Parliament  is  published  in  our  papers  us  soon, 
or,  it  may  be,  even  sooner  than  it  is  in  London  itself. 

In  the  autumn  of  the  following  year  (1867),  the  United 
States  purchased  Russian  America  for  $7,200,000  in  gold. 
The  territory  received  the  Indian  name  of  Alaska,  01  "  great 
country."  During  the  Civil  War,  when  Confederate  cruisers 
were  destroying  Union  vessels  in  the  North  Pacific,  the  Gov 
ernment  felt  the  need  of  a  foothold  on  the  coast  in  that  vicinity. 
The  annexation  of  Alaska  gave  more  than  half  a  million  of 
square  miles  of  territory  to  the  United  States,  and  secured  to 
us  a  country  rich  in  fish  and  furs,  and  which  gives  piomise  of 
valuable  mines.  The  purchase  was  ridiculed  as  "  Seward's 
folly,"  -  —  "  a  waste  of  money  on  rocks  and  ice,  fit  only  for  a 


This  map  shows  tne  territorial  growth  of  the 

United  States  in  its  relation  to  the  Continent 

from  the  time  of  the  Revolution  to  the 

present  day. 


1868-1869.]         RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  4/9 

polar  bear  garden " ;  but  it  has  since  repaid  its  cost  many 
times  over. 1287 

The  next  year  (1868)  the  Burlingame  Treaty  with  China 
(§  430)  was  ratified,  and  the  Monroe  Doctrine  was  applied  to 
the  French  occupation  of  Mexico.  During  the  Civil  War 
Louis  Napoleon  had  sent  a  French  army  to  Mexico  to  over 
throw  the  Republic  and  place  the  Austrian  prince,  Maximilian, 
on  the  throne.  President  Johnson  notified  Napoleon  that  the 
Monroe  Doctrine  (§  331)  must  be  respected,  and  sent  troops 
to  the  Mexican  frontier.  This  bayonet-pointed  hint  was 
sufficient ;  Napoleon  withdrew  his  forces  and  left  Maximilian 
to  his  fate. 

One  of  the  last  acts  of  the  Fortieth  Congress  was  to  propose 
(1869)  the  XVth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution,  whereby  the 
negro  would  receive  the  right  to  vote. 

521.  Summary.  —  Politically,  the  entire  administration  of 
President  Johnson  was  occupied  with  the  readmission  of  the 
Southern  States,  and  with  legislation  for  the  freedmen.  The 
President  urged  the  immediate  restoration  of  the  late  Confed 
erate  States ;  but  Congress  insisted  on  reorganization  accord 
ing  to  its  own  will.  The  conflict  between  the  President  and 
Congress  led  to  the  passage  of  the  Freedmen's  Bureau,  Civil 
Rights,  Tenure  of  Office,  and  Military  Reconstruction  Acts  over 
the  Executive  veto. 

The  refusal  of  the  President  to  obey  the  Tenure  of  Office 
Act  resulted  in  an  impeachment  trial,  in  which  he  was 
acquitted. 

Six  Southern  States  were  reconstructed  and  readmitted 
during  Johnson's  administration,  and  the  entrance  of  Nebraska 
raised  the  whole  number  of  States  in  the  Union  to  thirty-seven. 

We  note,  too,  the  successful  laying  of  the  Atlantic  cable, 
the  Burlingame  Treaty  with  China,  the  purchase  of  Alaska,  the 
withdrawal  of  the  French  from  Mexico,  the  ratification  of 
the  Xlllth  and  XlVth  Amendments,  and  the  passage  of  the 
XVth. 


480  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1869. 

ULYSSES  S.  GRANT  (REPUBLICAN),  TWO  TERMS,  1869-1877. 

522.  Grant's  inaugural  address;  completion  of  the  Pacific 
railroad.  —  In  his  inaugural  address,  General  Grant  (§  519) 
laid  especial  emphasis  on  the  necessity  of  extending  suffrage 
to  the  "freedmen  "  and  on  the  payment  of  the  war  debt  in  coin. 
"To  protect  the  national  honor,"  said  he,  "every  dollar  of 
government  indebtedness  should  be  paid  in  gold,  unless  other 
wise  expressly  stipulated  in  the  contract.  Let  it  be  understood 
that  no  repudiator  of  one  farthing  of  our  public  debt  will  be 
trusted  in  public  place,  and  it  will  go  far  toward  strengthening 
a  credit  which  ought  to  be  the  best  in  the  world." 

In  conclusion,  he  expressed  the  hope  that  the  ratification  of 
the  XVth  Amendment  might  soon  place  the  ballot  in  the  hands 
of  the  negro. 1288 

A  little  more  than  two  months  later,  the  last  spike  was 
driven  (May  10,  1869)  which  completed  the  building  of  a 
railroad  to  the  Pacific.  This  great  undertaking  was  first 
brought  to  the  attention  of  Congress  in  1846  by  Asa  Whitney, 
a  New  York  merchant  who  was  engaged  in  the  China  trade. 

The  discovery  of  gold  in  California  renewed  the  interest  in 
the  project.  Whitney  induced  Congress  to  make  a  survey,  and 
the  discovery  of  precious  metals  in  Colorado,  with  the  settle 
ment  of  Denver,  stimulated  the  work  still  more.  In  1860  both 
of  the  great  political  parties  declared  that  a  transcontinental  rail 
road  was  "  imperatively  demanded  by  the  interests  of  the  whole 
country."  The  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War  soon  gave  unmistak 
able  emphasis  to  the  demand  for  joining  the  East  and  the  Far 
West  in  closer  political,  commercial,  and  military  union. 

While  the  war  was  in  progress,  the  Government  offered  to 
give  nearly  13,000  acres  of  land  and  a  loan  of  over  $28,000 
for  every  mile  of  the  proposed  road  which  any  company  would 
build  and  equip  with  a  line  of  telegraph.  Two  companies 
accepted  the  offer.  The  "  Central  Pacific  Company "  began 
work  (1865)  at  the  San  Francisco  end,  and  the  "  Union 


£L    I    "0 

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1869.]  RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  481 

Pacific  "  at  Omaha.  While  the  "  Central  Pacific "  was 
climbing  the  Sierras  on  its  way  eastward,  the  "  Union  Pacific  " 
was  rapidly  pushing  its  way  westward  across  the  plains  of 
Nebraska.  Five  years  later,  the  engines  met  at  Promon 
tory  Point,  near  Ogden,  Utah.  There  the  last  rail  was 
laid.  The  next  day  (May  n,  1869)  a  through  train  from  New 
York  —  the  first  that  ever  crossed  from  ocean  to  ocean  — 
passed  Promontory  Point  on  its  way  to  San  Francisco.  That 
meant  that  steam  and  electricity  had  conquered  three  thousand 
miles  of  space,  and  that  the  Republic  at  last  held  the  whole 
breadth  of  the  continent  with  an  iron  grasp. 

Commercially,  the  Pacific  road  put  the  Eastern  States  in 
quick  communication  with  China  and  the  Indies,  so  that 
cargoes  of  teas,  silks,  and  spices  shipped  from  Asia  could  be 
delivered  in  New  York  in  a  month's  time. 

Politically,  the  road  had  a  most  important  influence.  Before 
it  was  built  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific  coasts  seemed  so  far 
distant  from  each  other  that  many  believed  it  doubtful  if  they 
could  be  held  together  under  the  same  central  Government. 
But  the  completion  of  the  road  changed  all  that,  for  a  member 
of  Congress  from  California  could  leave  the  Golden  Gate  with 
the  certainty  that  in  less  than  a  week  he  would  be  in  his  seat 
at  the  national  capitol. 

The  road  was  of  equal  importance  from  a  military  point  of 
view.  In  case  of  need,  the  Far  West  could  call  on  the  East  for 
help,  and  a  corps  of  United  States  troops  could  be  speedily 
transported  from  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic  to  those  of  the 
Pacific. 

Nor  was  this  all.  In  piercing  the  heart  of  the  continent  the 
railroad  opened  up  a  great  central  region  for  settlement.  Be 
tween  the  tier  of  States  bordering  on  the  west  banks  of  the 
Mississippi  and  the  States  of  the  Pacific  slope  there  was  a  vast 
half-explored  wilderness,  which,  with  few  exceptions,  the  Indian 
and  the  buffalo  shared  between  them.  Here  was  a  broad  field 
inviting  immigration.  General  Grant  says  that  when  the  Civil 


482  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

War  came  to  an  end,  great  numbers  of  young  men  who  had 
fought  in  the  Union  armies  went  West.  The  first  Pacific  rail 
road,*  with  the  four  others  which  followed  it,  helped  that 
movement  as  nothing  else  could,  and  aided  in  planting  bodies 
of  settlers,  who  became  the  connecting  link  in  population 
between  the  remote  East  and  the  remote  West.1289 

523.  Reconstruction  completed;  the  negro  in  Congress.  - 
When  Congress  met  it  completed  (1869-1870)  the  work  of 
reconstruction  by  removing  the  greater  part  of  the  remainder 
of  the  legal  and  political  disabilities  which  had  been  imposed 
upon  the  Southern  whites  ;  it  then  readmitted  the  remaining 
four  (§  517)  seceded  States. 

The  Secretary  of  State  (1870)  announced  that  the  XVth 
Amendment  (§  520)  had  been  duly  ratified  and  was  henceforth 
in  force.  This  finished  the  constitutional  work  of  reconstruc 
tion.  The  first  of  those  amendments  (§  476)  declared  the 
negro  free  forever ;  the  second  made  him  a  citizen ;  the  third 
made  him  a  voter.  He  now  had  every  right,  every  privilege, 
every  opportunity  which  the  law  gives  the  white  man,  —  in  the 
courts  and  at  the  ballot  box  he  stood  on  an  equality  with  his 
old  master ;  henceforth  if  he  failed  to  advance,  the  fault  would 
be  his  own. 

The  same  year  that  the  XVth  Amendment  was  ratified 
(1870),  the  "  freedmen  "  entered  Congress.  H.  B.  Revels,  a 
negro  from  Mississippi,  took  the  seat  in  the  Senate  which  Jef 
ferson  Davis  had  vacated  less  than  ten  years  before.  South 
Carolina  sent  Joseph  H.  Rainey,  the  son  of  slave  parents  who 

*  In  1864  the  "  Credit  Mobilier  "  —  a  Pennsylvania  company  deriving  its 
name  from  a  French  financial  company  formed  to  promote  industrial  enter 
prises  —  undertook  the  construction  of  a  part  of  the  Pacific  railroad.  In 
the  presidential  campaign  of  1872,  the  Vice-President,  the  Vice-President 
elect,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  the  Speaker  of  the  House,  and  a  num 
ber  of  members  of  Congress  were  charged  with  selling  their  political 
influence  in  favor  of  the  road,  in  return  for  stocks  furnished  them  by  the 
Credit  Mobilier  Company.  Congress  ordered  the  charge  to  be  investi 
gated  ;  two  Representatives  were  censured,  and  there  the  matter  dropped 


1865-.]  RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  483 

had  worked  in  the  rice  swamps,  as  a  representative  from  that 
State.  From  that  time  for  a  period  of  nearly  twenty  years, 
every  Congress  had  from  four  to  six  negro  members.1290 

524.  The  "  Carpet-Baggers. " — At  the  close  of  the  war 
many  Northern  men  went  South.  Some  of  them  settled  there 
as  cotton-planters,  and  did  everything  in  their  power  to  aid 
the  work  of  reconstruction  in  the  best  interests  of  all  concerned. 
Others  went  simply  to  get  political  place  and  plunder.  It  was 
but  natural  that  the  Southern  people  should  regard  the  new 
comers  with  suspicion.  They  lumped  good  and  bad  together 
under  the  general  name  of  "  Carpet-Baggers,"  -—  a  synonym 
for  greedy  and  unscrupulous  adventurers.  The  name  some 
times  did  great  injustice  to  worthy  men;  but  in  a  majority  of 
cases  it  truthfully  described  those  to  whom  it  was  applied. 

But  however  much  the  former  slave-holding  aristocracy  hated 
the  "  Carpet-Bagger,"  they  hated  the  "  Scalawag  "  still  more. 
The  "  Scalawag  "  was  a  renegade  Southerner  who  joined  hands 
with  the  political  "  Carpet-Bagger  "  in  the  scramble  for  spoils. 
By  themselves  they  probably  could  not  have  done  much  harm ; 
but  using  the  negro  voter  as  their  tool,  they  did  an  enormous 
amount  of  mischief,  from  which  the  South  has  not  yet  fully 
recovered. 

Congress  gave  the  "  freedmen  "  the  ballot  in  order  that  they 
might  protect  themselves.  The  number  of  the  colored  people, 
taken  as  a  whole,  was  only  one-fifth  less  than  that  of  the 
whites,  and  in  three  States  it  exceeded  it.  The  former  slave 
fully  realized  his  power.  "Now,"  said  he,  "the  bottom  rail  is 
on  the  top,  and  we  're  going  to  keep  it  there."  im 

For  a  number  of  years  the  "  Carpet-Bagger,"  the  "  Scala 
wag,"  and  the  negro  ruled  supreme  at  the  polls  and  in  the 
legislatures.1292  They  pillaged  the  prostrate  States  which  lay 
helpless  at  their  feet  until  they  had  rolled  up  debts  m3  aggre  • 
gating  nearly  $300,000,000.*  All  things  considered,  perhaps 

*  The  debts  imposed  on  the  reconstructed  States  were  as  follows :  Ala 
bama,  $52,761,917  ;  Arkansas,  $19,398,000;  Florida,  $15,797,587  ;  Georgia, 


484  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

South  Carolina  suffered  most  from  this  "  carnival  of  crime  and 
corruption " ;  but  eight  other  States  were  in  the  same  pitiful 
case.  Judge  Black  of  Louisiana  felt  moved  to  declare  that  a 
"  conflagration  sweeping  over  all  the  State  from  one  end  to 
the  other,  and  destroying  every  building  and  every  article  of 
personal  property,  would  have  been  a  visitation  of  mercy  in 
comparison  with  the  curse  of  such  a  government."  1294 

525.  The  "Ku  Klux  Klan";  the  Force  Act;  end  of 
"  Carpet-Bag  "  government.  —  This  state  of  things  roused 
the  spirit  of  retaliation  and  gave  rise  to  the  "  Ku  Klux  Klan." 
It  was  a  secret,  oath-bound  organization,  formed  especially  to 
intimidate  the  negro  and  prevent  his  voting  or  getting  office. 
At  first  the  "  Ku  Klux  "  confined  themselves  mainly  to  threats, 
but  later  they  resorted  to  violence.  Bands  of  masked  men 
broke  into  negro  cabins  at  midnight,  dragged  the  occupants 
from  their  beds,  and  flogged  them  without  mercy.  In  some 
cases  the  "  Ku  Klux  "  pushed  matters  to  the  farthest  extreme, 
and  deliberately  maimed  or  murdered  their  victims.  Eventu 
ally,  the  organization  became  a  gang  of  marauders  and  robbers, 
who  preyed  on  white  and  black  alike.1295 

President  Grant  in  a  special  message  to  Congress  (1871) 
called  the  attention  of  that  body  to  the  fact  that  the  "  Ku 
Klux  "  not  only  rendered  life  and  property  unsafe,  but  that 
they  interfered  with  the  carrying  of  the  mails  and  the  collec 
tion  of  the  revenue.  Believing  the  emergency  demanded  an 
" ironclad"  measure,  Congress  passed  (April  20,  1871)  the 
so-called  "  Force  Act."  *  The  three  chief  features  of  this  act 
were:  (i)  it  empowered  the  federal  courts  to  severely  punish 
all  attempts  to  deter  any  citizen,  white  or  black,  from  voting  or 
holding  office ;  (2)  in  case  of  need  it  authorized  the  President 

$42,560,500;  Louisiana,  $40,021,734  ;  North  Carolina,  $34,887,464 ;  South 
Carolina,  $22,480,516  ;  Texas,  $14,930,000  ;  Virginia,  $47,090,866. 

*  Congress  passed  the  first  Enforcement  Act  on  May  31,  1870;  see 
McPherson's  "  History  of  Reconstruction,"  p.  546,  and  "  Political  Hand- 
Book  for  1870-1892,"  p.  3.  The  second  act  (1871)  was  much  more  stringent 
in  its  character. 


1869-.]  RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  485 

to  employ  military  force  to  suppress  disorder  and  to  protect  the 
polls ;  (3)  it  temporarily  suspended  the  operation  of  the  writ  of 
habeas  corpus. 

Under  this  law  many  arrests  were  made,  the  "  Ku  Klux 
Klan  "  was  broken  up,  and  order  was  established.  The  follow 
ing  year  (1872)  Congress  restored  full  civil  rights  to  all 
persons  at  the  South,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  hundred  who 
had  made  themselves  especially  conspicuous  as  leaders  in  the 
war  of  secession.  The  whites  now  gradually  obtained  the 
political  control  of  the  reconstructed  States,  and  the  reign  of 
the  "  Carpet-Bagger,"  the  "  Scalawag,"  and  the  negro  came  to 
an  end. 

526.  The  "  Knights  of  Labor ";  establishment  of  the 
Weather  Bureau;  San  Domingo;  the  Treaty  of  Washington. 
—  On  Thanksgiving  Day,  1869,  the  first  attempt  in  this 
country  was  made  to  organize  all  branches  of  manual  labor 
on  a  permanent  basis.  Under  the  leadership  of  Uriah  S. 
Stephens  of  Philadelphia,  seven  clothing-cutters  met  in  that 
city  and  organized  the  secret  society  of  the  "  Five  Stars,"  or 
the  "  Knights  of  Labor."  They  later  (1878)  adopted  a  plat 
form,  denouncing  "  the  alarming  development  and  aggressive 
ness  of  the  power  of  money  and  corporations  under  the  present 
industrial  and  political  systems."  They  stated  their  object  to 
be  "  to  secure  to  the  workers  of  society  the  fullest  enjoyment 
of  the  wealth  they  create."  A  few  years  later  (1881)  the  oath- 
bound  obligation  of  secrecy  was  abolished. 

The  "  American  Federation  of  Labor "  was  organized  in 
1881  for  purposes  similar  to  those  of  the  "  Knights  of  Labor." 
The  "American  Railway  Union,"  organized  in  1893,  confines 
its  membership  to  men  employed  on  railroads  of  the  United 
States.  The  total  number  of  persons  enrolled  in  these  three 
powerful  organizations  has  been  estimated  at  about  800,000. 

The  various  trades  unions,  some  of  which  are  connected 
with  the  first  two  organizations,  claim  a  membership  of  about 
600,000.  These  societies,  though  professedly  non-political, 


486  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

have  exercised  a  marked  influence  on  State  and  national  legis 
lation  with  respect  to  factory  laws,  hours  of  labor,  and  indus 
trial  arbitration ;  and  they  have  probably  helped  to  shape  the 
platforms  issued  of  late  years  by  the  Labor  Parties.  129ti 

In  1870  Congress,  acting  on  a  suggestion  made  many  years 
earlier,  established  a  Weather  Bureau  at  Washington  for  the 
purpose  of  predicting  the  probable  course  of  the  weather 
throughout  the  country  a  day  or  more  in  advance.  The  Bureau 
has  done  service  of  great  value  to  manners  and  farmers ;  and, 
directly  or  indirectly,  has  been  the  means  of  saving  much  life 
and  property  from  destruction  by  storms  and  floods. 

Near  the  close  of  this  year  (1870),  a  treaty  was  concluded 
with  San  Domingo  for  the  annexation  of  that  negro  Republic  to 
the  United  States.  President  Grant  strongly  favored  the 
measure  on  the  ground  that  the  possession  of  the  island  would 
secure  a  very  valuable  coaling  station  for  the  vessels  of  our 
navy.  The  Senate  refused  to  ratify  the  treaty,  and  the  Presi 
dent  reluctantly  abandoned  the  annexation  project. 

The  following  year  (May  8,  1871),  the  Treaty  of  Washing 
ton  was  concluded  with  Great  Britain.  It  provided  for :  (i) 
the  settlement  by  arbitration  of  certain  questions  relating  to 
the  boundary  line  between  Washington  Territory  and  British 
America;  (2)  the  settlement  of  the  "Alabama"  claims — or 
damages  demanded  by  citizens  of  the  United  States  for 
destruction  of  property  by  the  "  Alabama  "  and  other  Confed 
erate  cruisers  equipped  in  England  (§  454)  ;  (3)  the  settlement 
of  the  claims  of  Great  Britain  for  the  alleged  interference  by 
our  fishermen  with  those  of  Canada. 

The  boundary  question  was  referred  to  the  Emperor  of  Ger 
many,  and  his  decision  was  duly  accepted.  The  "  Alabama  " 
claims  were  referred  to  a  board  of  five  arbitrators,*  who  met  in 

*The  Geneva  tribunal  met  December  15,  1871.  Charles  Francis 
Adams,  Esq.,  represented  the  United  States,  and  Lord  Chief-Justice 
Cockburn  represented  England  ;  the  remaining  three  members  of  the 
tribunal  were  appointed  by  the  King  of  Italy,  the  President  of  the  Swiss 
Republic,  and  the  Emperor  of  Brazil. 


1871-1872.]         RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  487 

Geneva,  Switzerland.  After  a  lengthy  session,  they  decreed 
(1871)  that  Great  Britain  should  pay  the  United  States 
$15,500,000  in  gold,  which  was  accordingly  done. 

A  board  of  commissioners  meeting  in  Halifax  (1877)  decided 
the  fisheries  dispute  by  decreeing  that  we  should  pay  Great 
Britain  $5,500,000  in  gold  and  remit  duties  amounting  to 
$4,200,000  more.1297 

This  treaty  of  arbitration  established  a  precedent  for  dis 
posing  of  similar  international  questions  in  the  future  without 
the  costly  and  cruel  aid  of  bayonet  and  cannon. 

527.  The  presidential  election  (1872) — The  persistent 
attempt  to  annex  San  Domingo  (§  526)  created  a  strong  oppo 
sition  to  the  administration,  and  alienated  Chase,  Sumner,* 
Seward,  and  Greeley,  with  other  influential  members  of  the 
Republican  Party. 1298  They  not  only  refused  to  support 
General  Grant  for  a  second  term,  but  charged  his  administration 
with  having  directly  or  indirectly  encouraged  the  rise  of  politi 
cal  "  bosses,"  who  secured  offices  for  their  favorites,  to  the  ex 
clusion  of  better  men.  Furthermore,  many  Republicans  were 
dissatisfied  with  the  working  of  the  Force  Act  (§  525).  They 
questioned  whether  it  did  not  go  "  beyond  constitutional 
limits,"  and  doubted  if  it  helped  forward  the  cause  of  good 
government.1299 

This  opposition  to  what  Sumner  called  "  Grantism  "  caused 
a  split  in  the  party,  and  led  to  the  formation  of  an  organiza 
tion  which  took  the  name  of  "Liberal  Republicans."  They 
adopted  a  platform  severely  condemning  the  administration, 
and  calling  for  the  immediate  and  absolute  removal  of  all  dis 
abilities  imposed  on  account  of  the  rebellion.  They  nominated 
Horace  Greeley  for  President,  with  B.  Gratz  Brown  of  Missouri 
(the  Labor  Reform  candidate)  for  Vice-President. 

*  Senator  Sumner  made  a  noted  speech  in  the  Senate  (May  31,  1872) 
on  "Republicanism  vs.  Grantism,"  in  which  he  concentrated  "in  one 
massive  broadside  all  that  could  be  suggested "  against  Gram.  See 
Sumner's  Works,  XV.  82-171,  and  Elaine's  "  Twenty  Years  in  Congress," 

n.  533- 


488  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

The  Democrats  adopted  the  Liberal  Republican  platform 
and  candidates  ;  but  some  of  the  party  "  bolted  "  and,  under 
the  name  of  "  Straight-out  Democrats,"  nominated  Charles 
O'Conor.  He,  however,  declined  to  accept  the  nomination. 

The  regular  Republicans  reaffirmed  the  principles  of  the 
party,  heartily  endorsed  the  work  of  the  administration,  and 
renominated  General  Grant  for  President,  with  Henry  Wilson 
of  Massachusetts  for  Vice-President. 

The  Prohibitionists  and  the  Labor  Reformers  now  made  their 
first  appearance  as  national  political  parties  ;  both  have  since  con 
tinued  in  the  field,  though  neither  have  yet  obtained  electoral 
votes  for  their  respective  candidates.  The  Prohibitionists,  in 
addition  to  the  prohibition  of  the  sale  of  intoxicating  liquor, 
adopted  woman  suffrage  as  one  of  the  planks  in  their  platform.* 

The  political  movements  and  combinations  of  recent  years 
make  the  original  platform  of  the  Labor  Party  of  much  inter 
est.  It  demanded:  (i)  that  the  federal  Government  should 
issue  all  money  and  that  banks  of  issue  should  be  abolished  ; 
(2)  that  no  public  land  should  be  sold  to  any  but  actual  set 
tlers  ;  (3)  that  the  immigration  of  Chinese  laborers  should  be 
stopped  ;  (4)  that  the  Government  should  adopt  an  eight-hour 
day  for  its  employe's  ;  (5)  that  the  civil  service  should  be 
removed  from  all  partisan  influences  ;  (6)  that  the  Govern 
ment  should  regulate  the  charges  made  by  railroads  and  tele 
graph  lines  ;  (7)  that  the  occupancy  of  the  presidential  chair 
should  be  limited  to  a  single  term.t 

*In  1896  a  number  of  Prohibitionists  calling  themselves  "Broad 
Gangers,"  or  workers  for  humanity,  endeavored  to  secure  the  insertion  of 
a  "free-silver"  plank  in  the  platform  adopted  by  the  National  Convention. 
The  plank  was  rejected  ;  the  "  Broad  Gangers  "  then  seceded  and  formed 
an  independent  organization,  under  the  name  of  the  National  Party,  advo 
cating  prohibition,  woman  suffrage,  and  the  free  coinage  of  silver  at  the 
ratio  of  1 6  to  I.  See  Stanwood's  "Presidential  Elections"  (revised  edi 
tion),  Appendix,  pp.  494-497. 

t  The  demands  made  under  Nos.  3,  4,  5,  and  6  have  since  been  obtained 
either  wholly  or  in  part. 


1872-1873.]         RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  489 

At  the  election,  the  popular  vote  stood  3,597,132  for  Grant 
to  2,834,125  for  Greeley.  Mr.  Greeley  died  before  the  presi 
dential  electors  met.  Grant  received  286  electoral  votes,  and 
63  votes  were  given  for  T.  A.  Hendricks,  Gratz  Brown,  and 
other  candidates.  Grant  was  therefore  reelected  by  an  over 
whelming  majority.13** 

528.  The  New  Coinage  Act ;  the  Salary  Act ;  postal-cards. 
—  When  Congress  met  it  passed  a  Coinage  Act  (February  7, 
1873)  which  had  been  debated  on  and  off  for  between  one  and 
two  years.  The  measure  did  not  then  excite  any  particular  in 
terest,  though  it  has  since  been  denounced  as  "  the  Crime  of 
1873. "1301  At  that  time  neither  gold  nor  silver  was  in  circula 
tion.  The  Government  had  not  resumed  specie  payment,  and 
"greenbacks,"  or  national  bank  notes,  were  in  use  through 
out  the  country.  Very  few  silver  dollar  pieces  had  been 
coined  since  the  mint  was  established.  In  a  period  of  eighty 
years  the  average  number  issued  was  only  about  $100,000  a  year. 
These  silver  dollars  had  disappeared  and  none  had  been  seen 
for  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  century.* 

*The  act  of  1792  established  a  double  standard  with  free  coinage  of 
gold  and  silver  in  the  ratio  of  i  to  15  (§  255).  This  act  undervalued  gold, 
which  was  therefore  exported  and  ceased  to  circulate.  The  act  of  1834 
was  passed  to  remedy  this  by  changing  the  ratio  to  i  to  16  and  reducing 
the  fineness  of  the  gold  dollar  from  25.8  grains  to  23.2  grains.  The  act 
of  1834  undervalued  silver,  as  that  of  1792  had  done  in  the  case  of  gold  ; 
the  result  was,  that  silver  was  withdrawn  from  circulation  and  exported  to 
Europe.  The  act  of  1837  made  the  fineness  of  gold  and  silver  coins  uni 
form,  but  silver  still  continued  to  be  exported.  The  act  of  1853  reduced 
the  weight  of  silver  coins  of  a  denomination  less  than  one  dollar  and  pro 
vided  that  they  should  be  legal-tender  to  the  amount  of  $5.00  only  — under 
the  previous  acts  they  had  been  full  legal-tender.  Up  to  February  12,  1873, 
the  entire  number  of  silver  dollar  pieces  coined  was  only  $8,031,238  ;  after 
1853  that  coin  practically  disappeared  from  circulation.  The  act  of  Febru 
ary  12,  1873,  recognized  this  fact  by  omitting  the  silver  dollar  from  the  list 
of  coins.  It  provided  that  the  unit  of  value  should  be  the  gold  dollar  of 
the  standard  weight  of  25.8  grains;  it  furthermore  provided  for  the  coin 
age  of  a  silver  "  trade  dollar  "  of  420  grains  (for  trade  with  China)  and  of 
fractional  silver  coins  which  were  made  legal-tender  for  an  amount  not 


490  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [ISTS. 

In  the  Currency  Act,  Congress  now  dropped  the  standard 
silver  dollar — "the  dollar  of  our  fathers"  —from  the  list. 
The  act  provided  for  the  coinage  of  gold,  and  of  fractional 
silver  pieces.  It  also  ordered  the  coinage  of  a  special  "  trade 
dollar,"  much  heavier  than  the  former  standard  silver  dollar. 
This  new  piece  was  issued  in  order  to  facilitate  trade  with 
China.  It  was  used  as  legal-tender  for  a  short  time  until  an 
act  forbade  it;  a  few  years  later  (1878)  the  issue  of  this 
special  coin  was  discontinued. 

In  addition  to  this  legislation  respecting  coinage,  Congress 
passed  another  noted  financial  measure  (1873),  which  received 
the  nickname  of  the  "salary  grab."  The  act  raised  the  Presi 
dent's  salary  from  $25,000  to  $50,000,  where  it  has  since  re 
mained.  It  also  increased  the  salaries  of  the  judges  of  the  fed 
eral  courts  and  of  the  members  of  Congress,  including  that  of  the 
Congress  which  passed  it.  Popular  indignation  was  aroused, 
and  Congress  was  compelled  to  repeal  so  much  of  the  act  as 
related  to  the  increase  of  members'  salaries. 

The  same  year  (1873),  Congress  passed  a  bill  which  received 
the  hearty  approval  of  the  whole  country.  It  ordered  the  issue 
of  the  first  one-cent  postal-cards  (§  404). 

529.  Political  "  rings  "  ;  the  panic  of  1873  ;  the  "  Farm 
er's  Alliance ";  the  " Inflation  Bill"  vs.  Resumption. - 
One  of  the  evil  results  of  the  Civil  War  was  the  speculative 
spirit  it  encouraged  (§  509).  The  country  was  full  of  paper 
money  which  was  subject  to  great  fluctuations.  The  actual 
value  of  the  "greenback"  was  at  the  best  not  quite  eighty- 
nine  cents  in  coin.  Speculation  bred  extravagance  and  political 
corruption.  A  "  ring  "  of  politicians,  under  the  leadership  of 

exceeding  $5.00.  By  oversight  the  use  of  the  "  trade  dollar "  as  legal- 
tender  was  not  prohibited.  In  1876  this  oversight  was  rectified.  See 
William  C.  Hunt's  "  Notes  on  the  Money  of  the  United  States  "  (compiled 
from  the  report  of  the  Director  of  the  Mint  for  Bulletin  of  the  United 
States  Department  of  Labor,  No.  2,  January,  1896,  pp.  181-196) ;  and  com 
pare  John  Sherman's  "Recollections,"  I.  464  et seq 


1873-.]       RECONSTRUCTION,  THE  NEW  NATION.        49 1 

"  Boss  Tweed,"  managed  to  get  possession  of  the  government 
of  New  York  City  and  (1865-1871)  robbed  the  tax-payers  of 
many  millions.  Tweed  and  his  gang  of  fellow-plunderers  were 
finally  overthrown  (1871)  through  the  efforts  of  Samuel  J.  Tilden 
and  other  prominent  citizens. 

The  Erie  Ring  got  possession  of  the  Erie  Railroad,  and  the 
Whiskey  Ring  defrauded  the  Government  of  an  immense 
amount  of  revenue.  Many  Government  officials  were  indicted 
(1875)  for  their  connection  with  this  gigantic  liquor  swindle. 

Later  (1876),  the  Secretary  of  War  was  charged  with  selling 
sutlerships  in  the  army  ;  he  escaped  impeachment  by  resigning 
his  office.  Senator  Hoar  of  Massachusetts  denounced  the 
corruption  of  the  times  in  a  powerful  speech  (May  6,  1876),  in 
which  he  declared  that  these  frauds,  with  others  that  had  been 
exposed,  were  eating  the  heart  out  of  the  Republic  and  turning 
our  national  triumph  to  "  bitterness  and  shame."  1302 

But  if  the  political  results  of  speculation  were  disastrous,  so, 
too,  were  the  commercial  results.  Cheap  money  encouraged 
overproduction  in  manufactures,  overtrading  with  foreign  coun 
tries,  and  led  to  the  building  of  many  thousands  of  miles  of 
railroads  in  excess  of  the  actual  demand,  and  through  sections 
of  the  country  where  the  population  was  insufficient  to  support 
them.  In  addition  to  losses  through  unwise  investments,  the 
great  fires  of  Chicago  (1871)  and  of  Boston  (1872)  wiped  out 
not  less  than  $200,000,000  of  property  and  ruined  many  busi 
ness  men  and  insurance  companies. 

In  the  autumn  of  1873  a  prominent  banking-house  in  New 
York,  which  was  largely  interested  in  the  construction  of  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railroad,  suspended  payment.  This  failure 
was  speedily  followed  by  the  collapse  of  another  important 
house  in  the  same  city,  and  the  panic  of  "  Black  Friday  "  at 
the  Stock  Exchange.  The  panic  spread  from  the  great  money 
center  of  the  country  to  the  country  at  large.  Credit  was  re 
fused,  many  savings-banks  were  forced  to  close  their  doors, 
large  corporations  were  driven  into  bankruptcy,  and  mills  and 


492  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.  [1873-. 

factories  shut  down,  throwing  thousands  out  of  work.  The 
crisis  was  soon  reached  and  passed,  but  it  was  followed  by  a 
very  long  period  of  depression.1303 

Meanwhile  a  secret  association  had  been  formed  at  Wash 
ington  (1867),  which  spread  rapidly,  especially  in  the  Western 
States.  The  new  order  took  the  name  of  the  "  Farmer's 
Alliance,"  or  "  Patrons  of  Industry."  Later,  the  members 
were  commonly  known  as  "  Grangers."  Their  chief  object 
was  to  secure  lower  freight  rates  for  farm  produce.  The 
panic  of  1873  stimulated  the  growth  of  the  "  Grangers,"  and  in 
some  States  they  obtained  the  passage  of  legislative  measures 
regulating  the  charges  for  grain  transportation  and  storage.* 
The  order  exercised  a  strong  political  influence  which  helped 
to  secure  the  Interstate  Commerce  Act  (1887),  and  which 
was  one  of  the  causes  favoring  the  organization  (1892)  of  the 
People's  Party,  or  "  Populists."1304 

In  the  spring  following  the  panic  of  1873,  Congress  passed 
the  "  Inflation  Bill."  Its  object  was  to  relieve  the  financial 
strain  by  issuing  $100,000,000  more  "greenbacks"  (§  455). 
The  President  vetoed  it.  He  said  that  the  country  had  an 
abundance  of  paper  currency  and  that  Congress  had  pledged 
(1869)  the  faith  of  the  United  States  to  resume  specie  payment 
at  the  earliest  practicable  moment.1305  In  1875  Senator  John 
Sherman  secured  the  passage  of  the  Resumption  Act. 

530.  The  Centennial  Exhibition ;  admission  of  Colorado. 
—  In  the  spring  of  1876  a  national  exhibition,  held  under  the 
auspices  of  the  Government,  was  opened  at  Fairmount  Park, 
Philadelphia.  Its  object  was  to  commemorate  the  one  hun 
dredth  anniversary  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  All 
the  leading  nations  of  the  world  took  part  in  the  exhibition, 
which  was  visited  by  nearly  ten  millions  of  persons.  The  sub 
stitution  of  machine  power  for  hand  labor  was  the  most  marked 

*The  United  States  Supreme  Court  decided  (1876)  six  cases  in  favor  of 
the  "  Grangers,"  thereby  sustaining  the  constitutionality  of  the  legislation 
they  had  obtained. 


1876.]  RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  493 

feature  of  the  great  fair.  It  showed  that  a  hundred  years  had 
completely  revolutionized  manufacturing,  transportation,  and 
means  of  communication.  Two  of  the  most  remarkable  novel 
ties  exhibited  were  the  recently  invented  electric  light  and  the 
Bell  telephone,  which  was  then  generally  regarded  as  an  ingeni 
ous  and  amusing  toy  of  no  practical  value. 

The  centennial  year  was  further  marked  by  the  admission  of 
Colorado,  the  thirty-eighth  State.  It  represented  the  "New 
West."  Its  entrance  emphasized  the  territorial  growth  of  the 
nation,  which  began  its  career  a  century  before  with  but  thirteen 
States  stretched  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  and  with  no  claim 
to  a  single  acre  of  the  vast  wilderness  extending  from  the  Mis 
sissippi  to  the  Pacific. 

531.  The  "  Greenback "  Party;  the  disputed  presidential 
election  of  1876;  Indian  wars.  —  The  distress  caused  by  the 
long-continued  financial  depression  (§  529)  induced  the  form 
ation  of  a  new  party,  calling  itself  the  "Independent,"  or 
"  Greenback,"  Party.  It  demanded  an  increase  of  the  paper 
currency  issued  by  the  Government.  The  Supreme  Court  had 
decided  (1869)  tna^  such  currency  was  not  legal-tender  for  the 
payment  of  all  debts;  but  later  (1871,  1884)  the  court  reversed 
that  decision.  Eventually  (1884)  the  Greenback  Party  advo 
cated  the  issue  of  General  B.  F.  Butler's  "fiat  money."  *  This 
party  developed  its  greatest  strength  in  the  Western  States. 

A  part  of  the  Republicans  urged  the  renomination  of  Gen 
eral  Grant  for  a  third  term ;  but  the  House  of  Representatives 
passed  a  resolution  by  234  to  18  declaring  that  such  a  nomi 
nation  would  be  "  unwise,  unpatriotic,  and  fraught  with  peril  to 
our  free  institutions."  1306 

*  Fiat  Money.  —  Paper  money  issued  by  decree  or  "  fiat  "  of  the  national 
Government,  and  not  redeemable  in  coin.  In  1884  the  Greenback  Party 
and  the  Anti-Monopolist  Party  both  nominated  General  Butler  for  Presi 
dent.  Speaking  of  "greenbacks,"  he  said:  "I  desire  that  the  dollar  so 
issued  shall  never  be  redeemed."  He  added  that  he  saw  no  more  reason 
why  such  a  paper  dollar  should  be  redeemed,  than  why  a  yardstick  or  a 
quart  measure  should  be  redeemed.  "  Butler's  Book,"  p.  953. 


494  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.  [1876. 

The  Republican  Convention  nominated  Governor  Rutherford 
B.  Hayes  of  Ohio  for  President,  and  William  A.  Wheeler  of 
New  York  for  Vice-President. 

The  Democrats  nominated  Governor  Samuel  J.  Tilden  of 
New  York  —  a  "hard  money"  man  who  had  labored  success 
fully  to  destroy  the  robber  gang  led  by  the  infamous  "  Boss 
Tweed"  (§  529).  For  Vice-President  they  nominated  Thomas 
A.  Hendricks  of  Indiana. 

The  South  dreaded  negro  supremacy,  and  cast  a  "solid 
vote  "  for  Tilden.  The  election  was  so  close  that  each  party 
claimed  success  and  charged  the  other  with  gross  fraud.  In 
order  to  settle  the  dispute,  which  was  fast  growing  serious, 
Congress  appointed  a  commission  composed  of  five  Senators, 
five  Representatives,  and  five  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court. 
The  commission  was  in  session  for  more  than  a  month,  during 
which  time  the  whole  country  was  kept  in  a  state  of  anxiety  and 
alarm.  The  commissioners  finally  decided  (March  2,  1877), 
two  days  before  Inauguration  Day,  by  a  vote  of  eight  to  seven, 
that  the  certificates  of  returns  showed  that  Hayes  had  received 
185  electoral  votes  to  184  cast  for  Tilden.1307  (The  popular 
vote  stood  4,033,950  for  Hayes  to  4,284,885  for  Tilden.) 
Governor  Hayes  was  therefore  declared  President  by  a  major 
ity  of  one. 

In  the  course  of  Grant's  presidency  the  Modoc  Indians  of 
California  began  hostilities  (1872),  but  were  speedily  overcome. 
Three  years  later  (1876)  the  Sioux  Indians  led  by  "Sitting 
Bull  "  massacred  the  gallant  General  Custer  and  his  entire  force 
near  the  Black  Hills  of  Dakota  Territory.  General  Miles,  the 
present  commander  of  the  Army  of  the  United  States,  forced 
the  savages  to  surrender,  but  "  he  adds  his  weighty  testimony 
to  that  of  leading  military  men  who  have  gone  before  him,  in 
saying  that  he  has  never  known  an  Indian  war  in  which  the 
white  man  was  not  the  aggressor." 

532.  Summary.  —  The  chief  points  in  Grant's  administra 
tion  were :  (i)  the  completion  of  the  first  transcontinental 


1877.]  RECONSTRUCTION,   THE    NEW    NATION.  495 

railroad;  (2)  the  admission  to  Congress  of  representatives 
from  all  the  seceded  States;  (3)  the  passage  of  the  "Force 
Act";  (4)  the  settlement  by  arbitration  of  the  "Alabama" 
claims,  the  fisheries  dispute,  and  the  northwest  boundary 
question  ;  (5)  the  organization  of  the  "  Knights  of  Labor"  and 
the  "Grangers";  (6)  the  demonetization  of  silver;  (7)  the 
financial  and  business  panic  of  1873  ;  (8)  the  opening  of  the 
Centennial  Exhibition  and  the  admission  of  Colorado;  (9) 
the  rise  of  the  "Greenback"  Party,  and  the  Ha/es-Tilden 
disputed  election. 

RUTHERFORD  B.  HAYES  (REPUBLICAN),  ONE  TERM,  1877-1881. 

533.  Inaugural  address ;  civil-service  reform ;  with 
drawal  of  troops  from  the  South.  —  In  his  inaugural  ad 
dress  President  Hayes  (§  531)  declared  that  he  should  endeavor 
to  wipe  out  the  "  color  line  "  in  politics  and  "  the  distinction 
between  North  and  South,"  to  the  end  that  we  might  have 
"  a  united  country." 

There  had  long  been  an  earnest  demand  for  reform  in  the 
civil  service.  The  leader  in  that  movement  was  George  W. 
Curtis.  But  Lincoln  saw  its  necessity  before  Curtis  began 
his  great  work.  A  few  days  after  the  fall  of  Richmond,  as  he 
was  standing  with  a  friend,  Lincoln  pointed  to  the  crowd  of 
office-seekers  besieging  his  door,  and  said :  "  Look  at  that ! 
Now  we  have  conquered  the  rebellion  ;  but  here  you  see  some 
thing  that  may  become  more  dangerous  to  this  Republic  than 
the  rebellion  itself."  1308 

Grant  was  conscious  of  the  same  danger  and  made  an  un 
successful  effort  to  break  up  the  "  spoils  system  "  (§  349),  but 
he  could  not  drive  the  wedge  deep  enough.* 

*  In  1865  Mr.  Thomas  A.  Jenckes  of  Rhode  Island  introduced  the 
first  bill  in  Congress  for  the  reform  of  the  civil  service.  The  bill  met  with 
ridicule  and  overwhelming  defeat ;  but  in  1871  a  bill  was  passed  giving  the 
President  power  to  establish  rules  for  the  admission  of  applicants  for  places 
in  the  civil  service.  President  Grant  appointed  George  W.  Curtis  of  New 


496  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [is??. 

President  Hayes  pledged  himself  to  labor  for  a  "  thorough  " 
reform  in  the  civil  service ;  but  although  both  of  the  great 
political  parties  had  urged  it  in  their  platforms,  nothing  prac 
tical  was  done.  Many  men  were  indifferent ;  others  believed 
with  Jackson  (§  350)  that  frequent  rotation  in  office  was  best 
for  the  interests  of  all ;  while  the  "  machine  politicians,"  in 
and  out  of  Congress,  naturally  fought  with  all  their  might 
against  any  change  which  would  deprive  them  of  their  influ 
ence  and  of  the  votes  and  profits  it  brought  them. 

On  another  important  point  the  President  met  with  better 
success.  He  believed  that  the  time  had  come  for  the  with 
drawal  of  federal  troops  from  the  South,  and  that  the  people 
of  the  reconstructed  States  must  be  trusted  to  manage  their 
own  affairs.  Both  South  Carolina  and  Louisiana  had  dual  and 
rival  Governors  and  Legislatures,  one  elected  by  the  Republi 
cans,  the  other  by  the  Democrats.  After  a  conference  with  the 
Governors  of  those  States,  President  Hayes  withdrew  (1877) 
the  troops,  and  the  Democrats  came  peaceably  into  power. 

534.  Great  railway  strike.  —  In  the  summer  of  1877  a 
formidable  strike  broke  out  on  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  Rail 
road,  and  spread  rapidly  over  a  large  part  of  the  Northern 
States.  The  movement  was  a  protest  against  reduction  of 
wages.  At  one  time  more  than  100,000  men  were  out.  They 
held  control  of  from  6000  to  7000  miles  of  road.  Serious 
riots  took  place,  especially  at  Pittsburg.  Machine  shops,  freight 
houses,  and  freight  cars  were  burned,  and  many  people  killed 
and  wounded.  The  Governors  of  Pennsylvania,  West  Virginia, 
Illinois,  and  Maryland  appealed  to  the  President  for  help.  He 
sent  detachments  of  troops,  who  happily  succeeded  in  restor- 

York  chief  of  a  commission  for  that  purpose.  The  object  sought  was  to 
do  away  with  the  system  which  gave  positions  simply  as  rewards  for  party 
services,  and  to  substitute  competitive  examinations  which  would  secure 
an  equal  opportunity  for  all  candidates.  In  1873  Congress  refused  to  make 
further  appropriations  for  continuing  the  work  of  the  commission,  and 
the  following  year  the  President  was  obliged  to  abandon  it. 


1878.]  RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  497 

ing  order  without  resort  to  force.  The  strike  was  unsuccess 
ful  ;  its  total  cost  in  loss  of  wages  and  dividends,  in  increased 
taxes  to  cover  damages,  and  in  interruption  to  business  was 
estimated  1309  at  between  $80,000,000  and  $100,000,000. 

535.  The  Bland- Allison  Silver  Act ;  resumption  of  specie 
payment.  —  By  the  Public  Credit  Act  (1869)  "  the  faith  of 
the  United  States  was  solemnly  pledged  to  the  payment  in  coin, 
or  its  equivalent,"  of  all  Government  bonds,  except  in  cases 
where  the  law  authorizing  the  issue  of  such  obligations  pro 
vided  that  the  same  might  be  paid  in  paper  currency.1310  Some 
persons  regarded  this  law  as  unjust  since  it  might  compel  the 
Government  to  pay  specie  in  return  for  loans  it  had  received 
in  depreciated  "greenbacks  ";  but  others  took  the  ground  that 
since  it  had  always  been  understood  that  the  Government 
would  redeem  the  "  greenbacks  "  in  coin,  the  holders  of  bonds 
were  entitled  to  receive  specie  payment. 

When  the  "Public  Credit  Act"  (1869)  was  passed,  "coin" 
meant  either  gold  or  silver,  but  the  act  of  1873  dropped  (§  528) 
the  silver  dollar  from  the  list  of  coins  (§  255)  ;  hence,  as  the 
law  stood,  all  bonds  calling  for  specie  must  be  paid  in  gold. 

A  majority  in  Congress  urged  the  restoration  of  the  silver 
dollar  as  legal-tender,  and  the  House  voted  for  the  free  and 
unlimited  coinage  of  silver.  But  a  minority  objected  because 
the  enormous  output  of  that  metal  by  the  Western  mines  had 
caused  it  to  fall  heavily  in  value.  They  argued  that  to  revive 
the  old  standard  dollar  would  be  to  issue  "  dishonest  money." 

Congress  finally  (February  21,  1878)  passed  the  Bland-Alli 
son  Bill,  which  required  the  coinage  of  standard  silver  dollars 
at  the  rate  of  from  $2,000,000  to  $4,000,000  a  month. 

President  Hayes  vetoed  the  bill  on  the  ground  of  the  depre 
ciated  value  of  silver.  He  urged  that  it  would  be  a  grave 
breach  of  the  public  faith  to  pay  the  bondholders  in  any  coin 
worth  less  in  the  market  than  that  which  had  been  received 
from  them.  "  If,"  said  he,  "  the  country  is  to  be  bene 
fited  by  a  silver  coinage,  it  can  be  done  only  by  the  issue  of 


498  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

silver  dollars  of  full  value  *  which  will  defraud  no  man."  1311 
But  Congress  did  not  take  the  President's  view ;  some  mem 
bers  believed  that  if  the  Government  made  large  purchases  of 
silver  the  price  of  that  metal  would  rise,  and  so  bring  the 
silver  dollar  to  a  parity  with  gold  ;  others  argued  that  the 
community  demanded  more  money,  and  that  the  recoinage  of 
silver  could  alone  satisfy  this  demand.  Others,  again,  asked 
for  a  "  cheap  dollar  "  on  the  ground  that  it  would  lessen  the 
burden  of  taxation  by  enabling  them  to  pay  the  interest  and 
principal  of  the  national  debt  in  silver.1312 

For  these  reasons  Congress  passed  the  bill  over  the  Presi 
dent's  veto  on  the  same  day  it  was  received.  Less  than  a 
twelvemonth  later  (January  i,  1879)  tne  Government,  having 
accumulated  a  large  sum  in  gold  and  silver,  resumed  specie 
payment  (§  529),  and  all  "  greenbacks  "  presented  at  the  Treasury 
were  promptly  redeemed  in  coin.  Up  to  that  date  more  than 
$400,000,000  of  the  principal  of  the  public  debt  (§  508)  had 
been  cancelled  ;  the  payments  from  the  close  of  the  war  to 
1897  averaged  more  than  $2,500  for  each  hour  of  the  entire 
time,  and  reached  a  total  of  nearly  $1,000,000,000;  this  left 
the  outstanding  debt  at  that  date  at  about  $i, 800, 000,000. f 
The  effect  of  the  resumption  of  specie  payment  was  to  greatly 
strengthen  the  credit  of  the  Government,  and  enable  it  to 
borrow  all  the  money  it  required  at  low  rates  of  interest. 

536.  The  presidential  election  (1880).  —  The  presidential 
question  and  the  question  respecting  the  division  of  honors  and 
offices  had  split  the  Republican  Party  into  two  f  actions,  t  One 
demanded  the  renomination  of  Grant  for  a  third  term,  while 

*  The  market  value,  by  weight,  of  the  standard  silver  dollar  was  then 
from  90  to  92  cents. 

t  On  January  I,  1901,  the  national  debt  was  $1,099,191,310.36. 

J  One  faction  styled  itself  "  Stalwarts,"  or  Thorough-Going  Republicans; 
they  advocated  the  nomination  of  Grant,  and  dubbed  the  opposition  "  Half- 
Breeds,"  or  Half-Republicans.  The  "  Stalwarts "  were  tinder  the  leader 
ship  of  Senator  Conkling  of  New  York,  while  Senator  Blaine  of  Maine 
marshalled  the  "  Half-Breeds." 


1880.]  RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  499 

the  other  bitterly  opposed  it.  The  Republican  National  Con 
vention  adopted  a  platform  demanding  a  tariff  which  should 
"  favor  American  labor "  and  restrict  Chinese  immigration. 
They  declared  that  now  that  slavery  had  been  destroyed,  Mor 
mon  polygamy  must  go.  After  a  hard  struggle  the  factions  in 
convention  compromised  by  nominating  General  Garfield  of 
Ohio  for  President,  and  Chester  A.  Arthur  of  New  York  for 
Vice-President.* 

The  Democratic  Convention  demanded  a  tariff  for  revenue 
only.  They  nominated  General  W.  S.  Hancock  for  Presi 
dent,  and  W.  H.  English  of  Indiana  for  Vice-President.  The 
electoral  vote  stood  214  for  Garfield  to  155  for  Hancock. 
The  popular  vote  gave  Garfield  4,454,416  to  4,444,952  for 
Hancock.1313 

537.  The  improvement  of  the  Mississippi.  —  In  1874  Cap 
tain  James  B.  Eads  completed  the  great  steel  bridge  across 
the  Mississippi  at  St.  Louis,  —  "  the  finest  specimen  of  metal- 
arch  construction  in  the  world."  Captain  Eads  then  laid 
before  the  Government  plans  for  deepening  the  South  Pass,  or 
chief  mouth  of  the  Mississippi,  which  was  blocked  by  a  sand 
bar  seriously  obstructing  navigation.  Both  the  State  of  Louis 
iana  and  the  United  States  had  spent  many  millions  in  endeav 
oring  to  permanently  deepen  the  channel  of  the  river,  but 
without  effect. 

Captain  Eads's  plans  were  accepted,  and  he  began  the  con 
struction  of  a  system  of  jetties,  or  artificial  banks.  His  object 
was  to  narrow  the  river,  and  thereby  increase  the  force  of  the 
current  so  that  it  would  not  only  deepen  the  channel,  but  carry 
the  sediment  out  to  sea.  He  completed  his  great  work  four 
years  later  (1879).  It  proved  to  be  an  entire  success.  The 
river,  as  he  anticipated,  deepened  its  own  channel  to  a  depth 
of  thirty  feet,  so  that  large  ocean  steamers  now  have  no  diffi 
culty  in  reaching  New  Orleans.  This  improvement  has  saved 

*  General  Garfield  ranged  himself  on  the  side  of  the  "  Half-Breeds," 
while  Mr.  Arthur  was  a  prominent  "  Stalwart." 


$oo  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [issi. 

the  expenditure  of  many  millions  for  dredging,  and  has  added 
enormously  to  the  commerce  of  the  chief  port  of  the  South.1314 

Four  years  later  the  completion  of  the  East  River  Suspen 
sion  Bridge,  connecting  New  York  and  Brooklyn  (1883),  was 
another  triumph  of  American  engineering  skill.* 

538.  Summary.  —  The  principal  events  of  the  Hayes  ad 
ministration  were  :  (i)  the  withdrawal  of  federal  troops  from 
the  South;  (2)  the  great  railway  strike;  (3)  the  passage 
of  the  Bland-Allison  Silver  Act  over  the  President's  veto; 
(4)  the  resumption  of  specie  payment ;  (5)  the  improvement 
of  the  navigation  of  the  lower  Mississippi. 


JAMES  A.  GARFIELD  (REPUBLICAN),  ONE  TERM,  1881-1885. 

539.  Trying  position  of  the  President;  his  assassination. 

—  The  President  (§  536)  was  anxious  to  bring  about  a  recon 
ciliation  between  the  opposing  factions  of  the  Republican  Party, 
but  at  the  same  time  he  resolved  to  pursue  an  independent 
course  and  make  nominations  to  office  from  either  side,  as  he 
thought  best.  This  course  involved  him  in  difficulty  and  made 
his  position  peculiarly  trying.  Among  the  disappointed  office- 
seekers  was  Charles  J.  Guiteau,  a  political  adventurer,  —  "half 
fool  and  half  fanatic."  Not  being  able  to  secure  the  appoint 
ment  of  consul-general  to  Paris,  which  he  coveted,  he  resolved 
to  murder  the  President.  His  avowed  object  was  to  throw 
the  Executive  power  into  the  hands  of  Vice-President  Arthur, 
who  belonged  to  the  faction  opposed  to  that  which  chose 
Garfield  as  head  of  the  Republic  (§  536).  Guiteau  shot  the 
President  (July  2,  i88i);f  when  arrested  he  exulted  in  the 
act  of  assassination,  and  declared  that  the  Almighty  had  in- 

*  This  bridge  was  begun  in  1869  by  Mr.  John  A.  Roebling  of  Trenton, 
N.  J.,  the  inventor  of  wire  suspension  bridges.  The  work  was  finished  in 
1883  by  nis  son>  Mr-  w-  A-  Roebling. 

t  President  Garfield  lingered  until  autumn  and  then  died  (September  19, 
1881). 


1882.]  RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  $OI 

spired  him  to  commit  the  deed.      He  was  tried  for  murder, 
found  guilty,  and  hanged.1315 

540.  The  Pendleton  Civil  Service  Reform  Act ;  the  "  Star 
Route  "  frauds.  —  The  murder  of  the  President  gave  an  un 
mistakable   emphasis   to  the  demand   for   civil-service  reform 
(§  533)-     Senator  Pendleton  of  Ohio  introduced  a  bill  (1882) 
to  give  "  all  citizens,  duly  qualified,"  "  equal  opportunities  "  to 
secure  employment  in  the  civil  service  of  the  United  States. 
The  bill  received  the  hearty  support  of  both  the  great  political 
parties.     It  was  promptly  passed  (January  16,   i883),1316  and 
President  Arthur  at  once  appointed  a  Civil  Service  Commis 
sion  to  carry  the  law  into  effect.     The  new  system  of  filling 
minor  Government  offices  was  put  in  operation  at  Washington, 
where  many  thousand  clerks  are  employed  in  the  different 
departments.     It  was  gradually  extended  to  all  custom-houses 
and  post-offices  having  upwards  of  fifty  clerks.      It  was  the 
beginning  of  the  end  of  the  spoils  system  (§  349).     Hence 
forth  the  rule  was  to  be  based  on  Napoleon's  maxim:    "No 
favoritism,  but  give  the  tools  to  those  who  know  how  to  use 
them." 

Meanwhile  Congress  set  itself  to  investigate  the  "  Star 
Route"  frauds.  The  name  "Star  Route"  was  used  to  desig 
nate  stage-lines  for  carrying  the  mails  in  parts  of  the  country 
where  they  could  not  be  carried  by  railroads  or  steamboats. 
The  whole  number  of  such  routes  was  between  nine  and  ten 
thousand.  A  number  of  mail  contractors  and  Government 
officials  formed  a  "  ring."  This  "  ring  "  got  appropriations  on 
false  estimates  and  on  fictitious  pay-rolls,  by  means  of  which 
they  robbed  the  Government  —  that  is  to  say,  the  tax-payers 
of  the  country  —  of  about  $500,000  yearly.  The  "ring"  was 
broken  up,  but  unfortunately  the  swindlers  who  originated  it 
managed  to  get  off  without  punishment.1317 

541.  The  Edmunds  Anti-Polygamy  Act ;  the  tariff;  labor 
legislation.  —  For  twenty  years  a  law  had  existed  forbidding 
polygamy   in   the   Territories.      The   Mormons  protested  that 


5O2  THE    STUDENT'S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.          [1882-1884. 

this  law  was  a  direct  violation  of  that  article  of  the  Constitu 
tion  which  forbids  Congress  prohibiting  the  "  free  exercise  of 
religion  "  (Appendix,  p.  xvi,  I).  But  the  United  States  Su 
preme  Court  (Reynolds  vs.  U.  S.)  decided  (1878)  that  the  act 
was  constitutional.1318*  In  1882  Senator  Edmunds  of  Ver 
mont  brought  in  a  bill  which  provided  that  polygamy  in  the 
Territories  should  be  punished  by  fine  and  imprisonment,  and, 
furthermore,  that  the  person  convicted  should  be  deprived  of 
the  right  to  vote  or  to  hold  any  office  or  place  of  public  trust. 
The  bill  passed,1319  and  more  than  a  thousand  Mormons  were 
convicted  and  sent  to  the  penitentiary. 

The  year  following  (1883)  the  tariff  was  thoroughly  revised 
for  the  first  time  since  the  war  (§  455).  The  succeeding  year 
(1884)  Congress  established  the  National  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics  at  Washington,  for  the  purpose  of  collecting  informa 
tion  which  might  be  of  use  in  the  equitable  adjustment  of  the 
relations  of  labor  and  capital,  and  which  would  help  to  promote 
the  best  interests  of  workingmen.  In  1882  Congress  prohibited 
Chinese  immigration  for  ten  years  ;  in  1884  it  enacted  a  more 
stringent  law.  It  also  passed  the  Alien  Contract  Labor  Act, 
which  excluded  all  foreign  laborers  under  contract,  where  their 
work  would  compete  with  American  labor.1320 

542.  The  presidential  election  (1884).  — There  was  a  strong 
reaction  in  both  of  the  great  parties  against  "  machine  politics  " 
and  professional  politicians.  The  issue,  so  far  as  one  existed, 
was  between  the  Republican  policy  of  protection  and  the 
Democratic  demand  for  a  simple  revenue  tariff. 

The  Republican  Party  nominated  James  G.  Elaine,  with 
John  A.  Logan  of  Illinois  for  Vice-President.  The  Democrats 
nominated  Grover  Cleveland,  with  Thomas  A.  Hendricks  of 

*  The  court  took  the  ground  that  while  Congress  had  no  power  to 
interfere  with  religious  belief  as  such,  it  had  the  same  right  to  prohibit 
the  members  of  a  church  from  practicing  polygamy  that  it  had  to  forbid 
their  offering  up  human  sacrifices  as  part  of  their  religious  worship.  See 
Carson's  "  History  of  the  United  States  Supreme  Court,"  pp.  498,  499. 


1884.]  RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  503 

Indiana  for  Vice-President.  Many  members  of  the  Republi 
can  Party  declared  themselves  strongly  opposed  to  the  action 
of  the  National  Convention.  These  Independent  Republicans 
were  nicknamed  "  Mugwumps."  *  They  cast  their  votes  for 
the  Democratic  candidate  in  the  belief  that  he  would  use  his 
influence  to  extend  civil-service  reform  (§  540). 

The  electoral  vote  stood  219  for  Cleveland  to  182  for  Elaine  ; 
the  popular  vote  gave  Cleveland  4,874,986  to  4,851,981  for 
Elaine. 

543.  The  New  Orleans  Exposition.  —  The  following  Decem 
ber  the  Cotton  Planters'  Association  opened  (1884)  a  World's 
Fair  in  New  Orleans,  the  largest  cotton  port  in  the  United 
States.  The  exhibition  was  designed  to  commemorate  the 
one  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  shipment  of  cotton  from 
this  country  to  Europe.  In  1784  a  few  bags  of  it,  amount 
ing  in  all  to  about  one  bale,  were  exported  from  Charleston 
to  Liverpool. 

Slavery  and  the  invention  of  the  cotton-gin  (§  259)  gave 
an  immense  impetus  to  the  production  of  cotton,  and  in  1860 
the  crop  amounted  to  5,000,000  bales.  This  made  cotton 
the  "  king "  of  American  staples.  When  slavery  was  over 
thrown  many  believed  that  the  chief  industry  of  the  South 
was  ruined;  but  under  free  labor  the  production  of  cotton 
increased  enormously,  and  in  1884  8,000,000  bales  were  put 
into  the  market. 

Side  by  side  with  this  increase  another  most  lucrative  in 
dustry  had  grown  up.  Under  slavery,  the  cotton  seed  was 
thrown  aside,  and  every  year  thousands  of  tons  were  burned 
as  useless.  Free  labor  found  by  experiment  that  the  seed 
could  be  made  to  furnish  "food,  fuel,  oil,  and  fertilizer,"  which 
would  sell  for  more  than  $20,000,000  annually. 

The   New  Orleans  Exhibition  did  a  much-needed  work  in 

*  Mugwump. — An  Indian  word,  occurring  in  Eliot's  Indian  Bible 
(1661),  and  meaning  a  leader,  or  chief.  The  Independent  Republicans 
accepted  the  nickname  as  an  honorable  title. 


504  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [ises. 

calling  attention  to  the  national  wealth  and  immense  resources 
of  the  Southern  States,  and  it  helped  to  foster  friendly  politi 
cal  and  social  relations  between  those  States  and  the  North. 
Both  sections  stood  on  a  common  basis  of  labor ;  both  recog 
nized  the  fact  that  whatever  contributed  to  the  prosperity  and 
progress  of  one  could  not  fail  to  be  of  use  to  the  other,  and 
that  however  good  independence  might  be,  interdependence 
might  be  better  still. 

544.  Summary.  —  The  chief  events  of  the  administration 
were :  (i)  the  assassination  of  the  President  and  the  succes 
sion  of  Vice-President  Arthur ;   (2)  the  Pendleton  Civil  Service 
Reform  Act  and  its  results ;    (3)  the  Edmunds  Anti-Polygamy 
Act,  followed  by  important  labor  legislation,  and  by  the  open 
ing  of  the  New  Orleans  Exposition. 

GROVER  CLEVELAND  (DEMOCRAT),  ONE  TERM,  1885-1889. 

545.  The  inauguration ;  death  of  General  Grant.  —  Presi 
dent  Cleveland  (§  542)  was  the  first  Democratic  President  who 
had  been   inaugurated  (§  433)  for  a  period  of  more  than  a 
quarter  of  a  century,  and  many  Southerners  who  had  not  visited 
Washington  since  Buchanan's  day  came  to  the  capital  to  wit 
ness  the  ceremony.     Mr.  Cleveland  made  no  sweeping  changes 
respecting  Government  officials ;  his  declared  purpose  was  to 
be  faithful  to  the  spirit  of  the  civil-service  reform. 

Toward  the  close  of  July  (1885)  General  Grant  died.  He 
had  spent  the  last  months  of  his  life  in  writing  his  "  Memoirs  " 
in  order  to  save  his  family  from  the  consequences  of  bank 
ruptcy,  which  came  upon  them  through  the  fraud  of  a  partner 
in  business.  It  has  been  well  said  that  nothing  in  his  whole 
career  was  more  heroic  than  the  diligence  and  determination 
with  which  he  worked  at  his  task  while  he  was  slowly  dying 
from  an  exhausting  and  painful  disease. 

His  funeral  showed  what  progress  reconciliation  had  made 
between  North  and  South.  Many  of  the  prominent  men  who 


TERRITORIAL  GROWTH 

OF   TUB 

UNITED  STATES 

on  the  American  Continent. 


1776  TO  THE  PRESENT  TIME. 

(But  see  Map  of  the  World,  and  "  Table  oi 

Boundaries.") 


1885-ld«6.J          RECONSTRUCTION,  THE    NEW    NATION.  505 

fought  against  him  followed  him  to  the  grave,  and  among  the 
pallbearers  were  several  Confederate  generals. 

546.  Cleveland's  first  annual  message ;  the  tariff ;  silver 
coinage  ;  public  lands.  —  In  his  first  annual  message  to  Con 
gress  (1885),  the  President  called  attention  to  the  fact  that 
the  revenue  of  the  Government  was  in  excess  of  its  actual 
needs ;  he  recommended  the  adoption  of  a  tariff  which  should 
yield  enough  to  meet  all  reasonable  demands,  while  at  the  same 
time  it  should  "  protect  the  interests  of  American  labor."  * 

He  urged  Congress  to  suspend  "  the  compulsory  coinage  of 
silver  dollars"  by  repealing  the  Bland-Allison  Act  of  1878 
(§  535).  He  recommended  that  steps  should  be  taken  to 
recover  public  land  which  had  been  obtained  by  fraudulent 
means  or  through  defective  legislation  for  purely  speculative 
purposes.  The  Land  Department  acted  on  this  suggestion 
and  succeeded  in  getting  back  more  than  100,000,000  acres, 
to  be  disposed  of  as  farms  and  homesteads  to  actual  settlers.1321 

547.  Strikes  and  Anarchist  riots  in  Chicago.  —  The  year 
1886  was  noteworthy  for  labor  troubles  and  strikes.     The  agita 
tion  began  at  the  West;  it  was  particularly  violent  in  Chicago. 
On  the  first  of  May  40,000  workmen  struck  in  that  city  on  the 
question  of  a  reduction  of  time.     Nearly  all  labor  came  to  a 
standstill  and  every  railroad  was  crippled.     Two  days  later,  a 
band  of  strikers  made  an  attack  on  the  McCormick  Reaper 
Works.     The  police  undertook  to  defend  the  works  and  a  fight 
occurred,  in  which  several  of  the  strikers  were  wounded. 

The  following  evening  the  strikers  met  in  the  Old  Hay- 
market.  Violent  speeches  were  made,  and  the  police  ordered 
the  gathering  to  disperse.  As  they  were  preparing  to  enforce 
the  order,  a  dynamite  bomb  was  thrown,  which  killed  and 
wounded  sixty  officers,  and  the  mob  drawing  revolvers  began 
firing  on  the  officers.  The  police  returned  the  fire  and  charged 
on  the  mob  with  terrible  effect.  They  arrested  a  number  of 
the  leaders  of  the  riot ;  all  were  foreigners.  They  were  tried 

*  The  Mills  Bill  introduced  in  1888  "  to  reduce  taxation  "  was  defeated 
in  the  Senate,  where  a  majority  regarded  it  as  a  "free-trade  "  measure. 


506  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [ISSB-ISST. 

for  murder  and  four  were  executed  ;  a  fifth  escaped  the  gallows 
by  blowing  out  his  brains  with  some  of  his  own  dynamite. 

The  result  of  the  riot  showed  conclusively  that  the  number 
of  Anarchists  in  the  country  was  by  no  means  large,  and  that 
the  great  body  of  American  workingmen  utterly  repudiated  the 
use  of  bombs  in  place  of  ballots  as  a  means  for  securing  rights 
or  rectifying  wrongs. 

548.  Five  important  laws;  bills  vetoed.  —  The  death  of 
the  Vice-President  (1885)  led  to  the  passage  of  a  law  regulat 
ing  the  order  of  presidential  succession.  Had  his  death  been 
followed  by  that  of  the  President,  the  country  might  have 
been  left  in  a  very  unsettled  condition,  since  the  Constitution 
makes  no  further  provision  (Appendix,  p.  xii)  beyond  leaving 
the  matter  in  the  hands  of  Congress. 

Congress  now  passed  the  Presidential  Succession  Act  (1886). 
It  provided  that  in  case  the  offices  of  President  and  Vice-Presi 
dent  should  both  become  vacant,  the  Executive  office  should 
pass  to  the  Secretary  of  State,  and  then,  if  necessary,  to  six 
other  members  of  the  Cabinet  in  a  prescribed  order.* 

The  excited  and  perilous  contest  over  the  disputed  election 
of  1876  (Hayes  vs.  Tilden)  (§  531)  induced  Congress  to  pass 
(1887)  the  Electoral  Count  Act,  which  empowers  each  State, 
in  case  of  controversy,  to  decide  how  its  own  vote  stands ;  if 
it  fails  to  decide,  the  question  then  comes  before  Congress. 

The  same  Congress  passed  the  Interstate  Commerce  Act 
(1887).  Under  it  five  commissioners  are  appointed  to  main 
tain  a  just  and  uniform  rate  of  transportation  on  all  railroad 
and  steamboat  lines  passing  from  State  to  State. 

The  Edmunds  Act  (§  541)  was  now  supplemented  by  the 
passage  of  the  Edmunds-Tucker  Act  (1887).  It  dissolved  the 

*  Namely,  to  the  first  seven,  as  follows:  (i)  the  Secretary  of  State; 
(2)  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury;  (3)  the  Secretary  of  War;  (4)  the 
Attorney-General;  (5)  the  Postmaster-General;  (6)  the  Secretary  of  the 
Navy;  (7)  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior;  (8)  the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
(1889);  (9)  the  Secretary  of  Commerce  and  Labor  (1903). 


1887-1888.]         RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  507 

Mormon  Church  as  a  corporate  body,  confiscated  all  of  its 
immense  property  in  excess  of  $50,000,  and  put  it  in  the 
hands  of  trustees. 

The  next  year  (1888)  Congress  passed  a  new  Chinese 
Immigration  Act  (§541), —  reenacted  in  1892,  —  which  abso 
lutely  excluded  further  immigrants  from  that  Empire.1322 

During  his  administration  President  Cleveland  vetoed  more 
than  three  hundred  bills,  or  more  than  double  the  number 
which  had  been  vetoed  by  all  preceding  Presidents.  These 
vetoes  covered  the  Dependent  Pension  Bill  (1887)  *  and  sev 
eral  hundred  private  pension  bills.  The  President  gave  as  his 
reasons  for  refusing  to  sign  the  first  measure  that:  (i)  it  was 
badly  drawn  and  would  lead  to  litigation ;  (2)  that  the  Union 
soldiers  had  been  better  provided  for  by  pay  and  bounties  than 
any  other  soldiers  "  since  mankind  first  went  to  war,"  and  that 
those  who  had  been  disabled  in  service  were  receiving  liberal 
pensions,  amounting  to  $75,000,000  a  year;  finally  (3)  that 
the  bill  would  subject  the  tax-payers  of  the  country  to  an 
enormous  additional  expense.1323 

Congress  failed  to  pass  the  measure  over  the  veto,  but  it  was 
passed  and  approved  under  the  next  administration.  One  of 
President  Cleveland's  last  acts  was  to  veto  the  Direct  Tax- 
Refunding  Bill,  the  object  of  which  was  to  reduce  the  surplus 
by  refunding  $16,000,000  levied  and  collected  in  behalf  of  the 
Union  at  the  outbreak  of  the  Civil  War. 

549.  Increase  of  the  navy ;  centennial  celebration.  —  The 
navy  which  had  done  such  noble  service  in  the  Civil  War  was 
rapidly  falling  into  decay.  Congress  took  the  matter  in  hand 
(1883)  by  ordering  the  construction  of  a  number  of  first-class 

*  This  bill  pensioned  all  who  served  ninety  days  in  the  War  of  the 
Rebellion  and  had  been  honorably  discharged,  and  who  were  unable  to 
perform  manual  labor,  and  the  widows,  children,  and  dependent  parents  of 
such  persons.  Previous  acts  (1862-1879)  had  provided  pensions  for  sol 
diers  and  sailors  disabled  in  the  Civil  War,  for  the  dependent  kinsmen 
of  those  who  had  died,  and  "back  pay"  on  all  pensions  claimed  in  1879 
and  subsequently. 


508  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

steel  cruisers.  To-day  (1901)  the  United  States  has  a  fleet  of 
seventy-four  new  war-vessels  (besides  fifty  in  construction), 
which  in  point  of  efficiency  and  speed  equal  any  in  the  world. 

The  autumn  of  1887  completed  the  one  hundredth  birthday 
of  the  Constitution  (§  247).  At  the  celebration  held  at  Phila 
delphia  the  President  delivered  an  address  on  the  great  charter 
of  the  Republic.  "We  receive  it,"  said  he,  "sealed  with  the 
tests  of  a  century.  It  has  been  found  sufficient  in  the  past ; 
and  in  all  the  future  years  it  will  be  found  sufficient  if  the 
American  people  are  true  to  their  sacred  trust." 

The  following  year  (1888)  the  centennial  of  the  settlement 
of  Ohio  (§  258)  and  of  the  organization  of  the  Northwest 
Territory  (§  237)  was  celebrated  at  Marietta,  Cincinnati,  and 
Columbus. 

550.  The  presidential  election  (1888);  the  Australian  bal 
lot.  —  In  the  presidential  campaign  the  Democrats  made  "  tariff 
reform  "  the  principal  plank  in  their  platform.  They  renomi- 
nated  Cleveland  for  President,  with  Allen  G.  Thurman  of  Ohio 
for  Vice-President. 

The  Republicans  declared  themselves  "  uncompromisingly 
in  favor  of  the  American  system  of  protection."  They  nomi 
nated  General  Benjamin  Harrison  of  Indiana  for  President, 
and  Levi  P.  Morton  of  New  York  for  Vice-President. 

The  issue  at  the  election  was  the  question  of  the  adoption 
of  a  revenue  or  of  a  protective  tariff.  The  electoral  vote 
stood  233  for  Harrison  to  168  for  Cleveland;  the  popular 
vote  was  5,540,329  for  Cleveland  and  5,439,853  for  Har 
rison.1324* 

In  1889  Massachusetts  resolved  to  introduce,  for  the  first 
time  in  American  history,  the  Australian,  or  secret,  ballot. 
It  was  found  to  possess  great  merit  in  securing  independent 
action  on  the  part  of  voters.  Other  States  soon  began  to 
adopt  it  or  some  method  suggested  by  it,  and  such  ballots 

*  The  estimate  of  the  popular  vote  differs  slightly.  Compare  Stan- 
wood's  "  Presidential  Elections  "  with  Johnston's  "American  Politics." 


1689.]  RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  509 

are  now  (1901)  in  use  for  both  local  and  national  elections  in 
forty-three  States.* 

551.  Summary.  —  The   principal   events   of    Cleveland's 
administration  were  :   (i)  the  Anarchist  riot  in  Chicago  ;   (2) 
the  passage  of  the  five  following  important  laws  :  the  Presiden 
tial  Succession,  Electoral  Count,  Interstate  Commerce,  Disso 
lution  of  the  Mormon  Church,  and  the  Chinese  Immigration 
Acts ;  (3)  the  President's  veto  of  the  Dependent  Pension  and 
Tax- Refunding  Bills ;    (4)  the  recovering  of  many  millions  of 
acres  of  public  lands  ;    (5)  the  increase  of  the  navy  ;  (6)  the 
introduction  of  the  Australian,  or  secret,  ballot. 

BENJAMIN   HARRISON   (REPUBLICAN),   ONE  TERM,   1889-1893. 

552.  "  Protection  "  and  the  South ;  opening  of  Oklahoma. 

-In  his  inaugural  address  President  Harrison  (§  550)  said: 
"I  look  hopefully  to  the  continuance  of  our  protective  system, 
and  to  the  consequent  development  of  manufacturing  and  mining 
enterprises  in  the  States  hitherto  wholly  given  to  agriculture,  as 
a  potent  influence  in  the  perfect  unification  of  our  people."1325 

The  region  called  by  the  Indians  Oklahoma,  or  the  "  Beau 
tiful  Land,"  constituted  the  heart  of  the  Indian  Territory. 
The  whites  coveted  it,  and  "  boomers  "  had  made  repeated 
attempts  to  take  forcible  possession.  In  1889  the  Govern 
ment  purchased  this  tract  of  land  from  the  Indians. 

The  President  declared  that  it  would  be  thrown  open  to 
settlement  on  April  22.  At  noon  of  that  day  the  blast  of  a 
bugle  was  the  signal  for  "a  wild  rush  across  the  borders." 
Before  nightfall  more  than  50,000  emigrants  had  entered  the 
new  Territory.  Towns  of  tents  and  portable  houses  sprang  up 

*  The  claims  made  for  the  Australian,  or  secret,  ballot  are:  (i)  that  it 
facilitates  independent  nominations  for  office;  (2)  that  the  ballots  are 
officially  printed  ;  (3)  that  they  are  distributed  to  voters  by  sworn  election 
officers;  (4)  that  the  voter  is  isolated  while  preparing  his  ballot,  that  it  is 
impossible  for  any  one  to  know  how  he  votes,  and  hence  that  opportunities 
for  fraud,  intimidation,  or  bribery  are  thereby  greatly  diminished. 


510  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

in  a  day,  and  a  few  months  later  Guthrie,  the  capital,  could 
boast  of  its  four  daily  papers,  its  six  banks,  its  city  waterworks, 
street  cars,  and  electric  lights. 

553.  The  Washington  Centennial;    the  Pan-American 
Congress ;  admission  of  six  new  States ;  woman  suffrage.  — • 
A  week  after  the  opening  of  Oklahoma  the  centennial  anniver 
sary  of  the  inauguration  of  Washington  was  celebrated  in  New 
York  City  (§  249). 

In  the  autumn  (1889)  the  Pan-American  Congress  met  in 
Washington.  It  consisted  of  delegates  from  the  leading  South 
American  Republics  and  the  Republic  of  Mexico,  who  met 
delegates  appointed  by  the  United  States,  with  the  view  of 
forming  a  closer  political  and  commercial  union. 

The  following  month  (November,  1889)  four  new  States  — 
North  Dakota,  South  Dakota,  Montana,  and  Washington  — 
were  admitted  to  the  Union.  The  next  summer  (1890)  Idaho 
and  Wyoming  were  added,  making  the  total  number  of  States 
forty-four.  Wyoming  was  the  first  State  admitted  to  the  Union 
with  a  constitution  granting  equal  rights  of  suffrage  and  com 
plete  political  equality  to  women.  Colorado,  Utah,  and  Idaho 
have  since  adopted  similar  constitutions;  in  1894  Colorado 
elected  three  women  to  the  legislature.* 

554.  The  new  Pension  Act ;  the  Sherman  Silver  Act ;  the 
McKinley  Tariff. —  In  accordance  with  the  earnest  recommen 
dation  of    President  Harrison,    Congress    passed    (1890)    the 
Dependent  Pension  Bill  which  had  been  vetoed  under  the  pre 
ceding   administration   (§  548).     This  act  nearly   doubled  the 
list  of  pensioners,  making  the  entire  number  about  a  million. 
The  disbursements  in  pensions  from  1861  to  1889  amounted 
to  nearly  $1,000,000,000  ;  in  the  eight  years  before  the  Spanish 

*  Woman  Suffrage.  —  Twenty-seven  States  (1900)  recognize  woman 
suffrage  in  some  form  ;  of  these  States  20  give  women  school  suffrage  ;  I 
(Kansas)  full  municipal  suffrage ;  2  (Arkansas  and  Mississippi)  liquor 
license  suffrage  by  petition  ;  and  4  (Wyoming,  Colorado,  Utah,  and  Idaho) 
full  suffrage  and  right  to  hold  office.  (From  information  furnished  by 
Henry  B.  Blackwell,  Editor  of  the  "Woman's  Journal.") 


1890.]  RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  5  I  I 

war  (1889-1897)  more  than  $1,000,000,000  was  expended,  mak 
ing  a  total  of  over  $2,000,000,000.  The  present  rate  of  dis 
bursement  is  nearly  $400,000  a  day,  or  $145,000,000  a  year.1326 

The  same  Congress  repealed  the  Bland-Allison  Silver  Coin 
age  Act  (§  535)  and  passed  (July  14,  1890)  the  Sherman  Silver 
Purchase  and  Coinage  Act.  It  directed  the  Treasurer  of  the 
United  States  to  buy  4,500,000  ounces,  or  about  140  tons, 
avoirdupois,  of  silver  each  month,  and  ordered  2,000,000  ounces 
to  be  coined  into  dollars  each  month  until  July  i,  1891,  and 
thereafter  as  might  be  deemed  necessary. 

Senator  Sherman,  the  reputed  author  of  the  law,  says  :  "  A 
large  majority  of  the  Senate  favored  free  silver,  and  this  bill 
was  prepared  to  prevent  the  passage  of  an  act  for  free  silver 
coinage."  1327  The  friends  of  silver  believed  that  this  enormous 
monthly  purchase  of  that  metal  by  the  Government*  would 
advance  its  market  value ;  on  the  contrary  it  continued  to 
steadily  decline.1328* 

*  The  coinage  of  gold  and  silver  was  originally  (§  255)  free  and  unlim 
ited  to  all  persons  bringing  bullion  to  the  mint.  In  1873,  when  silver  was 
demonetized  (§  528),  the  metal  in  the  silver  dollar  was  worth  $1.004,  or  a 
fraction  more  than  the  gold  dollar  ;  by  1878,  when  the  Bland- Allison  Silver 
Coinage  Bill  passed  (§  535),  it  had  fallen  to  89  cents  and  a  fraction  ;  in 
1890,  when  the  Sherman  Silver  Purchase  Act  was  passed,  it  had  fallen  to 
8 1  cents;  thereafter  it  continued  to  fall  until,  when  the  Sherman  Act  was 
repealed  in  1893,  it  stood  at  51  cents  and  a  fraction.  The  Director  of  the 
United  States  Mint  (Report  for  1893)  attributed  the  fall  in  the  price  of  silver 
partly  to  the  fact  that  a  number  of  the  leading  nations  of  Europe  ceased 
coining  it  except  in  small  sums  ;  but  mainly  to  the  enormous  increase  in 
the  output  of  the  metal.  In  1873  the  total  production  was  $81,800,000  ; 
by  1892  it  had  risen  to  $196,605,000,  —  an  increase  of  140  per  cent. 

On  the  other  hand,  Senator  Jones,  the  great  silver  mine  owner  of  Nevada, 
and  President  Andrews  of  Brown  University  contend  that  silver  has  not 
actually  fallen  in  value  or  in  purchasing  power,  but  that  there  has  been  a 
"  ruinously  great  "  rise  in  gold.  See  Senator  Jones's  speech  in  Johnston's 
"  American  Orations,"  IV.  362  ;  and  Andrews's  "  United  States,"  II.  276. 

Up  to  1873  only  about  $8,000,000  in  silver  dollars  had  been  coined,  and 
at  that  date  none  were  in  circulation  and  had  not  been  for  many  years  ; 
on  the  first  of  October,  1896,  the  total  issue  of  silver  dollars  was  over 


512  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

Early  in  the  autumn  of  1890  Congress  passed  the  McKinley 
Tariff.  Its  object  was  to  reduce  the  revenue,  then  largely  in 
excess  of  our  demands,  and  to  secure  to  the  American  farmer 
protection  against  competition  equal  to  that  granted  to  the 
American  manufacturer.  The  duties  under  the  new  tariff  aver 
aged  48^  per  cent,  —  the  highest  ever  imposed.  The  act  con 
tained  certain  provisions  called  Reciprocity  or  "  Fair  Trade  " 
Measures.  They  gave  the  President  power  to  reimpose  duties 
on  certain  articles  on  the  free  list  in  case  he  thought  that 
the  countries  exporting  those  articles  to  the  United  States 
levied  unreasonable  duties  on  imports  of  American  agricul 
tural  products.  This  provision  led  to  the  negotiation  of  com 
mercial  treaties  with  a  number  of  European  and  South  American 
countries.1329 

555."    The  census  of  1890 ;  the  Patent  Office  Centennial. 

-The  "  Centennial  Census"  (1890)  reported  the  total  area  of 

the  United  States,  including  Alaska,  at  over  3,600,000  square 

miles,    and   the   total  population    (Indians   not   included)    at 

62,622,250. 

We  began  our  national  life  a  poor  and  struggling  people, 
weak  in  numbers ;  on  the  West  our  possessions  were  bounded 
by  the  Mississippi.  In  a  single  century  we  had  gained  58,000,- 
ooo  of  population,  we  had  taken  possession  of  the  entire 
breadth  of  the  Continent,  and  had  accumulated  wealth  suffi 
cient  to  give  $1000  to  every  man,  woman,  and  child  in  the 
Union.1330 

The  following  year  (1891),  the  hundredth  anniversary  of  the 
founding  of  the  Patent  Office  at  Washington  was  celebrated. 

$437,000,000,  besides  $75,000,000  of  subsidiary  silver.  A  very  large  amount 
of  silver  bullion,  estimated  to  be  worth  over  $125,000,000,  then  remained 
uncoined.  The  total  gold  coinage  to  June  30,  1900,  was  $2,167,088,113. 
The  total  amount  of  coin,  notes,  and  bullion  in  "  general  stock  "  on  October  I , 
1900,  was  $2,386,450,355.  The  total  amount  of  specie,  Government  paper  and 
national  bank  notes  in  circulation  January  i,  1901,  was  $2,173,251,879,  or 
more  than  $28.00  per  capita  according  to  the  census  returns  of  1 900.  "  World 
Almanac,"  1901,  pp.  185,  186,  and  "  Current  History,"  March,  1901,  p.  73. 


1891-1892.]          RECONSTRUCTION,   THE    NEW    NATION.  513 

During  the  century  of  its  existence  the  office  had  issued  more 
than  450,000  patents.  These  cover  well-nigh  the  whole  field 
of  human  industry  from  the  first  patent  issued  in  1790  for  mak 
ing  potash  for  soap  down  to  those  for  the  electric  motors  of 
the  present  day.  A  large  proportion  of  patents  are  for  new  or 
improved  labor-saving  inventions.  Carroll  D.  Wright  testifies 
that  American  machinery  has  shortened  the  hours  of  work,  in 
creased  the  workman's  wages,  and  reduced  the  prices  he  pays 
for  all  kinds  of  manufactured  goods.1331 

556.  Labor  troubles  at  Homestead.  —  In   the  summer  of 
1892  the  Carnegie  Steel  Company  at  Homestead  near  Pitts 
burgh  gave  notice  that  it  should  be  compelled  to  reduce  the 
pay   of   its  employe's,    more  than   three  thousand  in  number. 
The  men    refused  to  accept  the   reduction,  and  hanged    the 
President   of  the    Company   in    effigy.     Thereupon   the  com 
pany  shut  its  doors  two  days  before  the  contract  time  expired. 

The  discharged  men  took  possession  of  the  works  and  re 
fused  to  give  them  up.  The  Company  hired  a  strong  body  of 
armed  Pinkerton  detectives  to  dislodge  them.  A  battle  ensued 
in  which  a  number  were  killed  and  wounded  on  both  sides, 
and  the  Pinkertons  were  compelled  to  surrender.  The  Gov 
ernor  of  Pennsylvania  sent  the  entire  militia  force  of  the 
State  to  Homestead  to  restore  order.  The  Carnegie  Company 
then  opened  their  mills  with  new  men.  The  strike  lasted  about 
twenty  weeks  ;  it  cost  the  Company,  the  strikers,  and  the  pub 
lic  an  average  of  more  than  $200,000  a  week,  or  a  total  of 
$4,325,ooo.1332 

557.  The  Supreme  Court  vs.  the  Mormon  Church ;  am 
nesty    to   the    Mormons.  —  Meanwhile    the    United    States 
Supreme  Court  had  affirmed  (1890)  the  constitutionality  of  the 
Edmunds-Tucker  Law  (§  548)  confiscating  the  property  of  the 
Mormon  Church.     A  few  months  later  the  head  of  that  church 
publicly  advised  his  followers  to  obey  the  law  and  renounce 
polygamy.     A  general  conference  held  at  Salt  Lake  City  (1890) 
pledged  the  whole  body  of  Mormons  to  accept  the   advice  of 


514  THE    STUDENTS    AMERICAN    HISTORY.  [1892-1893. 

their  President.  Thereupon  President  Harrison  issued  a  proc 
lamation  of  amnesty  (1893)  to  the  Mormons,  and  the  confiscated 
church  property  was  restored. 

558.  The  presidential  election  (1892).  —  The  chief  issue  in 
the  presidential  campaign  was  the  tariff  question.     The  Repub 
licans  reaffirmed  "the  American  doctrine  of  Protection"  and 
renominated  President  Harrison,  with  Whitelaw  Reid  of  New 
York  for  Vice-President. 

The  Democrats  denounced  "  Protection  "  as  "  a  robbery  of 
the  great  majority  of  the  American  people  for  the  benefit  of  the 
few."  They  demanded  a  tariff  for  revenue  only  and  nominated 
ex-President  Cleveland,  with  Adlai  E.  Stevenson  of  Illinois  for 
Vice-President. 

The  People's  Party,  or  "Populists"  (§  529),  now  held  their 
first  National  Convention  (1892).  They  demanded  free  silver 
coinage  (§554)  in  the  ratio  of  16  to  i  (§  255)  and  a  speedy  increase 
in  the  issue  of  money  to  not  less  than  $50  per  capita  (§  554, 
note).  The  remaining  planks  in  their  platform  did  not  differ 
very  essentially  from  the  socialist  features  of  those  of  the  Labor 
Party  or  of  the  «  Grangers  "  (§§  527,  529).  The  "  Populists  " 
nominated  General  James  B.  Weaver  of  Iowa  for  President, 
and  James  G.  Field  of  Virginia  for  Vice-President. 

In  the  five  States  of  Kansas,  Colorado,  Idaho,  North  Dakota, 
and  Wyoming  the  Democrats  voted  for  the  Populist  candidate. 

At  the  election  Cleveland  received  277  electoral  votes, 
Harrison  145,  and  Weaver  22.  The  popular  vote  stood 
5,556,543  for  Cleveland,  5,175,582  for  Harrison,  and  1,040,886 
for  Weaver.1333 

559.  Summary.  —  The  principal  events  of  Harrison's  ad 
ministration  were  the  passage  of  the  Dependent  Pension  Act, 
the  Sherman  Silver  Act,  and  the  McKinley  Protective  Tariff. 
Six  States  were  admitted,  one  with  woman  suffrage  ;  and  the 
first  vessels  of  our  new  steel  navy  were  built.     The  Census 
Report,    the  Patent  Office  Celebration,   and   the    Homestead 
Strike  also  demand  notice. 


1893.]  RECONSTRUCTION,   THE    NEW    NATION.  515 

GROVER    CLEVELAND   (DEMOCRAT),   ONE   TERM,   1893-1897. 

560.  Cleveland's  inaugural  address ;  the  Columbus  cele 
bration  ;  the  Columbian  Exposition.  —  On  the  4th  of  March, 
1893,  the  Democratic  Party  came  into  full  control  of  all  depart 
ments  of  the  national  Government.     In  his  inaugural  address, 
(§  558)  President  Cleveland  dwelt  mainly  on  the  necessity  of 
a  "  sound  and  stable  currency  "  and  of  "  tariff  reform."     He 
urged  that  there  should  be  no  more  "  protection  for  protection's 
sake,"  and  called  on  the  people  to  support  the  Government 
instead  of  looking  to  the  Government  to  support  them.1334 

The  four  hundredth  anniversary  of  the  discovery  of  America 
by  Columbus  had  been  celebrated  (1892)  in  the  schools 
throughout  the  United  States.  The  celebration  was  resumed 
in  the  spring  of  1893  by  an  international  naval  review  held  in 
New  York  Harbor.  This  pageant  was  preliminary  to  the  open 
ing  of  the  "  Columbian  Exposition  "  *  at  Chicago  on  the  first  of 
May.  The  Exposition  was  in  every  way  worthy  of  the  purpose 
for  which  it  was  planned,  and  it  would  be  difficult  to  conceive 
of  a  more  magnificent  spectacle  than  this  greatest  of  World's 
Fairs  extending  for  two  miles  along  the  shore  of  Lake  Michigan. 

561.  The  panic  of  1893  ;  repeal  of  part  of  the  Sherman 
Silver  Act;  the  " Force  Act"  repealed;  the  Behring  Sea  case. 

—  In  the  midst  of  the  Columbian  celebration  a  terrible  financial 
panic  swept  over  the  country.  Over  three  hundred  banks  sus 
pended  payment,  business  was  paralyzed,  and  failures  multiplied. 
This  occurred  at  a  time  when  the  total  amount  of  silver  stored 
in  the  Treasury  vaults  at  Washington  or  in  circulation  among 
the  people  was  nearly  $600,000, ooo.1335 

The  panic  appears  to  have  been  caused  by  the  action  of 
foreign  holders  of  our  stocks  and  Government  securities.  They 

*The  "  World's  Columbian  Exposition  "  was  created  by  act  of  Congress, 
April  25,  1890.  The  total  expenditure  on  the  great  Fair  exceeded  $31,000,- 
ooo.  The  total  number  of  visitors  was  more  than  21,000,000,  or  an  average 
of  nearly  1 20,000  a  day  for  the  six  months  the  exhibition  was  open.  It 
was  in  every  respect  a  brilliant  success. 


516  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1393. 

believed  that  we  intended  paying  our  debts  in  silver  dollars, 
worth  then  about  67  cents.*  For  this  reason  they  made  haste 
to  sell  their  holdings  at  whatever  price  they  could  get.  This 
caused  depression  and  "  tight  money "  in  New  York  and 
throughout  the  country.f 

The  crisis  was  so  alarming  that  the  President  summoned  an 
extra  session  of  Congress  (August  3,  1893)  to  consider  what 
should  be  done.  He  believed  that  the  primary  cause  of  the 
panic  was  the  continued  purchase  and  coinage  of  enormous 
quantities  of  silver  in  a  steadily  falling  market  for  that  metal. 
In  accordance  with  the  President's  recommendation,  Congress 
proceeded  to  discuss  the  proposed  repeal  of  the  silver  pur 
chase  clause  in  the  Sherman  Act  (§  554).  Senator  Sherman 
himself  spoke  earnestly  for  that  repeal. t  After  two  months' 
debate  it  was  carried  in  the  Senate  by  a  majority  of  n  ;  in  the 
House  a  majority  of  100  voted  for  it,  and  it  at  once  received 
the  President's  approval  (November  i,  i893).1336 

*  In  July,  1892,  the  market  value  of  the  silver  dollar  was  88  cents  ;  in 
June,  1893,  the  British  Government  closed  the  mints  of  India  to  the  free 
coinage  of  silver,  and  the  market  value  of  the  dollar  speedily  fell  to  67 
cents. 

General  Francis  A.  Walker,  an  earnest  advocate  of  international  bi 
metallism,  took  the  ground  that  the  only  true  way  to  raise  the  price  of  silver 
was  to  induce  the  leading  powers  of  the  Old  World  to  join  the  United 
States  in  remonetizing  that  metal.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Free  Silver 
Party  contended  that  the  United  States  could  and  should  act  indepen 
dently  of  Europe  in  the  matter.  See  Walker's  "  International  Bimetallism," 
Preface,  et  seq. 

t  The  Western  Populists  declared  that  the  panic  was  caused  by  a  con 
spiracy  hatched  by  British  and  American  bankers  with  Mr.  Cleveland's 
encouragement  for  the  express  purpose  of  driving  silver  money  out  of  use. 
See  "  Political  Science  Quarterly,"  December,  1893. 

\  Senator  Sherman  said  :  "  The  free  coinage  of  silver  and  gold  at  any 
ratio  you  may  fix  means  the  use  of  the  cheaper  metal  only.  ...  No  man 
will  carry  to  the  mint  one  ounce  of  gold  to  be  coined  into  dollars  when  he 
can  carry  sixteen  ounces  of  silver,  worth  but  little  more  in  the  market  than 
half  an  ounce  of  gold,  and  get  the  same  number  of  dollars."  See  Sherman's 
"Recollections,"  II.  1191. 


THE 

UNITED  STATES 


(347) 


1893-1894.]          RECONSTRUCTION,  THE    NEW    NATION.  5  I  / 

Congress  later  repealed  the  "Force  Act"  (§  525).  A  con 
troversy  had  long  been  going  on  with  England  respecting  the 
infringement  of  our  rights  in  Behring  Sea.  We  claimed  that 
when  we  purchased  Alaska  (§  520)  we  thereby  obtained  the 
power  to  close  that  sea  against  foreign  seal  hunters.  It  had 
been  agreed  to  settle  the  matter  by  arbitration.  The  com 
mission  appointed  reported  (1893)  that  the  sea  must  remain 
open,  but  that  we  had  the  right  to  take  measures  to  protect  the 
seals  at  certain  seasons.  This  decision  ended  the  dispute. 

562.  The  Coxey  "Army";  the  Chicago  strike.  —  The 
business  depression  of  the  winter  of  1893-1894  gave  rise  to  a 
remarkable  movement.  One  Coxey  started  from  Massilon, 
Ohio,  to  lead  an  "  army  "  of  the  unemployed  to  Washington  to 
demand  aid  from  the  Government.  Coxey's  example  led  to  the 
formation  of  similar  "  armies  "  in  California  and  other  parts  of 
the  West.  They  forced  freight  trains  to  transport  them,  and 
lived  "  tramp  "  fashion  off  the  country  through  which  they 
passed  on  their  way  toward  the  national  capital. 

"  General  "  Coxey  with  his  followers  of  the  "  Commonweal 
of  Christ"  reached  Washington  the  last  of  April  (1894).  The 
police  forbade  his  addressing  the  people  from  the  steps  of  the 
capitol,  and  the  "  Commonwealers  "  soon  deserted  him.  The 
other  "  armies  "  gradually  broke  up,  and  the  threatened  demon 
stration  which  had  drawn  recruits  "from  fourteen  States  and  two 
Territories  ended  in  derisive  and  decisive  failure. 

About  midsummer  (1894)  the  employes  of  the  Pullman  Car 
Company,  at  the  Pullman  Works  near  Chicago,  struck  against  a 
reduction  of  wages.  The  men  employed  on  the  principal  rail 
roads  radiating  from  Chicago  struck  in  sympathy  and  refused 
to  haul  Pullman  cars.  Serious  riots  ensued,  a  great  amount  of 
property  was  destroyed,  and  the  police  and  the  militia  were 
defied.  The  President  sent  United  States  troops  to  Chicago 
to  protect  Government  buildings,  enforce  the  decrees  of  the 
federal  courts,  and  prevent  interference  with  the  carrying  of 
the  mails.  In  all,  it  required  a  force  of  more  than  14,000 


518  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1894-1895. 

police,  militia,  and  troops  to  hold  the  strikers  and  the  mob  effec 
tually  in  check.  The  strike  caused  a  loss  estimated  at  $87,000,000. 
Good  authorities  make  the  total  cost  of  the  three  great  strikes 
of  1877  (§  534),  1892  (§  556),  and  1894  about  $172,000,000, 
or  a  loss  of  more  than  $30,000  a  day  for  every  working  day  of 
the  seventeen  years  covering  the  period.1387 

563.  Hawaii;  the  Wilson-Gorman  Tariff;  the  income 
tax;  the  Atlanta  Exhibition;  the  "  New  South "  ;  the 
"  New  West."  —  A  revolution  occurred  in  Hawaii  early  in 
1893,  and  the  revolutionists,  after  dethroning  the  Queen, 
opened  negotiations  for  annexation  to  the  United  States. 
Meanwhile  an  American  protectorate  was  declared.  Presi 
dent  Cleveland  sent  commissioners  to  investigate  the  condi 
tion  of  affairs ;  acting  on  their  report,  he  refused  to  continue 
the  protectorate  or  to  favor  annexation,  but  issued  a  proclama 
tion  (1894)  recognizing  Hawaii  as  an  independent  Republic. 

Meanwhile  Congress  was  discussing  the  Wilson-Gorman 
Tariff  for  reducing  "taxation"  and  providing  "revenue."  As 
originally  drawn  it  abolished  duties  on  raw  materials  and  on 
the  necessaries  of  life  ;  but  in  its  progress  through  the  Senate 
the  bill  received  more  than  six  hundred  amendments.  These 
so  changed  its  character  that  the  President  would  not  give  it 
his  approval,  and  it  became  law  without  his  signature  (Appen 
dix,  p.  ix,  sect.  7).  The  new  tariff'  reduced  the  rate  of  duties 
about  1 1  per  cent,  making  the  average  rate  37  per  cent  (§  554). 
Wool  was  the  chief  raw  material  it  admitted  free.1338  An  in 
come  tax  was  appended  to  the  tariff,  but  the  United  States 
Supreme  Court  (1896)  decided  it  to  be  unconstitutional. 

The  following  autumn  (1895)  the  "  Cotton  States  and  Inter 
national  Exhibition  "  was  held  at  Atlanta.  At  the  appointed 
moment  the  President's  young  daughter  pressed  an  electric 
button  communicating  with  the  Exhibition  buildings  many 
hundreds  of  miles  distant.  At  her  touch  the  gates  swung  open 
to  the  public.  The  Exhibition  showed  the  marvellous  progress 
the  "  New  South  "  had  made  since  the  war. 


1895.]  RECONSTRUCTION,  THE    NEW    NATION.  519 

The  buildings  stood  in  Piedmont  Park  on  the  very  ground 
where  thirty  years  before  Sherman  had  planted  the  batteries 
which  threw  the  first  shell  into  Atlanta.  Since  then,  not  only 
Atlanta,  but  the  whole  section  it  represented  had  risen  from 
its  ruins.  The  South  was  no  longer  poor ;  between  1880  and 
1890  its  valuation  had  increased  nearly  $4,000,000,000.  It 
had  ceased  to  be  a  purely  agricultural  country,  dependent  on 
the  North  for  its  manufactured  goods.  Mills  had  sprung  up 
which  spun  and  wove  hundreds  of  thousands  of  bales  of  cot 
ton,  and  by  the  aid  of  improved  machinery  a  single  operative 
could  in  a  twelvemonth  produce  cloth  enough  to  supply  1500 
persons. 

The  South,  too,  is  naturally  rich  in  iron  and  coal,  but  before 
the  war  these  mineral  treasures  had  scarcely  been  touched. 
Now  all  had  changed,  mines  had  been  opened,  millions  of 
tons  of  coal  had  been  dug,  and  enormous  quantities  of  iron 
smelted.*  This  was  the  work  of  free  labor  ;  as  ex-President 
Harrison  said  :  "  The  Emancipation  Proclamation  was  heard 
in  the  depths  of  the  earth.  .  .  .  Men  were  made  free  and 
material  things  became  our  better  servants."  1339 

The  intellectual  progress  of  the  South  has  kept  pace  with 
her  material  growth.  Thanks  to  the  labors  of  the  different 
religious  denominations  of  the  country  and  to  the  princely  gifts 
of  George  Peabody,  John  F.  Slater,  and  Paul  Tulane,  schools 
and  colleges  were  opened  for  both  white  and  black  at  a  time 
when  the  people  of  that  section  were  too  poor  to  undertake 
such  work  for  themselves.  Since  then  the  South  has  raised 
and  expended  about  $400,000,000  on  the  education  of  her 
children,  so  that  all  may  have  an  "even  start  in  life."  Of  this 
sum  the  Southern  people  have  given  a  generous  share  toward 
the  maintenance  of  colored  schools. 

In  this  astonishing  advance  nothing  is  more  wonderful  than 
the  progress  made  by  the  negro.  A  little  more  than  a  genera- 

*  In  1890  the  South  mined  15,000,000  tons  of  coal  and  smelted  1,600,000 
tons  of  iron  ore  ;  since  then  the  production  has  increased  enormously. 


520  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1895-. 

tion  ago  the  black  man  had  no  record  ;  he  was  simply  a  drudge 
driven  to  his  daily  toil  by  the  overseer's  whip.  He  "knew 
nothing,  owned  nothing,  was  nothing,"  The  first  school  for 
freedmen  was  opened  in  the  autumn  of  1861  under  the  guns 
of  Fort  Monroe.  To-day  40  per  cent  of  the  negroes  can  read 
and  write,  and  an  ever-increasing  number  are  becoming  prop 
erty  owners  and  tax-payers.  It  is  true  that  the  population  of 
the  section  known  as  the  "  Black  Belt "  moves  forward  slowly ; 
nevertheless  it  moves,  and  idleness,  ignorance,  and  degrada 
tion  —  the  heritage  of  slavery  —  are  gradually  giving  way  to 
the  desire  to  know  something,  to  do  something,  to  have  some 
thing,  and  to  be  something.1340 

If  we  turn  from  the  "New  South"  to  the  "New  West,"  we 
find  growth  in  population,  industrial  enterprise,  and  wealth 
without  a  parallel.  Since  the  war,  vast  solitudes  have  been 
settled  and  thousands  of  miles  of  railroads  constructed.  Towns 
and  cities  have  sprung  up,  mines  of  precious  metals  have  been 
opened,  and  cattle  and  sheep  ranches  and  grain  farms  estab 
lished  on  a  colossal  scale.  The  food-products  of  that  section 
alone  would  suffice  to  feed  nearly  the  entire  population  of  the 
United  States.  The  live  stock  was  valued  in  1890  at  over 
$1,000,000,000.  A  single  State  produces  over  sixty  million 
bushels  of  wheat  for  its  annual  harvest,  and  the  mills  of  a 
single  city  turn  out  a  hundred  thousand  barrels  of  flour  a 
week. 

564.  The  Venezuela  controversy ;  the  Arbitration  Treaty ; 
admission  of  Utah;  extension  of  civil-service  reform. — For 
more  than  half  a  century  a  controversy  had  existed  between 
Venezuela  and  Great  Britain  respecting  the  boundary  line  of 
British  Guiana.  In  his  third  annual  message  (1895)  President 
Cleveland  said  that  he  should  renew  his  efforts  to  induce  the 
disputants  to  settle  the  question  by  arbitration  in  order  "to  re 
move  from  this  hemisphere  all  causes  of  difference  with  Powers 
beyond  sea."  Great  Britain  declined  to  accept  the  proposal, 
and  the  President  sent  a  special  message  to  Congress  (Decem- 


1895-1897.]          RECONSTRUCTION,  THE    NEW    NATION.  521 

her  17,  1895),  urging  the  application  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine 
(§  33 J)  to  the  case,  and  asking  that  a  commission  should  be 
appointed  to  determine  "  the  true  divisional  line  between  the 
Republic  of  Venezuela  and  British  Guiana."  A  very  large 
part  of  the  American  people  greeted  the  message  with  enthu 
siastic  approval,  but  its  warlike  tone  alarmed  the  stock  market, 
and  securities  fell  with  panic-like  rapidity. 

Congress  authorized  the  appointment  of  commissioners,  but 
before  they  had  completed  their  labors  Great  Britain  agreed  to 
submit  the  whole  matter  to  arbitration.  This  was  done  under 
a  treaty  made  to  that  effect,  and  late  in  1896  the  question  was 
satisfactorily  settled.1341 

Later  (January  n,  1897),  a  general  treaty  of  arbitration  was 
negotiated  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  but 
the  Senate  did  not  ratify  it. 

Meanwhile  (1896)  Utah  had  been  admitted  to  the  Union, 
making  the  total  number  of  States  forty-five. 

The  cause  of  civil-service  reform  (§  533)  had  been  pushed 
forward  by  President  Arthur  and  his  successors  until  the  whole 
number  in  the  classified  service  had  risen  from  about  15,000 
to  nearly  50,000.  In  the  spring  of  1896  President  Cleveland, 
by  one  stroke  of  the  pen,  added  more  than  40,000  positions 
or  offices,  raising  the  total  to  nearly  90,000,  or  about  one-half 
of  the  entire  number  —  classified  and  unclassified  —  in  the 
civil  service.  The  party  which  has  recently  gained  the  presi 
dential  election  pledges  itself  to  enforce  and  extend  the  Civil 
Service  Law  "wherever  practicable."1342 

565.  The  presidential  election  (1896).  —  The  two  main 
questions  at  issue  were  :  (i)  the  free  coinage  of  silver  (§  554), 
and  (2)  that  of  a  protective  tariff.  The  Republicans  declared 
themselves  "  unreservedly  for  sound  money  "  and  unalterably 
"  opposed  to  the  free  coinage  of  silver  except  by  international 
agreement  with  the  leading  commercial  nations  of  the  world." 

They  nominated  Major  William  McKinley  of  Ohio  for  Presi 
dent,  with  Garrett  A.  Hobart  of  New  Jersey  for  Vice-President. 


522  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

On  the  refusal  of  the  Convention  to  adopt  free  silver,  Senator 
Teller  and  twenty  other  delegates,  representing  the  six  States 
of  Colorado,  Idaho,  Montana,  Nevada,  South  Dakota,  and  Utah, 
seceded  from  the  Convention  and  from  the  Republican  Party. 

The  Democrats  demanded  "  the  free  and  unlimited  coinage 
of  both  silver  and  gold  at  the  present  legal  ratio  of  16  to  i, 
without  waiting  for  the  aid  or  consent  of  any  other  nation." 
They  furthermore  demanded  that  tariff  duties  should  be  levied 
for  revenue  only. 

They  nominated  William  J.  Bryan  of  Nebraska  for  President, 
with  Arthur  Sewall  of  Maine  for  Vice-President. 

A  large  number  of  Democrats  refused  to  support  the  free- 
silver  platform.  They  took  the  name  of  the  National  Demo 
cratic  Party  and  adopted  a  platform  upholding  "the  gold 
standard."  They  nominated  John  M.  Palmer  of  Illinois  for 
President,  with  Simon  B.  Buckner  of  Kentucky  for  Vice- 
President. 

Meanwhile  the  People's  Party,  or  "  Populists  "  (§§  529,  558), 
held  their  second  National  Convention.  They  adopted  the 
free-silver  plank  of  the  Democratic  platform  and  nominated  the 
Democratic  candidate  for  President,  with  Thomas  E.  Watson 
of  Georgia  for  Vice-President.  The  general  tone  of  the  "  Pop 
ulist  "  platform  decidedly  favored  that  form  of  socialism  in 
which  the  Nation  or  the  State  undertakes  to  act  for  the  indi 
vidual  in  the  ownership  and  management  of  railroads,  telegraph 
lines,  and  other  important  enterprises  and  industries. 

At  the  election  McKinley  received  271  electoral  votes  and 
Bryan  176.  The  popular  vote  stood  7,104,779  for  McKinley 
to  6,502,925  for  Bryan.  Many  thousands  of  "  Gold  Democrats  " 
cast  their  votes  for  the  Republican  candidate.1343 

566.  Summary.  —  The  chief  political  events  of  President 
Cleveland's  administration  were  :  (i)  the  repeal  of  the  Sherman 
Silver  Act  and  the  "  Force  Act "  ;  (2)  the  Behring  Sea  and 
the  Venezuelan  arbitration  settlements ;  (3)  the  passage  of  the 
Wilson-Gorman  Tariff  ;  (4)  the  great  extension  of  civil-service 


1897.]  RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  523 

reform,  and  the  admission  of  Utah  into  the  Union.  Other  events 
of  greater  or  less  importance  were  the  opening  of  the  World's 
Columbian  Exposition,  the  Exhibition  at  Atlanta,  the  panic  of 

1893,  the  march  of  the  "  Coxey  Army,"  and  the  Chicago  strike. 

WILLIAM   McKINLEY   (REPUBLICAN),    TWO   TERMS,   1897-1905. 

567.   Inaugural  address ;    the  Dingley  Tariff.  —  In  his 

inaugural  address  President  McKinley  (§  565)  declared  himself 
for  "sound  money,"  for  a  new  revenue-protective  tariff,  for 
strict  economy  in  the  management  of  the  government,  for  the 
advancement  of  civil-service  reform,  and  for  the  maintenance 
of  peace  with  all  the  nations  of  the  world.1344 

The  new  Administration  was  called  to  deal  with  a  serious 
deficit  in  the  revenue.  This  deficit  had  been  going  on  since 

1894,  and  it  was  estimated  that  it  would  amount  to  $200,000,000 
in  1897.     The  pressing  need  of  money  to  meet  the  current 
expenses  of  the  government  compelled  the  President  to  send 
a  special  message  to  Congress,  in  which  he  declared  that  tariff 
legislation  was  the  "  imperative  demand  of  the  hour." 

In  accordance  with  his  recommendation  Congress  passed  the 
Dingley  Tariff  Bill.*  The  object  of  the  measure  was  stated 
to  be  :  "  To  provide  revenue  for  the  support  of  the  govern 
ment,  and  to  encourage  the  industries  of  the  United  States." 

The  Dingley  Tariff  differs  from  the  Wilson-Gorman  Act 
(§  563)  in  several  important  respects.  First,  it  takes  wool, 
hides,  and  certain  other  raw  materials  from  the  free  list  and 
places  them  upon  the  dutiable  list.  Secondly,  it  generally  im 
poses  a  higher  rate  on  woolens,  silks,  and  other  textile  fabrics. 
Thirdly,  in  many  cases,  it  levies  specific  or  compound  duties 
instead  of  ad  valorem  duties. f  Fourthly,  it  concedes  a  some 
what  broader  range  of  reciprocity  duties  (§  554). 

*  So  called  because  the  original  bill  was  drawn  by  the  late  Nelson 
Dingley,  a  Representative  from  Maine. 

t  Specific  duties  consist  of  a  certain  rate  levied  without  regard  to  the 
cost  or  value  of  the  goods  imported  —  as,  for  instance,  forty  cents  per  yard 


524  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1897-1899. 

The  Dingley  Tariff  expressly  keeps  in  force  the  Anti-Trust 
clauses  of  the  Wilson-Gorman  Act,  which  forbid  all  combina 
tions  "in  restraint  of  lawful  trade,"  or  of  "  free  competition,"  or 
"  to  increase  the  market  price  in  any  part  of  the  United  States  " 
of  any  imported  article.1346 

568.  Growth  of  productive  power;  great  corporations  and 
trusts. —  Since  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  economic 
conditions  in  the  United  States  have  entirely  changed.  This  is 
the  natural  and  inevitable  result  of  the  enormous  increase  in 
manufacturing  and  other  forms  of  productive  power,  and  in  the 
rapid  growth  of  capital.  These  compel  new  methods  of  doing 
business.  Less  than  a  century  ago  most  of  the  manufactured 
goods  produced  in  this  country  and  throughout  the  world  were 
made  by  hand.  Clothing  and  boots  and  shoes  are  familiar  ex 
amples.  Now  nearly  every  manufactured  article  is  made  by 
machinery.  To-day  a  single  workman  operating  one  or  more 
machines  can  often  produce  as  much  as  twenty-five  men  could 
in  Washington's  time. 

This  radical  change  has  had  far-reaching  results.  First,  the 
use  of  machinery  has  made  many  kinds  of  goods  much  cheaper,* 
and  has  greatly  extended  their  consumption  among  all  classes 
of  people.  Secondly,  notwithstanding  this  increase  of  con 
sumption,  the  manufacturing  power  of  the  country  is  now  so 
enormous  that  from  time  to  time  the  market  is  glutted  by  over 
production,  and  capital  and  labor  are  forced  to  stand  idle  for 
an  indefinite  period,  at  heavy  loss  to  both. 

One  result  of  this  condition  of  things  has  been  a  constant 

on  all  silks  ;  ad  valorem  duties  are  levied  on  a  sliding  scale  according  to  the 
value  of  the  goods,  as,  for  instance,  forty  cents  per  yard  on  all  silks  costing 
a  certain  sum  with  an  increase  of  duty  as  the  silk  rises  in  price  ;  compound 
duties  are  a  combination  of  specific  and  ad  valorem  rates. 

*  For  instance,  when  F.  C.  Lowell  began  to  manufacture  cotton  cloth 
at  Waltham,  Mass.,  in  1814  (see  §  314),  the  price  was  33  cents  a  yard;  he 
predicted  that  the  use  of  improved  machinery  would  in  time  reduce  it  to 
8  cents  a  yard.  His  friends  ridiculed  the  idea,  but  it  has  long  since  been 
realized.  See  Cowley's  "  History  of  Lowell,"  p.  40. 


1897-1899.]          RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  525 

reaching  out  in  search  of  new  markets  in  different  parts  of  the 
world.  This  effort,  as  will  be  seen  later  (§  569),  has  met  with 
a  large  measure  of  success. 

A  second  result  has  been  the  reorganization  of  methods  of 
doing  business.  The  past  quarter  of  a  century  has  seen  the 
formation  of  many  great  corporations  and  "  trusts  "  —  that  is, 
the  combination  of  a  number  of  corporations  under  one  man 
agement.  The  object  sought  is  to  reduce  the  cost,  increase 
the  aggregate  profit,  check  excessive  production,  and  restrain 
or  destroy  competition.  Congress  passed  an  Anti-Trust  Act 
(1890)  to  check  this  tendency  to  consolidation,  but  the  law  has 
had  little,  if  any,  practical  effect. 

This  movement  toward  combination  was  first  seen  on  a  large 
scale  in  the  union  of  independent  or  rival  lines  of  railways. 
It  next  showed  itself  in  the  organization  of  the  Western  Union 
Telegraph  Company  (1881),  which  now  practically  controls  the 
telegraph  lines  of  the  United  States.  In  like  manner  the 
Standard  Oil  Company  absorbed  (1881)  the  petroleum  trade  of 
the  country.  At  the  present  time,  iron,  steel,  petroleum,  sugar, 
tobacco,  cotton-seed  oil,  and  many  other  products  and  manu 
factures  are  controlled  by  corporations  or  "  trusts."  The  same 
movement  of  consolidation  is  seen  in  retail  business  in  the 
establishment  of  "  department  stores,"  which  bring  together 
an  immense  variety  of  goods  under  one  roof. 

This  tendency  to  combine,  which  is  characteristic  of  our  day, 
is  seen  in  federations  of  labor  as  well  as  in  federations  of 
capital.  It  has  led  to  much  legislation,  it  has  brought  new 
forces  into  the  field  of  political  action,  and  it  has  given  rise  to 
earnest  and  honest  attempts  to  adjust  and  harmonize  the  rela 
tions  of  employer  and  employed.  Finally,  it  has  stimulated  the 
Socialists  to  urge  cooperation  in  production,  and  Municipal 
State  or  Federal  ownership,  not  only  for  all  lines  of  transporta 
tion,  communication,  and  other  public  utilities,  but  for  all  mines, 
oil-wells,  and  coal-fields ;  while  some  radical  thinkers  of  the 
Henry  George  school  declare  that  the  land  itself  should  cease 


526  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1897-1899. 

to  be  private  property  and  should  be  held  by  the  common 
wealth  or  the  nation  and  leased  to  the  people.1341 

569.  Enormous  increase  of  exports;  the  Congressional 
Library.  —  In  connection  with  the  subject  of  the  productive 
power  of  the  country  attention  should  be  called  to  the  opening 
of  new  markets  abroad  and  the  immense  increase  of  our  exports. 
In  1898  we  shipped  to  Europe  bread-stuffs  and  provisions  and 
cattle  and  sheep  valued  at  upwards  of  $500,000,000. 

Next,  in  addition  to  our  regular  exports  of  cotton,  petroleum, 
tobacco,  and  other  staples,  we  are  now  sending  abroad  a  con 
stantly  increasing  quantity  of  iron,  copper,  steel,  hardware, 
tools,  machinery,  furniture,  and  manufactured  wood. 

Our  locomotives  are  going  to  Russia,  China,  Japan,  and  in 
some  cases  even  to  England.  India  is  importing  our  steel  rails 
and  Austria  our  steel  water-pipes.  American  sewing-machines 
and  bicycles,  unless  shut  out  by  tariff,  are  found  in  every  coun 
try  of  Europe.  Great  Britain  not  only  sends  us  large  orders 
for  machinery  and  cars  to  operate  electric  roads,  but  has  recently, 
for  the  first  time  in  our  history,  imported  a  cargo  of  Pennsylvania 
steel  plates  for  shipbuilding. 

In  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  century  our  exports  have  more  than 
doubled.  In  1898  they  aggregated  more  than  $1,200,000,000, 
and  exceeded  our  imports  by  nearly  $600,000,000. 

These  statistics  appear  to  indicate  that  we  are  advancing  to  a 
point  where  we  shall  be  recognized  as  holding  the  controlling 
influence  in  the  commerce  of  the  world.1347  Should  our  exports 
continue  to  increase  in  the  same  ratio,  the  time  may  come  when 
the  globe  will  be  practically  girdled  with  American  rails,  and 
the  seas  traversed  by  steamships  built  of  American  steel  and 
freighted  with  American  products,  manufactures,  machinery, 
tools ;  and  labor  and  time-saving  inventions.* 

*  Inventions  and  Discoveries. — Among  the  inventions  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  not  previously  mentioned,  attention  may  be  called  to  the  follow 
ing  :  The  Gatling  gun,  smokeless  powder,  fixed  ammunition,  breech-loading 
cannon ;  the  Westinghouse  air-brake  for  cars,  the  automatic  electric  sig- 


FOREIGN  EXPORTS;  PRODUCTION  OF 
IRON  AND  STEEL. 


The  total  value  of  exports  from  the  United  States  in  1900 
reached  the  enormous  amount  of  $2,244,424,266.  This  was 
an  excess  over  imports  of  $544,541,898. 

In  ten  years  (1890-1900)  the  population  of  the  United  States 
has  increased  about  21  per  cent,  but  in  the  same  time  our 
exports  have  increased  no  less  than  63  per  cent,  or  three  times 
as  rapidly  as  the  gain  in  population. 

The  United  States  now  produces  more  iron  than  any  other 
nation  on  the  globe.  Formerly  Great  Britain  ranked  first; 
it  is  now  second,  and  Germany  ranks  third.  See  diagram 
below  showing  the  production  of  pig  iron  in  tons  (1865-1900). 

But  steel  is  now  rapidly  taking  the  place  of  iron,  and  the 
United  States  has  become  "the  master  of  the  world"  in 
the  making  of  steel.  This  great  change  has  taken  place  since 
1865.  In  that  year  the  total  output  of  steel  in  this  country 
was  less  than  12,000  tons  ;  in  1875  it  was  over  389,000  tons;  in 
1885  ^  exceeded  1,711,000  tons;  in  1895  it  was  over  6,114,000 
tons ;  and  in  1900  it  was  estimated  at  over  9,000,000  tons. 
This  shows  an  increase  in  thirty-five  years  of  750  per  cent ! 

This  wonderful  advance  is  due,  first,  to  our  greatly  improved 
methods  of  manufacture ;  secondly,  to  the  substitution  of  coke 
for  coal;  and,  thirdly,  to  the  enormous  stimulus  given  to  pro 
duction  by  the  recent  rapid  extension  of  steam  and  electric 
railways,  and  the  use  of  steel  for  building  purposes. 

The  progress  in  this  direction  is  strikingly  illustrated  by 
the  amount  of  capital  now  invested  in  this  production.  In 
1901  a  company  was  organized  for  the  manufacture  of  steel, 


with  a  capital  of  over  a 
lars  —  an  amount  which 
ital  reported  by  the  cen 
employed  in  all  of  the 
facturing  industries  of 


•Sbj 
532 


1870. 
,865,000 


thousand  millions  of  dol- 
exceeded  the  entire  cap- 
sus  of  1860,  as  then 
mechanical  and  manu- 
the  United  States. 


1875- 
2,266,581 


1880. 
4.295.414 


1885. 
4,529,869 


i8qo. 
10,307,028 


1893. 

10,579,864 

xqoo. 

13,520,956 

See  the  "  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  United  States,"  1900 ;  and  Wright's 
Industrial  History  of  the  United  States." 


1897-1899.]         RECONSTRUCTION,   THE    NEW    NATION.  527 

A  landmark  of  progress  in  a  different  direction  and  one  of 
equal  interest  is  seen  in  the  Congressional  Library  Building. 
This  magnificent  white  granite  structure  was  completed  and 
opened  late  in  the  autumn  of  1897.  It  has  room  for  nearly  six 
million  volumes.  Next  to  the  capitol,  which  it  faces,  it  is 
generally  considered  to  be  the  finest  public  building  in  Wash 
ington,  and  perhaps  the  finest  of  the  kind  in  the  world. 

570.  "Greater  New  York"  and  other  cities;  municipal 
government ;  revised  State  constitutions.  —  On  New  Year's 
Day,  1898,  the  charter  of  "Greater  New  York"  went  into 
operation.  The  metropolis  now  includes  Brooklyn  and  many 
suburban  towns.  It  covers  an  area  of  nearly  360  square  miles 
—  a  territory  equal  to  more  than  one-fourth  the  state  of 
Rhode  Island  ;  and  it  comprises  a  population  estimated  at 
over  3,500,000,  which  is  rapidly  increasing. 

nals,  the  interlocking  safety  switch,  the  automatic  car-coupler,  vestibule 
trains,  the  Pullman  and  the  Wagner  palace  cars ;  the  compressed-air  drill, 
the  sandblast  for  cutting  designs  on  glass ;  the  electric  search-light,  elec 
tric  welding  and  heating;  the  self -binding  reaper  and  harvester  ;  aluminum 
ware ;  enamelled  kitchen  ware ;  dyes  made  from  coal  tar ;  wood  paper ; 
wire  nails,  gimlet-pointed  screws,  plain  and  barbed  wire  fence ;  the  cash- 
carrier  for  stores,  the  passenger  elevator ;  ocean  steamers  built  of  steel 
with  water-tight  bulkheads  and  twin  screws  ;  the  hydraulic  dredge ;  the 
gas  engine,  the  Corliss  engine;  the  voting  machine;  the  tin-can-making 
machine ;  water  gas ;  Yale,  combination,  and  time  locks  ;  the  type-setting 
machine,  the  bicycle,  and  the  automobile  or  horseless  carriage. 

Perhaps  no  single  invention  in  the  latter  part  of  the  nineteenth  century 
has  had  greater  results  in  certain  directions  than  the  "  safety  bicycle,"  in 
troduced  in  1889.  It  has  had  a  very  decided  influence  on  outdoor  exercise, 
especially  of  women,  on  health,  dress,  social  habits  and  manners,  and  on 
the  improvement  of  roads. 

Among  the  most  noteworthy  scientific  discoveries  of  the  century  (not 
previously  mentioned)  are  :  Spectrum  analysis,  dynamite,  the  use  of  cocaine 
as  a  local  anaesthetic  in  producing  insensibility  to  pain,  the  X  or  Roentgen 
Ray  used  in  surgery  (and  to  some  extent  in  the  arts)  for  seeing  and  photo 
graphing  objects  otherwise  invisible  to  the  eye,  the  use  of  antiseptics  in 
surgical  operations,  the  discovery  and  treatment  of  disease  germs,  the 
production  of  liquid  air,  cold  storage,  and  wireless  telegraphy. 


528  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1898-1899. 

New  Orleans  and  San  Francisco  have  likewise  recently 
adopted  new  charters  with  the  view  of  securing  better  mu 
nicipal  government. 

The  growth  of  cities  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  features 
of  our  history.  When  the  first  Federal  census  was  taken  in 
1790,  the  population  of  the  United  States  was  almost  wholly 
rural  and  agricultural.  There  were  then  only  six  cities  which 
had  more  than  8,000  inhabitants  —  Philadelphia  ranking  first 
with  a  population  of  42,000,  and  New  York  next  with  33,000. 
Then  only  about  three  persons  in  a  hundred  lived  in  cities ; 
now  the  proportion  is  about  thirty  in  a  hundred,  or  almost  one- 
third  of  the  entire  population. 

For  this  reason  the  question  of  good  government  in  the 
United  States  has  come  to  depend  in  large  degree  on  the 
honest,  intelligent,  and  efficient  administration  of  affairs  in  our 
cities.  It  is  certain  that  if  their  management  is  permitted  to 
fall  into  the  hands  of  incapable  or  corrupt  men  the  good  name 
of  the  Republic  will  be  put  to  shame  and  its  welfare  vitally 
imperilled. 

Within  the  past  ten  years  several  Southern  States  have 
adopted  new  or  revised  constitutions  making  important  changes 
in  conditions  of  suffrage.  Mississippi  (1892)  requires  the  voter 
to  pay  a  poll  tax  and  to  be  able  to  "  read  "  or  understand  any 
section  of  the  State  constitution.  The  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  has  recently  (1898)  given  a  decision  sustaining 
this  clause.  South  Carolina  (1895)  and  Louisiana  (1898) 
have  followed  the  example  of  Mississippi  in  adopting  educa 
tional  or  property  qualifications  for  suffrage.  The  effect  of 
these  changes  will  be  to  disfranchise  the  greater  part  of  the 
negroes  in  these  states  for  an  indefinite  length  of  time,  and  to 
give  the  white  race  the  political  control.  Several  other  South 
ern  States  are  considering  the  question  of  adopting  similar 
provisions. 

In  1898  South  Dakota  made  a  still  more  radical  change.  It 
voted  to  amend  the  State  constitution  so  that  the  people  shall 


1600-1825.]          RECONSTRUCTION,   THE    NEW    NATION.  529 

have  the  right  to  initiate  legislation  on  the  one  hand,  and  on 
the  other  to  modify  or  repeal  it  by  the  use  of  the  referendum.* 

This  is  the  first  attempt  to  introduce  a  principle  of  legisla 
tion  here  which  has  been  in  operation  in  Switzerland  for  a 
number  of  years.  The  result  will  be  looked  for  with  deep 
interest. 

571.  Spanish  possessions  in  the  sixteenth  century.— 
At  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  century  Spaniards  were  the  only 
white  men  who  had  succeeded  in  planting  permanent  colonies 
on  any  part  of  the  North  American  Continent  (§§  23,  35). 
Furthermore  the  same  race  held  the  West  Indies,  the  greater 
part  of  South  America,  the  Philippines  and  other  important 
groups  of  islands  in  the  East. 

Territorially  Spain  was  then  the  most  powerful  empire  on  the 
globe,  and  Philip  II.  could  boast  with  entire  truth  that  he  ruled 
over  "  possessions  on  which  the  sun  never  set." 

The  rise  of  England  as  a  "sea-power"  and  as  a  successful 
planter  of  colonies  in  Virginia  forced  the  Spanish  emperor  to 
relinquish  some  of  his  plans  respecting  America.  But  as  late 
almost  as  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century  Spain  still 
claimed,  not  only  the  greater  part  of  the  West  Indies,  Mexico, 
and  the  Peninsula  of  Florida,  but  the  whole  of  that  vast 
country  west  of  the  Mississippi  now  embraced  by  the  United 
States. 

Less  than  twenty-five  years  later  Spain  had  lost  all  of  her 
immense  possessions  on  the  mainland  of  North  America 
(§§280,  318,  319,  map),  and  the  only  colonies  she  still  held 
in  the  West  Indies  were  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico. 

*  The  amendment  to  the  South  Dakota  constitution  (1898)  provides  that 
whenever  five  per  cent  of  the  voters  of  the  State  shall  petition  for  the 
enactment  of  a  law,  the  Legislature  shall  at  once  submit  the  proposed 
statute  to  the  people  at  a  special  election  ;  in  like  manner,  on  the  petition 
of  the  same  number  of  voters,  any  law  which  the  Legislature  may  have 
enacted  must  be  submitted  to  the  popular  vote,  and  if  a  majority  then  vote 
against  it,  it  shall  not  go  into  effect. 


53O  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

572.  Cuba  and  the  Cuban  revolution.  —  Columbus  called 
Cuba  "  the  Pearl  of  the  Antilles  "  and  declared  that  it  was  "  the 
most  beautiful  land  that  eyes  ever  beheld."  Commercially  this 
fertile  island  has  always  ranked  high.  In  a  military  point  of 
view  its  position  between  Florida  and  Yucatan  makes  it  "  the 
Key  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  "  and  to  the  eastern  entrance  to 
any  inter-oceanic  canal  which  may  be  cut  through  Central 
America. 

But  this  happily  situated  island,  as  large  as  the  state  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  almost  in  sight  from  Key  West,  Florida,  had 
long  presented  a  striking  contrast  to  the  free  states  north  of  it. 
Under  the  arbitrary  rule  of  Spain  the  masses  of  the  people 
enjoyed  neither  civil,  political,  nor  religious  liberty.  They 
were  bowed  down  by  an  enormous  burden  of  taxation,  and  they 
were  excluded  from  having  any  share  in  the  government.  All 
public  offices  were,  as  a  rule,  monopolized  by  officials  sent  over 
from  Spain.  According  to  the  last  census  (1887)  the  inhabit 
ants  of  this  island  numbered  somewhat  over  1,600,000.  They 
were  divided  into  three  classes  :  (i)  a  small  number  of  native 
Spaniards  who  held  nearly  every  position  of  power  and  trust ; 
(2)  the  white  Creoles  who  constituted  the  great  bulk  of  the 
people ;  (3)  mulattoes,  free  negroes,  and  Chinamen. 

For  many  years  discontent  had  shown  itself  in  insurrection. 
For  many  years,  too,  the  South  had  coveted  Cuba  for  purposes 
of  slavery  extension.  In  1845  the  United  States  offered  Spain 
$100,000,000  for  the  island,  and  between  1849  anc^  J^57  sev~ 
eral  American  filibustering  expeditions  made  vain  attempts  to 
seize  it.  In  1854  the  Ostend  Manifesto  (§430)  boldly  de 
clared  that  "the  Union  can  never  enjoy  repose,  nor  possess 
reliable  security,  as  long  as  Cuba  is  not  embraced  within  its 
boundaries." 

In  1868  a  formidable  rebellion  broke  out  in  Cuba  which 
lasted  for  ten  years.  President  Grant  condemned  the  bar 
barous  manner  in  which  the  combatants  on  both  sides  carried 
on  the  war,  and  interceded  with  Spain,  but  without  avail.  At 


1895-1897.]          RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  53! 

length,  after  terrible  destruction  of  life,  the  Spanish  government 
succeeded  in  quelling  the  insurrection  on  the  surface. 

573.  The  war  for  Cuban  independence.  —  Early  in  1895 
a  new  and  still  more  determined  uprising  began  in  Eastern 
Cuba.  The  insurgents  did  not  demand  reform,  but  declared 
themselves  for  "  Independence  or  death." 

The  progress  of  the  movement  developed  three  parties  :  (i) 
the  ultra  Revolutionists,  who  demanded  absolute  separation 
from  Spain;  (2)  the  Autonomists,  who  asked  for  "home  rule" 
without  separation;  (3)  the  Spanish  party  in  power,  who  opposed 
any  change  whatever. 

The  next  year  (1896)  the  natives  of  the  Philippines,  ani 
mated  by  the  example  of  Cuba,  rose  in  revolt.  Spain  had 
therefore  to  undertake  the  formidable,  if  not  hopeless,  task  of 
endeavoring  to  suppress  two  rebellions  at  the  same  time  —  one 
on  one  side  of  the  globe,  the  other  on  the  other.  In  the  case 
of  Cuba  the  revolutionists  had  more  or  less  help  from  filibus 
tering  expeditions  and  funds  sent  by  sympathizers  in  the  United 
States. 

President  Cleveland  in  his  message  of  1896  declared  that, 
independent  of  all  humanitarian  considerations,  we  had  a 
direct  pecuniary  interest  in  Cuba  "  second  only  to  that  of  the 
people  and  government  of  Spain."  He  added  that  if  the  war 
should  continue  it  must  end  in  the  utter  "  ruin  of  the  island." 
President  Cleveland  concluded  by  saying  that  while  the  United 
States  was  willing  to  grant  Spain  any  reasonable  amount  of 
time  for  pacifying  Cuba,  we  could  not  permit  the  strife  to  go 
on  indefinitely. 

When  President  McKinley  entered  office  the  Cuban  war  was 
raging  with  unabated  fury.  The  situation  was  greatly  aggra 
vated  by  the  frightful  sufferings  of  the  neutral  Cuban  peasants 
or  non-combatants.  On  the  one  hand,  the  insurgents  drove 
them  off  their  farms  and  compelled  them  to  support  the  revolu 
tion,  or  hanged  them  if  they  refused.  On  the  other  hand, 
General  Weyler,  the  Spanish  leader,  forced  all  peasants  within 


532  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1897. 

his  military  area  to  concentrate  in  the  towns  held  by  his  troops. 
He  allotted  them  certain  small  areas  of  land,  within  the  Span 
ish  lines,  for  cultivation.  These  wretched  people  huddled  to 
gether  with  their  wives  and  children  in  confined  spaces,  could 
not  or  would  not  cultivate  the  fields  allotted  to  them  ;  the  result 
was  that  immense  numbers  perished  miserably  of  pestilence  and 
starvation.  General  Lee,  United  States  Consul  at  Havana,  re 
ported  that  in  the  town  of  Santa  Clara  alone,  out  of  a  popula 
tion  of  14,000,  nearly  half  starved  to  death  in  a  single  year. 

Spain  had  sent  200,000  soldiers  to  Cuba,  and  had  well-nigh 
"  bankrupted  herself  in  men  and  money  "  in  the  vain  attempt 
to  suppress  the  rebellion.  The  insurgents  kept  up  a  guerilla 
war,  ravaging  the  country,  burning  buildings,  and  destroying 
sugar  and  tobacco  plantations.  The  loss  incurred  by  Ameri 
can  investors  alone  was  estimated  at  from  $30,000,000  to 
$50,000,000. 

574.  Demands  made  on  Spain  by  the  United  States ; 
reforms  granted.  —  The  protests  of  the  United  States  against 
the  continuance  of  the  war  passed  in  great  part  unheeded. 
Finally  President  McKinley  demanded  that  Spain  should  take 
immediate  and  effectual  measures  to  pacify  Cuba. 

The  Spanish  government  made  a  conciliatory  reply,  and  in 
the  autumn  of  1897  recalled  General  Weyler  and  sent  out 
General  Blanco  to  grant  reforms.  Blanco  was  heartily  in  favor 
of  pursuing  the  policy  outlined  by  the  Liberal  Party,  which  had 
come  into  power  in  Spain.  He  took  active  measures  to  relieve 
the  starving  peasants;  he  appointed  native  Cubans  to  office 
and  made  a  formal  offer  of  "  home  rule  "  to  the  insurgents." 

The  Spanish  authorities  had  made  similar  pledges  of  reform 
in  the  insurrection  of  1868-1878,  but  had  not  kept  their  word. 
The  insurgents  had  no  faith  in  these  new  assurances.  Gomez, 
the  revolutionist  leader,  declared  that  he  and  his  followers 
would  accept  nothing  short  of  absolute  independence.  By  his 
orders  the  Spanish  officer  who  came  as  an  official  peace  envoy 
to  his  camp  was  seized  and  shot  as  a  spy. 


1897-1898.]          RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  533 

575.  The  destruction  of  the  "  Maine  "  ;  Congress  declares 
Cuba  independent.  —  Such  was  the  condition  of  affairs  in 
Cuba  when  an  event  occurred  which  suddenly  changed  every 
thing.  The  United  States  had  sent  Captain  Sigsbee  to  Havana 
with  the  battle-ship  "  Maine."  There  was  nothing  threatening  or 
unfriendly  in  his  visit  to  that  port,  and  he  had  remained  there 
in  peace  for  nearly  three  weeks ;  but  on  the  night  of  February 
15,  1898,  the  "Maine,"  while  lying  in  the  harbor  of  Havana, 
was  destroyed  by  an  explosion,  and  2  officers  and  264  of  her 
crew  were  killed. 

The  United  States  appointed  a  naval  Court  of  Inquiry  to 
make  an  investigation.  After  a  long  and  careful  examination 
they  reported  that  in  their  opinion  "  the  '  Maine  '  was  destroyed 
by  the  explosion  of  a  submarine  mine."  The  court  found  no 
evidence  showing  whether  the  explosion  was  caused  by  acci 
dent  or  design,  and  they  made  no  attempt  to  fix  the  responsi 
bility  for  the  act  on  any  person  or  persons. 

The  Spanish  government  expressed  their  regret  at  "the 
lamentable  incident,"  disavowed  all  connection  with  it,  declared 
they  believed  that  the  explosion  resulted  from  internal  causes, 
and  urged  that  the  whole  question  should  be  referred  to  a 
committee  of  arbitration.  This  suggestion  the  United  States 
declined  to  consider. 

Later  Spain  ordered  General  Blanco  to  treat  with  the  insur 
gents  for  an  armistice  preparatory  to  establishing  peace,  and 
an  offer  of  nominal  independence  was  made  to  the  Cubans. 
These  measures  had  no  practical  results  with  the  revolutionists. 

In  April  President  McKinley  sent  a  special  message  to  Con 
gress.  He  declared  that,  "in  the  name  of  humanity,  in  the 
name  of  civilization,  in  behalf  of  endangered  American  interests, 
which  give  us  the  right  and  the  duty  to  speak  and  act,  the  war 
in  Cuba  must  stop." 

Shortly  afterward  Congress  took  the  .matter  up.  A  proposi 
tion  to  recognize  the  Cuban  Republic  failed,  but  Congress 
resolved  by  joint  resolution  (April  19,  1898):  (i)  "That  the 


534  THE    STUDENTS    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 

people  of  Cuba  are,  and  of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  inde 
pendent."  (2)  Congress  demanded  that  Spain  should  at  once 
withdraw  all  of  her  forces  from  the  island.  (3)  They  author 
ized  the  President  to  use  the  entire  land  and  naval  forces  of 
the  United  States  to  carry  the  resolutions  into  effect.  (4)  The 
United  States  declared  that  when  the  pacification  of  Cuba 
should  be  fully  accomplished  we  should  "  leave  the  govern 
ment  and  control  of  the  island  to  its  people." 

576.  War  with  Spain.  —  An  ultimatum  was  sent  to  Spain 
which  that  power  declined  to  receive.     It  was  now  seen  that 
war  was  inevitable.     Shortly  after  this  action  of  Congress  the 
President  issued  a  call  for  125,000  volunteers,  and  later  for 
75,000    more.      Captain   William    T.    Sampson,    acting    Rear- 
Admiral,  had  been  put  in  command  of  a  naval  fleet  at  Key 
West,  and  Commodore  W.  S.  Schley  was  ordered  to  organize 
a  "  flying  squadron  "  at  Hampton  Roads. 

Congress  had  already  placed  $50,000,000  in  the  hands  of 
the  President  to  purchase  additional  war-ships  and  carry  out 
plans  of  national  defence. 

Later  the  Government  borrowed  $200,000,000  from  the 
people  of  the  United  States  to  prosecute  the  war.  So  eager 
were  the  people  to  purchase  these  new  three  per  cent  bonds 
that  they  subscribed  for  no  less  than  seven  times  the  amount 
called  for. 

The  Act  of  Congress  which  authorized  the  popular  loan  also 
made  provision  for  securing  a  war  revenue.  This  measure 
levied  special  domestic  and  internal  taxes  including  stamp 
duties  on  business  paper  and  taxes  on  legacies  and  on  beer.  It 
was  expected  to  yield  an  annual  revenue  of  from  $175,000,000 
to  $200,000,000. 

A  few  days  before  Congress  formally  declared  war  (April  25, 
1898)  the  President  sent  Captain  Sampson  with  a  squadron  to 
blockade  Havana  and  other  important  Cuban  ports. 

577.  The  battle  of  Manila.  —  Commodore  George  Dewey 
was  in  command  of  our  Asiatic  squadron  at  Hong  Kong.    The 


1898.]  RECONSTRUCTION,   THE    NEW    NATION.  535 

President  ordered  him  to  proceed  at  once  to  Manila,  the  capi 
tal  of  the  Philippines,  and  "capture  or  destroy"  the  Spanish 
fleet  which  guarded  that  important  port.  The  plan  was  to 
strike  Spain  in  two  vulnerable  points  —  Cuba  and  the  Philip 
pines  —  at  the  same  time.  Dewey  had  but  six  war-ships,  of 
which  only  one  ranked  as  a  first-class  cruiser.  Manila  was 
protected  by  fortifications,  and  the  Spanish  there  had  twice  as 
many  vessels  as  Dewey ;  but  they  were  inferior  in  size  and 
armament  to  the  American  squadron  ;  and  although  the  enemy 
showed  no  lack  of  courage,  they  were  miserable  gunners. 

On  May  i,  1898,  Commodore  Dewey  sent  a  dispatch  to  the 
President  stating  that  he  had  just  fought  a  battle  in  which 
he  had  destroyed  every  one  of  the  enemy's  squadron  without 
losing  a  single  man. 

Congress  voted  the  thanks  of  the  nation  to  the  "  Hero  of 
Manila,"  and  he  was  promoted  to  the  rank  of  Rear-Admiral ; 
after  the  war  he  was  made  Admiral  (1899),  and  Captain 
Sampson  and  Commodore  Schley  were  made  Rear- Admirals. 

The  ultimate  results  of  Dewey's  remarkable  victory  may 
prove  a  turning-point  in  American  history,  deciding  the  question 
of  our  colonial  policy  in  the  Far  East ;  and  hence  his  destruc 
tion  of  the  Spanish  fleet  may  eventually  be  regarded  as  one  of 
the  decisive  battles  of  the  world. 

Soon  after  Dewey's  splendid  success  the  President  sent  rein 
forcements  from  San  Francisco,  under  General  Wesley  Merritt, 
to  cooperate  with  our  squadron  when  it  should  undertake  the 
capture  of  Manila. 

578.  Cervera's  fleet  "  bottled  up."  —  Just  before  the 
battle  of  Manila  a  Spanish  fleet,  consisting  of  four  armored 
cruisers  and  three  torpedo-boat  destroyers,  under  Admiral 
Cervera,  left  the  Cape  Verde  Islands.  They  had  started,  as 
was  supposed,  for  Cuban  waters,  or  with  intent  to  attack  the 
cities  of  our  eastern  coast. 

Commodore  Schley's  "  flying  squadron  "  set  out  to  find  the 
enemy.  After  a  number  of  weeks'  search  it  was  discovered 


536  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

that  Cervera  had  entered  the  harbor  of  Santiago  on  the  south 
eastern  coast  of  Cuba. 

A  few  days  later  Captain  Sampson  sailed  with  a  number  of 
war-ships  for  that  port.  One  of  his  fleet  was  the  battle-ship 
"  Oregon,"  which  had  recently  arrived  from  San  Francisco,  by 
way  of  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  after  an  exciting  voyage  of 
more  than  thirteen  thousand  miles. 

The  long,  narrow,  crooked  channel  of  Santiago  made  entrance 
for  our  vessels  very  hazardous,  and  it  was  known  that  it  was 
protected  by  both  land  batteries  and  submarine  mines. 

Cervera's  fleet  was  "  bottled  up,"  but  the  question  was 
whether  he  might  not  slip  out  under  cover  of  darkness  and 
elude  our  guns. 

Captain  Sampson  resolved  to  "  cork  the  bottle,"  and  Lieu 
tenant  Hobson,  at  his  own  earnest  request,  was  given  charge 
of  the  dangerous  experiment.  With  the  help  of  seven  sailors, 
all  eager  to  rush  into  the  jaws  of  death  with  him,  he  ran  the 
coal-ship  "  Merrimac  "  into  the  Santiago  channel  and  sank  her 
part  way  across  it.  Hobson  and  his  men  were  captured  by  the 
Spaniards,  but  were  soon  exchanged,  and  on  shore  he  became 
the  hero  of  the  day. 

579.  Fighting  near  Santiago;  the  "  Rough  Riders "; 
destruction  of  Cervera's  fleet.  —  A  few  weeks  later  General 
Shafter  landed  a  strong  force  near  Santiago  to  cooperate  with 
Captain  Sampson  in  the  capture  of  that  city.  A  skirmish 
brought  out  the  righting  qualities  of  the  regulars  and  of  the 
"  Rough  Riders "  who  here  fought  on  foot.  A  week  later 
(July  1-2,  1898),  after  a  sharp  engagement  at  El  Caney  and 
San  Juan,  the  regulars  —  "  the  flower  of  the  American  standing 
army  "  —  drove  the  Spaniards  into  Santiago  with  heavy  loss. 

Shortly  afterward  Captain  Sampson  went  to  confer  with 
General  Shafter,  leaving  Commodore  Schley  and  the  other 
commanders  of  the  fleet  to  keep  a  sharp  lookout  for  Cervera ; 
for  the  "  Merrimac  "  had  only  half  corked  the  bottle. 

Not  long  after  Captain  Sampson  left,  a  shout  went  up  from 


1898-1899.]        RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  537 

the  flag-ship  "  Brooklyn,"  "  The  Spaniards  are  coming  out  of  the 
harbor ! "  Both  sides  opened  fire  at  the  same  time ;  but  the 
Spanish  admiral,  with  his  four  cruisers  and  two  torpedo-boats, 
was  no  real  match  for  our  fleet  of  six  vessels,  comprising 
four  powerful  battle-ships.*  In  less  than  three  hours  all  of  the 
enemy's  fleet  were  blazing,  helpless  wrecks,  and  Cervera  him 
self  was  a  prisoner  of  war  on  board  of  one  of  our  ships. 

Spain  had  another  squadron  at  home,  but  she  needed  that  to 
protect  her  coast ;  so  far  as  we  were  concerned,  her  power  on 
the  ocean  was  practically  destroyed. 

580.  The  end  of  the  war;  the  treaty  with  Spain; 
outbreak  at  Manila;  the  treaty  ratified;  annexation  of 
Hawaii.  —  Soon  after  this  decisive  defeat  the  Spaniards  sur 
rendered  Santiago. 

A  few  days  later  Spain  asked  for  terms  of  peace,  and  on 
August  12,  1898,  a  protocol  covering  the  preliminaries  of  peace 
was  signed  at  Washington. 

The  President  at  once  ordered  the  suspension  of  hostilities. 
General  Nelson  A.  Miles,  Commander  of  the  Army  of  the 
United  States,  was  then  in  Porto  Rico  preparing  for  a  decisive 
battle.  When  the  order  to  suspend  hostilities  was  received, 
the  island  surrendered  to  our  forces.  Before  the  Government 
dispatch  could  reach  the  Philippines,  Rear-Admiral  Dewey  and 
General  Merritt  had  attacked  and  taken  Manila. 

The  Peace  Commission  appointed  by  the  American  and  the 
Spanish  Governments  met  at  Paris  October  i,  1898,  and  the 
treaty  was  signed  on  December  10.  By  the  terms  of  the  treaty 
Spain  (i)  gave  up  all  sovereignty  over  Cuba;  (2)  ceded  to 
us  the  island  of  Porto  Rico,  and  the  island  of  Guam  in  the 
Ladrones  ;  (3)  finally,  Spain  ceded  the  Philippines  to  us,  re 
ceiving  in  return  $20,000,000  for  the  public  works  which  the 
Spanish  Government  had  erected  on  those  islands.  On  New 

*  The  battle-ship  "  Massachusetts,"  Captain  Sampson's  flag-ship  the 
armored  cruiser  "  New  York,"  and  four  other  of  our  war  vessels,  were  not 
in  the  battle,  being  absent  on  duty  at  other  points. 


538  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

Year's  Day,  1899,  the  Spanish  forces  left  Havana,  and  the 
American  flag  was  hoisted  over  the  palace  and  the  castle  of 
that  ancient  city.  This  leaves  Spain  without  a  foot  of  ground 
on  this  side  of  the  globe. 

The  chief  point  of  discussion  in  the  Senate  respecting  the 
treaty  was  the  article  on  the  cession  of  the  Philippines.  A 
number  of  Senators,  both  Democrats  and  Republicans,  strongly 
opposed  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  as  it  stood.  They  argued 
that  we  should  either  reject  it  entirely,  or  amend  it  so  that  the 
conditions  required  from  Spain  should  be  the  giving  up  of  all 
control  over  the  islands,  but  not  the  actual  cession  of  the 
islands  themselves  to  the  United  States.  They  believed  that 
the  annexation  of  the  Philippines  would  prove  to  be  a  burden 
rather  than  an  advantage  to  this  country.  They  proposed  that 
we  should  act  as  guardians  over  the  islands  until  the  people 
should  become  able  to  govern  and  protect  themselves. 

The  majority  of  the  Senate  held  the  view  that  the  annexa 
tion  of  the  Philippines  would  be  for  the  best  interests  of  all 
concerned,  and  that  Congress  could  govern  them  for  an  indef 
inite  period  on  the  territorial  plan,  as  we  do  Alaska. 

While  the  subject  was  under  discussion  the  natives  made  an 
attack  on  our  troops  at  Manila.  The  combined  forces  of  Gen 
eral  Otis  and  Rear-Admiral  Dewey  speedily  drove  them  back 
with  terrible  loss.  The  news  of  the  battle  was  at  once 
telegraphed  to  Washington.  The  next  day,  February  6,  1899, 
the  Senate  met  and  forthwith  ratified  the  treaty,  as  it  stood, 
by  a  vote  of  57  to  27.  This  act  makes  the  Philippines,  Porto 
Rico,  and  Guam  part  of  the  territory  of  the  United  States. 

We  had  already  annexed  the  Republic  of  Hawaii  (§  563); 
for  after  Rear-Admiral  Dewey's  victory  many  people  thought, 
with  Captain  Mahan,  that  we  needed  these  islands  as  a  base 
of  defence  and  of  naval  operations  in  the  Pacific.  The  oppo 
sition  declared  that  the  Hawaiian  people  had  not  been  fully 
consulted,  and  that  "  the  cry  of  '  war  emergency ' "  did  not 
justify  our  taking  the  islands  ;  but  a  joint  resolution  to  annex 


1898-1899.]         RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  539 

passed  both  houses  of  Congress  by  a  large  majority,  and  was 
signed  by  the  President  July  7,    1898.  , 

581.  The  cost  of  the  war  ;  the  question  of  "  expansion. "  - 
The  war,  so  far    as  actual   fighting  was    concerned,  lasted  a 
little  over  one  hundred  days.      American  history  records  no 
campaign  having  such  remarkable  success  at  such  small  cost 
of  life  on   our  side.     The   total   loss   in   the  army   and    navy 
was  only  402.     The  war  exhibited  the  wonderful    efficiency 
of  our  new  navy;  it  showed  what  American  soldiers,  whether 
"  regulars  "  or  volunteers,  may  always  be  expected  to  do ;  it 
brought  Union  and  Confederate  veterans  into  service   under 
the  old  flag,  and  it  illustrated  the  noble  helpfulness  of  the  Red 
Cross  Society  and  of  the  women  of  America. 

The  total  direct  cost  of  the  war  was  about  $130,000,000. 
But  the  maintenance  of  a  larger  standing  army  to  preserve  order 
in  Cuba  and  our  other  new  dependencies ;  the  probable  build 
ing  of  more  ships  of  war,  and  the  outlay  for  pensions  to  disabled 
soldiers  and  sailors  must,  in  all  probability,  greatly  increase  the 
national  expenditures  for  a  number  of  years  to  come. 

The  close  of  the  contest  with  Spain  leaves  us  face  to  face 
with  issues  greater  than  the  war  itself.  The  country  will  now 
be  called  upon  to  decide  the  momentous  problem  of  "  expan 
sion  "  or  perhaps  that  of  "  imperialism  "  (§  588).  On  that  prob 
lem  hangs  the  policy  of  the  retention  of  the  Philippines  ;  with  it 
are  bound  up  questions  of  markets  in  the  Far  East,  of  increased 
military  and  naval  forces,  of  taxation,  of  immigration  and  labor, 
and  of  the  adaptation  of  the  American  Constitution  to  govern 
a  semi-civilized  people  in  distant  island  possessions.134' 

582.  The  Trans-Mississippi  Exposition ;  cheap  lands;  ag 
ricultural  prosperity  ;  the  preservation  of  forests.  —  While 
the  war  with    Spain  was  in    progress  the  "  Trans-Mississippi 
Exposition"  was  opened  at  Omaha,  Nebraska  (June  i,  1898). 
Its  object  was  to  exhibit  to  the  world  the  marvellous  growth 
and  resources  of  the  vast  region  west  of  the  great  river  of  our 
continent. 


540  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY.          [1898-1899. 

Spain  held  that  country  for  nearly  three  hundred  years  and 
expected  to  hold  it  for  all  time.  Through  it  Coronado  wandered 
in  his  search  for  gold  (§  21).  Fifty  years  ago  the  greater  part 
of  it  was  an  unexplored  wilderness.  North  of  Texas  there  was 
not  a  single  state  between  Missouri  on  the  east  and  California 
on  the  Pacific ;  not  a  single  mile  of  railroad  penetrated  the 
country,  and  one  of  the  most  conspicuous  features  of  its  range 
of  territories  was  a  desolate  gray  patch  which  covered  a  section 
of  many  thousand  square  miles  on  the  school-maps  and  bore 
the  forbidding  name  :  "  GREAT  AMERICAN  DESERT." 

When  railroads  began  to  cross  the  Mississippi  (§  522)  the 
great  change  in  the  Far  West  began.  Furthermore  liberal  land 
laws  hastened  the  settlement  of  that  part  of  the  country.  Prior 
to  1862  the  right  of  pre-emption  enabled  the  settler  to  secure 
public  land  at  the  lowest  government  price  whenever  it  should 
come  into  the  market. 

In  1862  Congress  passed  the  Homestead  Bill.  That  act, 
which  is  still  in  force,  gave  every  permanent  settler  160  acres 
of  land  practically  free  of  charge.  It  drew  to  America  a 
peaceful  army  of  wealth-producing  emigrants ;  it  filled  great 
wastes  with  thrifty,  hard-working,  self-respecting  citizens ;  it 
enhanced  the  value  of  the  remaining  public  domain,  and  thus 
enriched  the  treasury  of  the  United  States.  Between  1862  and 
1899  Western  farmers  took  up  nearly  170,000,000  acres  of  public 
lands  or  more  than  260,000  square  miles.1349  Forty  years  ago 
this  vast  area  —  four  times  larger  than  England  and  Wales  — 
had  no  white  inhabitants.  To-day  the  whole  of  it  is  cultivated 
by  those  who  own  it  and  live  on  it.* 

A  noted  writer  once  said  that  "  whoever  could  make  two  ears 


*  Exclusive  of  Alaska,  the  United  States  has  still  about  500,000,000 
acres  of  public  lands  to  dispose  of,  but  a  considerable  part  of  them  —  say 
one-third  —  is  unfit  for  either  tillage  or  pasturage  unless  irrigation  can  be 
employed,  and  then  only  a  portion  can  be  made  fertile.  The  time  is  not 
very  far  off  when  there  will  be  no  more  free  land,  and  comparatively  little 
that  will  be  considered  cheap. 


1898-1899.]         RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  54! 

of  corn  or  two  blades  of  grass  grow  upon  a  spot  of  ground 
where  only  one  grew  before  "  would  deserve  better  of  mankind 
than  those  even  who  made  its  laws. 

The  Trans-Mississippi  Exposition  showed  conclusively  that 
the  Western  farmer  has  accomplished  far  more  than  this,  for  he 
has  made  corn  grow  where  not  an  ear  grew  before,  and  in  some 
cases  he  has  made  grass  spring  up  where  not  a  blade  had  ever 
been  seen. 

The  same  liberal  government  policy  which  gave  homesteads 
granted  large  tracts  of  lands  (1862)  to  the  States  for  the  estab 
lishment  of  agricultural  colleges.  More  than  forty  of  these 
institutions  have  been  founded.  In  many  cases  they  have 
been  productive  of  higher  education,  and  have  borne  fruit  in 
better  tillage  of  the  soil  and  in  greater  material  results. 

1898  was  a  year  of  almost  unexampled  agricultural  prosperity. 
The  West  raised  enormous  crops  of  breadstuffs  and,  owing  to 
the  foreign  demand,  sold  them  at  prices  which  filled  the  farmer's 
pockets  and  added  largely  to  the  wealth  of  the  country.1350 

In  connection  with  agriculture,  attention  should  be  called 
to  the  preservation  of  forests.  It  is  found  that  the  destruction 
of  timber  involves  in  many  cases  very  serious  results.  Streams 
unprotected  by  forests  become  torrents  in  the  spring  and 
dwindle  or  disappear  in  hot  weather.  Where  such  a  process 
goes  on  for  a  long  time  on  a  large  scale  it  renders  the  valleys 
sterile  and  sometimes  uninhabitable. 

The  total  area  of  forests  in  the  United  States  is  about  480,- 
000,000  acres.  Forest  fires  destroy  on  the  average  $20,000,- 
ooo  worth  of  standing  timber  every  year.  The  lumberman's 
axe  and  saw-mills  cut  up  enormous  quantities  annually,  and 
pulp-mills  for  the  manufacture  of  wood  paper,  and  various 
kinds  of  wooden  ware,  make  incessant  demands  on  the  forests. 

Since  1891  the  Federal  Government  has  set  apart  large 
reservations  of  timber,  and  a  number  of  states  have  passed 
laws  not  only  for  the  preservation  of  some  portion  of  their 
wood-lands,  but  for  tree-planting  as  well.  Intelligent  and 


542  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1900. 

discriminating  effort  in  this  direction  cannot  fail  to  add  to  the 
general  welfare  of  the  country. 

583.  Savings-banks;  national  wealth ;  use  of  money  for 
the  public  good.  —  The  principle  which  prompts  us  to  check 
the  waste  of  our  growing  timber  finds  a  still  broader  illustra 
tion  in  the  general  thrift  of  the  American  people. 

The  first  three  savings-banks  in  the  United  States  were 
established  in  1816-1817  in  Philadelphia,  Boston,  and  New 
York.  In  1820  the  total  deposits  in  such  institutions  were 
only  a  little  over  a  million  of  dollars.  To-day  the  savings- 
banks  of  this  country  hold  nearly  twenty-four  hundred  times  the 
amount  they  held  in  1820.  This  aggregate  exceeds  the  entire 
sum  deposited  in  all  similar  banks  in  the  British  Empire, 
France,  Belgium,  and  Switzerland  combined. 

This  fund  heaped  up  little  by  little,  by  a  great  army  of 
wage-earners  is  an  index  of  the  general  growth  of  prosperity. 
The  estimated  increase  in  the  actual  value  of  the  real  and  per 
sonal  property  of  the  people  of  the  United  States,  from  1880 
to  1890,  was  not  far  from  fifty  per  cent.  The  total  "true  valu 
ation"*  at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century  is  believed 
to  be  not  less  than  $100,000,000,000. 

This  vast  accumulation  of  wealth  is  to  a  great  extent  the 
fruit  of  economy,  self-denial,  well-directed  labor,  and  sound 
habits  of  life.  In  many  respects  the  material  development 
of  the  country  may  be  regarded  as  a  sign  of  its  moral  vigor. 
We  see  the  expression  of  this  power  in  the  wise  and  generous 
use  of  much  of  the  capital  which  it  creates.  It  makes  men 
public-spirited.  It  founds  colleges,  schools,  churches,  missions 
and  charities  of  all  kinds. 

Aside  from  what  the  states  and  cities  of  the  Union  are 
accomplishing  for  intellectual  and  philanthropic  objects,  pri- 

*  NOTE.  —  The  total  assessed  valuation  of  the  real  and  personal  prop 
erty  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  in  1890  was  $25,473,173,418; 
but  the  estimated  "  true  valuation  "  or  fair  selling  price  then  was  over 

$65,000,000,000. 


I900.J  RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  543 

vate  citizens  spend  their  own  means  liberally  for  the  same 
purpose.  Within  the  past  six  years  they  have  given  nearly 
$300,000,000  to  help  forward  the  cause  of  education,  to  build 
free  public  libraries  and  art  museums,  to  endow  homes  for 
friendless  and  orphan  children,  for  the  aged  poor,  and  hospitals 
for  the  relief  of  the  sick  and  suffering.* 

584.  What  fifty  years  have  done  for  American  women. 
-The  year  1900  marks  the  semi-centennial  of  the  first  national 
organization  of  women  to  secure  equal  suffrage  (§  404).  Since 
then  very  remarkable  changes  have  taken  place  in  the  con 
dition  of  the  sex  that  constitutes  nearly  one-half  of  the  popu 
lation  of  our  country.! 

These  changes  appear  to  be  due  partly  to  the  general 
movement  of  society,  and  partly  to  the  "  Woman's  Rights  " 
agitation.  They  are  seen  :  (i)  in  the  immense  broadening  of 
the  field  of  higher  education  ;  (2)  in  the  extension  of  property 
rights  ;  (3)  in  the  free  entrance  to  nearly  all  occupations  and 
professions ;  (4)  in  partial  woman  suffrage  in  many  states  and 
full  suffrage  in  four  (§  553). 

This  widespread  movement  must  necessarily  exert  a  profound 
influence  on  the  home  life,  the  intellectual  development,  the 
labor  earnings,  and  the  political  history  of  the  American  people. $ 

*  NOTE.  —  Independent  of  large  contributions  for  denominational  pur 
poses  and  missions,  the  total  amount  of  gifts  and  bequests  for  educational 
and  philanthropic  objects  made  by  private  persons  in  the  United  States  in 
1899  was  nearly  $63,000,000,  and  for  a  long  time  the  yearly  average  has  been 
not  less  than  $34,000,000 ;  at  this  rate  the  amount  given  in  the  lifetime  of 
a  single  generation  would  be  upwards  of  a  thousand  millions  of  dollars  ! 
See  Appleton's  Annual  Cyclopaedia  for  1898,  Preface ;  and  article  on 
"  Gifts  and  Bequests,"  in  the  volumes  for  1899  and  1900. 

t  NOTE.  —  According  to  the  census  of  1890,  51.21  per  cent  of  the  popu 
lation  of  the  United  States  were  males,  and  48.79  per  cent  were  females. 
The  slight  excess  of  males  —  found  generally  in  the  western  states  —  has 
been  attributed  to  immigration.  See  Johnson's  Universal  Cyclopaedia  (new 
edition),  VIII.  358. 

t  NOTE.  —  The  leaders  of  organized  labor  generally  consider  that  the 
competition  of  women  has  to  some  extent  diminished  the  earnings  of  men. 


544  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1900. 

585.  The  "open  door"  in  China;  Samoan  Islands;  The 
Hague  Treaty.  —  Early  in  1900  Secretary  Hay,  of  the  State 
Department,  won  a  signal  victory  for  American  trade  in  China. 
Great  Britain,  with  four  of  the  leading  continental  nations  and 
Japan,  had  obtained  control  of  important  ports  and  areas  of 
Chinese  territory.  England  was  anxious  that  commerce  should 
have  free  access  to  these  privileged  areas,  but  the  other  Powers 
refused  to  consent.  Secretary  Hay  by  skillful  diplomacy  ac 
complished  the  great  work.  He  secured  a  written  pledge  from 
each  of  the  Powers  by  which  they  bound  themselves  to  main 
tain  the  policy  of  the  "open  door."  This  agreement  gives 
American  manufacturers  and  merchants  the  same  right  to 
buy  and  sell  goods  in  the  Chinese  Empire  that  any  foreign 
nation  now  possesses. 

Shortly  after  this  negotiation  was  completed  the  Senate  rati 
fied  a  treaty  with  Great  Britain  and  Germany.  It  divides  the 
control  of  the  Samoan  Islands  between  Germany  and  the 
United  States,  so  that  we  hold  entire  sovereignty  over  two  of 
the  islands. 

Following  this  action  the  Senate  ratified  The  Hague  Peace 
Conference  Treaty.  This  convention  provides  that  the  United 
States  in  connection  with  the  principal  Powers  of  Europe,  and 
with  Japan,  shall  maintain  a  perpetual  Court  of  Arbitration  at 

On  the  other  hand,  some  writers  on  political  economy  believe  that  the 
opening  of  many  occupations  to  women  has  a  tendency  to  check  early 
marriages  and  is  favorable  to  the  improvement  of  the  race.  (See  Giddings's 
"  Democracy  and  Empire,"  168-176.)  Early  in  1900  the  "American  Fed 
eration  of  Labor "  petitioned  Congress  to  adopt  an  amendment  to  the 
Federal  Constitution  which  should  secure  woman  suffrage  throughout  the 
United  States.  The  "  National  Woman  Suffrage  Association  "  is  working 
to  make  this  movement  a  success,  while  the  "  Anti-Woman  Suffrage  Asso 
ciation,"  composed  like  the  first  organization,  mainly  of  women,  is  battling 
against  the  movement.  For  representative  books  on  the  subject  see  Mrs. 
M.  A.  Livennore's  "  Woman's  Work  in  America,"  advocating  woman  suf 
frage,  and  Mrs.  Helen  K.  Johnson's  "  Woman  and  the  Republic,"  taking 
the  opposite  ground. 


1900.]  RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  545 

The  Hague.  The  object  sought  is  to  endeavor  to  settle  inter 
national  disputes  by  the  pen  instead  of  the  sword.  No  one 
expects  that  the  Court  will  put  an  end  to  war,  but  it  is  hoped 
that  it  will  help  to  make  war  less  frequent. 

586.  The  Gold  Standard  Act ;  the  Porto  Rican  Tariff  and 
Government  Act.  —  In  the  spring  of  1900  Congress  passed  two 
acts  of  great  importance  ;  one  relating  to  the  financial  policy 
of  the  Government,  the  other  to  the  island  of  Porto  Rico. 

The  first  coinage  act  passed  more  than  a  century  ago  (1792) 
made  the  silver  dollar  the  unit  of  value  (§  255).  After  1873 
the  "free  silver"  question  was  hotly  debated  in  Congress  and 
out,  and  found  expression  in  noteworthy  acts  of  legislation 
(§§  528,  535,  554,  561).  The  act  of  1900  makes  the  gold 
dollar  "the  standard  unit  of  value,"  and  requires  that  all  other 
forms  of  money  issued  or  coined  by  the  United  States  shall  be 
maintained  at  a  parity  of  value  with  this  dollar.* 

The  Porto  Rican  tariff  and  government  bill  roused  prolonged 
and  heated  discussion.  A  strong  minority  in  Congress  urged 
that  the  island  should  be  regarded  as  standing  on  the  same 
basis  as  that  of  all  our  national  territory  in  the  past,  and  that 
all  commerce  between  the  United  States  and  Porto  Rico  should 
be  absolutely  free. 

But  Congress  finally  decided  to  levy  a  small  duty  (15  percent 
of  that  levied  by  the  Dingley  tariff)  on  merchandise  "  coming 
into  the  United  States  from  Porto  Rico  and  coming  into  Porto 
Rico  from  the  United  States."  This  tax  is  to  be  in  force  not 

*  NOTE.  —  The  Gold  Standard  Bill  was  passed  by  a  vote  of  196  to  144 
in  the  House,  and  of  42  to  28  in  the  Senate  ;  approved  March  14,  1900. 
Besides  making  gold  the  standard  of  value  the  act  provides  for  refunding 
the  public  debt  by  the  issue  of  two  per  cent  30  years'  bonds,  payable  prin 
cipal  and  interest  in  gold.  It  grants  the  power  to  establish  national  banks 
of  small  capital  in  places  having  a  population  of  not  more  than  5000. 
Finally,  it  provides  for  the  accomplishment  of  international  bimetallism 
whenever  it  shall  be  "  expedient  and  practicable  to  secure  the  same  by  con 
current  action  of  the  leading  commercial  nations  of  the  world."  See  U.  S. 
Statutes  at  Large  for  1900. 


546  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1900-1901, 

exceeding  two  years,  and  the  revenue  so  collected  is  to  be  used 
for  the  benefit  of  Porto  Rico.* 

The  governmental  provisions  of  the  act|  declare  first  that 
the  "  People  of  Porto  Rico "  are  entitled  to  the  protection  of 
the  United  States.  Secondly,  they  provide  for  a  Governor  and 
upper  House  of  Legislature  to  be  appointed  by  the  President, 
and  next  for  a  lower  House  to  be  elected  by  the  people.  All 
laws  enacted  by  the  Legislature  must  be  approved  by  Congress. 
In  1901  entire  freedom  of  trade  was  established  between  the 
United  States  and  Porto  Rico. 

The  "  People  of  Porto  Rico,"  unlike  the  citizens  of  the  fully 
organized  Territories  of  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Oklahoma,  and 
Hawaii  (1900),  are  not  represented  by  a  delegate  in  Congress.^ 

587.  The  proposed  Isthmian  Canal ;  the  census  of  1900.— 
The  discovery  of  gold  in  California  (§  405)  suggested  the 
project  of  an  Isthmian  canal  by  way  of  Nicaragua  in  order 
to  secure  direct  water  communication  between  the  East  and  the 
West.  At  that  time  England  claimed  control  over  part  of  the 
coast  of  Nicaragua.  The  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty  concluded 
between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain  (1850)  provided 

*  NOTE.  —  In  1899  a  frightful  hurricane  devastated  the  island  of  Porto 
Rico ;  it  reduced  many  thousands  of  the  people  to  the  verge  of  starvation. 
In  March,  1900,  Congress  passed  the  Porto  Rican  Relief  Act  appropriating 
upwards  of  $2,000,000,  which  the  United  States  had  collected  in  duties 
from  the  island,  for  the  relief  of  those  in  distress. 

t  NOTE.  —  The  Porto  Rican  Bill  was  amended  by  the  Senate ;  it  then 
passed  the  House,  April  n,  1900,  by  a  majority  of  eight  votes  (161  to  153). 
Nine  Republicans  voted  against  it,  and  one  Democrat  for  it. 

\  NOTE.  —  The  Constitution  (page  xiv,  Section  3)  gives  Congress  abso 
lute  control  over  all  territory  of  the  United  States.  In  fully  organized 
territories  of  the  first  class  the  government  generally  consists  of  a  Gov 
ernor  and  Executive  Council  appointed  by  the  President,  and  a  House  of 
Representatives  elected  by  the  people.  All  laws  made  by  the  Territorial 
Legislature  are  subject  to  the  veto  of  Congress.  The  people  of  the  Ter 
ritory  are  entitled  to  send  a  delegate  to  Congress  to  represent  them.  This 
delegate  sits  in  the  House  and  has  the  right  to  take  part  in  all  debates  but 
not  to  vote. 


1900-1901.]         RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  547 

for  the  construction  of  the  projected  canal.  By  the  terms  of 
that  agreement  the  neutrality  of  the  canal  was  guaranteed,  and 
it  was  to  be  kept  "  open  and  free  "  forever,  "  for  the  benefit 
of  mankind."  But  the  true  interpretation  of  these  provisions 
gave  rise  to  more  disputes  than  there  were  articles  in  the 
treaty.  President  Hayes  and  Secretary  Elaine  both  insisted 
that  it  must  be  modified,  and  that  the  United  States  must  hold 
control  of  such  an  ocean  thoroughfare  when  completed. 

Early  in  1900  the  Government  sent  a  commission  to  explore 
and  report  on  the  best  route  for  such  an  undertaking.  Shortly 
afterward  the  Hay-Pauncefote  treaty  was  negotiated  to  take  the 
place  of  the  unsatisfactory  Clayton-Bulwer  treaty.  The  Senate 
declined  to  accept  the  new  convention  as  it  stood,  and  England 
refused  (1901)  to  accept  the  Senate's  amendments;  but  public 
opinion  is  strongly  in  favor  of  constructing  an  interoceanic 
waterway  which  shall  give  our  navy  and  our  merchant  ships 
ready  access  to  the  Pacific  coast  and  to  our  island  possessions 
in  the  Pacific. 

The  census  of  1900  showed  that  the  total  population  of  the 
United  States,  including  Hawaii,  was  76,304,799  —  or  a  gain 
of  nearly  21  per  cent  on  the  returns  of  1890  (§  555). 

588.  The  presidential  election  (1900).  —  The  three  chief 
questions  in  dispute  between  the  Republican  and  the  Demo 
cratic  parties,  as  set  forth  in  their  platforms,*  were:  (i)  imperi 
alism  vs.  expansion  ;  (2)  trusts  ;  (3)  free  silver. 

The  Republicans  renominated   William    McKinley  for  the 

*  NOTE.  —  Parties  and  Platforms.  No  less  than  ten  more  national 
platforms  were  adopted  in  1900.  They  represented  the  People's  Party 
(Fusionists)  ;  the  "  Middle  of  the  Road  "  People's  Party  ;  the  Prohibition 
Party ;  the  United  Christian  Party ;  the  Silver  Republican  Party ;  the 
Socialist  Labor  Party  ;  the  Social  Democratic  Party ;  the  National  Party ; 
the  Anti-Imperialists  ;  the  National  Democratic  Party  (Gold  Democracy). 
None  of  these  parties  secured  electoral  votes  for  their  candidates.  Six 
of  them  nominated  candidates  for  the  presidency  and  obtained  a  few 
popular  votes,  the  highest  number  recorded  being  208,555  cast  for  the 
Prohibition  candidates. 


548  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.       [1900-1901. 

presidency,  with  Theodore  Roosevelt  for  the  vice-presidency 
(§  5^5)-  The  Democrats  renominated  William  J.  Bryan,  with 
Adlai  Stevenson  for  vice-president  (§  565). 

In  their  national  platform  the  Democrats  stated  that  they 
regarded  "  imperialism  "  *  as  the  paramount  issue  of  the  cam 
paign.  They  declared :  "  We  are  not  opposed  to  territorial 
expansion  when  it  takes  in  desirable  territory  which  can  be 
erected  into  states  in  the  Union,  and  whose  people  are  willing 
and  fit  to  become  American  citizens.  We  favor  expansion  by 
every  peaceful  and  legitimate  means.  But  we  are  unalterably 
opposed  to  the  seizing  of  distant  islands  to  be  governed  out 
side  the  Constitution,  and  whose  people  can  never  become 
citizens"  (§  581). 

Secondly  :  the  Democratic  party  pledged  themselves  to  "  an 
unceasing  warfare  "  against  "trusts  "  (§  568). 

Thirdly:  the  Democrats  reaffirmed  their  platform  of  1896, 
which  demanded  "  the  free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver  and 
gold  at  the  present  legal  ratio  of  16  to  i,  without  waiting  for 
the  consent  of  any  other  nation  "  (§  565). 

The  Republicans  in  their  national  platform  made  no  direct 
reference  to  imperialism  or  to  expansion  further  than  to  call 
attention  to  the  fact  that  we  had  come  into  possession  of  the 
Philippines  as  a  result  of  the  Spanish  War  and  the  Treaty  of 
Paris  (§  580). 

But  with  respect  to  the  people  of  those  islands  they  declared  : 
"  The  largest  measure  of  self-government  consistent  with  their 
welfare  and  our  duties  shall  be  secured  to  them  by  law." 

Secondly :  with  respect  to  trusts  the  platform  recognized 
"  the  necessity  and  propriety  of  the  honest  cooperation  of 
capital  to  meet  new  business  conditions,  and  especially  to 
extend  our  rapidly  increasing  foreign  trade,"  but  it  condemned 

*  NOTE.  —  Imperialism  vs.  Expansion.  In  the  political  discussions  of  the 
campaigns  the  Democrats  defined  "  imperialism "  as  the  policy  of  gov 
erning  colonial  possessions  by  force  in  contrast  to  a  policy  of  expansion 
granting  full  self-government  to  such  colonies. 


1900-1901.]         RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  549 

all  "  combinations  intended  to  restrict  business  "  or  to  "  create 
monopolies." 

Thirdly :  the  Republican  Party  declared  their  "  steadfast 
opposition  to  the  free  and  unlimited  coinage  of  silver."  They 
furthermore  stated :  "  We  renew  our  allegiance  to  the  prin 
ciple  of  the  gold  standard"  (§  586),  "by  which  the  parity  of 
all  our  money  and  the  stability  of  our  currency  upon  a  gold 
basis  has  been  secured." 

At  the  election  McKinley  received  292  electoral  votes  and 
Bryan  155.  The  popular  vote  stood  7,206,677  for  McKinley 
to  6,374,397  for  Bryan. 

589.  The  status  of  Cuba ;  second  inaugural  of  President 
McKinley;  the  Philippines.  —  Geographers  inform  us  that, 
from  their  point  of  view,  Cuba  belongs  to  the  United  States  by 
"  the  ground-plan  of  the  world  " ;  but  in  practical  politics  the 
question  of  the  union  of  the  two  countries  brings  out  widely 
divergent  opinions.  It  is  certain,  however,  that  under  Ameri 
can  control  Cuba  has  made  remarkable  progress,  especially  in 
respect  to  provision  for  education.  At  the  beginning  of  our 
occupancy  it  is  doubtful  if  a  single  public  school  existed  on 
the  island.  The  Commissioner  reports  that  early  in  1901  there 
were  over  3500  schools,  with  an  enrollment  of  nearly  175,000 
pupils.  This  fact  is  full  of  significance  and  of  promise  for  the 
future. 

In  1901  the  Convention  of  Cuban  delegates,  called  to  draft  a 
constitution  of  government,  framed  a  republic  similar  in  many 
respects  to  that  of  the  United  States.  Later,  Congress  author 
ized  the  President*  to  leave  the  government  of  Cuba  to  its 
people  on  certain  conditions.  Two  of  the  most  important  of 
these  conditions  were :  first,  that  the  Cubans  should  never 
enter  into  a  treaty  with  any  foreign  power  which  should 
in  any  way  impair  their  independence ;  secondly,  that  they 
should  bind  themselves  to  recognize  the  right  of  the  United 
States  to  intervene,  if  necessary,  for  the  preservation  of  that 

*  By  the  Platt  Amendment  to  the  Army  Appropriation  Bill,  1901. 


550  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY.  [1901 

independence,  and  for  the  maintenance  of  "  life,  property,  and 
individual  liberty"  on  "the  island.  After  prolonged  discussion 
the  Convention  finally  voted  to  accept  the  conditions  imposed, 
by  a  majority  of  16  to  n. 

In  his  second  inaugural  address  (§  567)  President  McKinley 
emphasized  the  general  prosperity  of  the  country;  better  still, 
he  said  :  "  Sectionalism  has  disappeared.  Division  on  public 
questions  can  no  longer  be  traced  by  the  war  maps  of  1861." 

In  the  Philippines  (1901)  the  capture  of  Aguinaldo,  the 
Filipino  leader,  was  followed  by  his  taking  the  oath  of  alle 
giance  to  the  United  States.  He  shortly  afterwards  issued  an 
address  to  his  countrymen,  urging  them  to  lay  down  their 
arms  and  to  acknowledge  the  sovereignty  of  the  American 
flag.  Since  that  period  marked  progress  has  been  made  in 
establishing  local  self-government  in  the  islands  and  in  open 
ing  public  schools.  At  present,  while  guerilla  warfare  con 
tinues  in  some  parts  of  the  country,  there  appears  to  be  no 
regularly  organized  resistance  to  the  United  States. 

590.  The  Supreme  Court  vs.  our  new  territorial  posses 
sions  ;  the  Pan-American  Exposition ;  assassination  of  the 
President.  —  Late  in  May,  1901,  the  Supreme  Court  of  the 
United  States  decided  the  vital  question  of  the  constitutional 
relations  of  our  new  island  possessions  to  the  nation. 

The  Court  declared,  in  substance,  by  a  majority  of  five  to 
four,  first,  that  the  Constitution  does  not  necessarily  follow  the 
flag,  and  secondly,  that  Congress  has  full  power  to  deal  as  it 
sees  fit  with  all  our  recently  acquired  island  territory.* 

In  the  spring  of  1901  the  Pan-American  Exposition  (§553) 
was  opened  at  Buffalo.  In  one  important  respect  it  differed 

*  The  chief  justice,  who  was  one  of  the  four  dissenting  judges,  said 
that  the  Court  considered  that  "  Congress  in  dealing  with  the  people  of 
new  territories  or  possessions  is  bound  to  respect  the  fundamental  guar 
antees  of  life,  liberty,  and  property,  but  assumes  that  Congress  is  not 
bound  in  these  territories  or  possessions  to  follow  the  rules  of  taxation 
prescribed  by  the  Constitution." 


1901.]  RECONSTRUCTION,    THE    NEW    NATION.  55! 

from  any  international  exhibition  heretofore  held  in  this  coun 
try,  since  it  was  organized  to  celebrate  the  progress  made  by 
all  the  nations  of  North,  South,  and  Central  America,  and  to 
take  steps  to  advance  their  common  commercial  interests. 

President  McKinley  attended  the  Exposition  in  September, 
and  there  delivered  his  last  speech.  He  pleaded  for  "  a  policy 
of  good  will  and  friendly  trade  relations  "  ;  and  declared  his 
belief  that  if  the  United  States  would  adopt  such  a  policy 
leading  to  broader  and  freer  intercourse  with  foreign  nations  it 
would  eventually  benefit  all  concerned. 

The  following  day  (September  6)  the  President  gave  a 
public  reception  at  the  Exposition.  As  he  was  extending  his 
hand  to  grasp  that  of  a  young  man,*  the  latter  deliberately 
shot  him  twice  with  a  revolver.  The  assassin  openly  boasted 
that  he  was  an  Anarchist  (§  547),  whose  object  was  to  over 
throw  the  Government. 

The  President  died  of  his  wounds  about  a  week  later  (Sep 
tember  14),  and  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the 
Constitution  (§§  548  ;  Appendix,  p.  xii,  par.  2),  Vice-President 
Roosevelt  (§  588)  became  President. 

When  he  took  the  oath  of  office  he  declared  that  it  would 
be  his  aim  "  to  continue  absolutely  unbroken  the  policy  of 
President  McKinley." 

President  McKinley  was  buried  (September  19)  at  his 
former  home  in  Canton,  Ohio.  Throughout  the  United  States 
and  in  many  of  the  cities  of  Europe  the  occasion  was  solemnly 
kept  as  one  of  "  mourning  and  prayer."  Perhaps  no  day  in 
our  history  as  a  nation  has  made  a  deeper  and  more  abiding 
impression  on  the  hearts  of  the  American  people.  While 
paying  their  tribute  of  sorrow  to  the  memory  of  the  dead  chief 
magistrate,  men  everywhere  silently  resolved  that,  come  what 

*  Leon  F.  Czolgosz  (Chorgosh) :  he  was  an  American  by  birth,  the  son 
of  Polish  emigrants  who  had  come  to  the  United  States.  He  was  executed 
October  29,  1901,  at  Auburn,  N.Y.  Compare  the  assassination  of  Lincoln 
by  a  sectionalist  (§  506)  and  that  of  Garfield  by  a  partisan  (§  539)- 


552  THE    STUDENTS    AMERICAN    HISTORY.  [l90l. 

might,  no  Anarchist  and  no  body  of  Anarchists  should  ever  with 
murder-stained  hands  cast  down  the  pillars  of  the  Republic. 

591.  General  survey  of  the  history  of  the  nation;  the 
United  States  in  the  twentieth  century.  —  In  growth  of  popu 
lation,  development  of  natural  resources,  and  accumulation 
of  wealth,  the  American  Republic  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
civilized  nations  of  the  globe. 

The  economic  progress  of  the  country  shows  that  here  labor- 
saving  inventions  have  reached  the  highest  perfection ;  here, 
steam  was  first  used  for  purposes  of  transportation  (§  286),  and 
electricity  first  employed  to  transmit  intelligence  (§  385). 

Our  progress  on  higher  planes  is  not  less  evident.  Here,  free 
public  schools  and  free  public  libraries  have  been  established 
on  a  scale  never  before  known ;  here,  manhood  suffrage  has 
become  the  rule ;  here,  entire  religious  toleration  was  first 
granted  to  all  men  (§  124). 

Within  the  lifetime  of  a  generation,  civil-service  reform  has 
been  placed  on  a  secure  foundation  (§§  540,  564),  and  the  prin 
ciple  of  international  arbitration  recognized  (§§  526,  561,  564). 
Within  the  same  time,  slavery  has  been  abolished  forever,  and 
the  Union  has  had  a  new  birth  in  the  hearts  of  the  whole  people. 

Now  we  have  entered  the  twentieth  century,  and  fresh  prob 
lems  meet  us.  They  are  the  result,  in  great  measure,  of 
the  progress  which  we  have  made.  They  challenge  our  best 
powers.  If  we  solve  them  successfully,  we  shall  add  a  chapter 
to  American  history  which  will  be  worthy  of  its  past,  and  which 
cannot  fail  to  instruct  and  encourage  all  who  read  it. 


DECLARATION    OF    INDEPENDENCE. 


DECLARATION    OF    INDEPENDENCE. 

IN  CONGRESS,  JULY  4,  1776. 

A    DECLARATION    BY   THE   REPRESENTATIVES   OF  THE   UNITED 
STATES    OF   AMERICA,    IN    CONGRESS  1   ASSEMBLED. 

WHEN,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary  for  one  people  to 
dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connected  them  with  another,  and  to 
assume,  among  the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate  and  equal  station  to  which  the 
laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God  entitle  them,  a  decent  respect  to  the  opinions  of 
mankind  requires  that  they  should  declare  the  causes  which  impel  them  to  the 
separation. 

1  The  First  Continental  or  General  Congress  met  in  Carpenters'  Hall,  Philadelphia,  Sep 
tember  5,  1774.  It  consisted  of  forty-four  delegates,  representing  eleven  of  the  thirteen 
colonies.  Later,  eleven  more  delegates  took  their  seats,  and  all  of  the  colonies  were  repre 
sented  except  Georgia,  which  promised  to  concur  with  "  her  sister  colonies  "  in  their  effort  to 
maintain  their  rights  as  English  subjects.  Peyton  Randolph  of  Virginia  was  elected  Presi 
dent  of  the  Congress.  Among  the  distinguished  men  who  had  assembled  there,  were  Washing 
ton,  Patrick  Henry,  Richard  Henry  Lee,  John  Dickinson,  William  Livingston,  John  Jay, 
John  Adams,  Samuel  Adams,  Roger  Sherman,  and  the  Rutledges  of  South  Carolina. 

On  the  i4th  of  October,  the  Congress  adopted  a  Declaration  of  Colonial  Rights.  On  the 
26th,  a  Petition  to  the  King,  asking  the  redress  of  their  wrongs,  was  drawn  up. 

The  Second  Continental  Congress  (at  which  Georgia  was  represented)  met  in  Philadelphia, 
in  the  State  House  (Independence  Hall),  May  10,  1775.  A  second  Petition  to  the  King  was 
adopted,  and  Washington  was  appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  Continental  army,  though 
Congress  still  denied  any  intention  of  separating  from  Great  Britain,  and  earnestly  expressed 
a  desire  for  the  peaceful  settlement  of  all  difficulties. 

The  King's  Proclamation,  declaring  the  Colonies  in  rebellion,  and  calling  for  volunteers  to 
force  them  to  submit  to  taxation  without  representation,  and  other  unjust  measures,  finally 
convinced  the  delegates  to  Congress  of  the  impossibility  of  our  continuing  our  allegiance  to  the 
English  crown. 

On  June  7,  1776,  Richard  Henry  Lee  of  Virginia  moved  "That  these  United  Colonies 
are,  and  of  right  ought  to  bz,free  and  independent  states."  John  Adams  of  Massachusetts 
seconded  the  motion. 

Later,  a  committee  of  five  —  Thomas  Jefferson  of  Virginia,  John  Adams  of  Massachusetts, 
Benjamin  Franklin  of  Pennsylvania,  Roger  Sherman  of  Connecticut,  and  Robert  R.  Living 
ston  of  New  York  —  was  appointed  to  draft  the  Declaration  of  Independence.  Jefferson 
drew  up  the  paper,  though  a  few  alterations  were  made  in  it  by  the  committee  and  by 
Congress. 

It  was  adopted  on  the  evening  of  July  4,  1776,  and  signed  by  John  Hancock,  President  of 
Congress,  and  Charles  Thomson,  Secretary.  On  August  2,  1776,  it  was  signed  by  the  mem 
bers,  representing  all  the  thirteen  states. 


11  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident :  —  That  all  men  are  created  equal ;  that 
they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with  certain  unalienable  rights ;  that  among 
these  are  life,  liberty,  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness.  That,  to  secure  these  rights, 
governments  are  instituted  among  men,  deriving  their  just  powers  from  the  consent 
of  the  governed ;  that,  whenever  any  form  of  government  becomes  destructive  of 
these  ends,  it  is  the  right  of  the  people  to  alter  or  to  abolish  it,  and  to  institute  a 
new  government,  laying  its  foundation  on  such  principles,  and  organizing  its 
powers  in  such  form,  as  to  them  shall  seem  most  likely  to  effect  their  safety  and 
happiness.  Prudence,  indeed,  will  dictate,  that  governments  long  established 
should  not  be  changed  for  light  and  transient  causes ;  and  accordingly  all  experi 
ence  hath  shown  that  mankind  are  more  disposed  to  suffer  while  evils  are  suffer- 
able,  than  to  right  themselves  by  abolishing  the  forms  to  which  they  are  accustomed. 
But  when  a  long  train  of  abuses  and  usurpations,  pursuing  invariably  the  same 
object,  evinces  a  design  to  reduce  them  under  absolute  despotism,  it  is  their  right, 
it  is  their  duty,  to  throw  off  such  government,  and  to  provide  new  guards  for 
their  future  security.  Such  has  been  the  patient  sufferance  of  these  colonies ;  and 
such  is  now  the  necessity  which  constrains  them  to  alter  their  former  systems 
of  government.  The  history  of  the  present  King  of  Great  Britain  is  a  history  of 
repeated  injuries  and  usurpations,  all  having  in  direct  object  the  establishment  of 
an  absolute  tyranny  over  these  states.  To  prove  this,  let  facts  be  submitted  to  a 
candid  world. 

He  has  refused  his  assent  to  laws  the  most  wholesome  and  necessary  for  the 
public  good. 

He  has  forbidden  his  governors  to  pass  laws  of  immediate  and  pressing  impor 
tance,  unless  suspended  in  their  operation  till  his  assent  should  be  obtained ;  and 
when  so  suspended,  he  has  utterly  neglected  to  attend  to  them. 

He  has  refused  to  pass  other  laws  for  the  accommodation  of  large  districts  of 
people,  unless  those  people  would  relinquish  the  right  of  representation  in  the  legis 
lature  —  a  right  inestimable  to  them,  and  formidable  to  tyrants  only. 

He  has  called  together  legislative  bodies  at  places  unusual,  uncomfortable,  and 
distant  from  the  depository  of  their  public  records,  for  the  sole  purpose  of  fatiguing 
them  into  compliance  with  his  measure. 

He  has  dissolved  representative  houses  repeatedly,  for  opposing,  with  manly 
firmness,  his  invasions  on  the  rights  of  the  people. 

He  has  refused,  for  a  long  time  after  such  dissolutions,  to  cause  others  to  be 
elected,  whereby  the  legislative  powers,  incapable  of  annihilation,  have  returned  to 
the  people  at  large  for  their  exercise  ;  the  State  remaining,  in  the  mean  time,  exposed 
to  all  the  dangers  of  invasions  from  without,  and  convulsions  within. 

He  has  endeavored  to  prevent  the  population  of  these  States ;  for  that  purpose 
obstructing  the  laws  for  the  naturalization  of  foreigners ;  refusing  to  pass  others  to 
encourage  their  migration  hither,  and  raising  the  conditions  of  new  appropriations 
of  lands. 

He  has  obstructed  the  administration  of  justice,  by  refusing  his  assent  to  laws 
for  establishing  judiciary  powers. 

He  has  made  judges  dependent  on  his  will  alone  for  the  tenure  of  their  offices, 
and  the  amount  and  payment  of  their  salaries. 


DECLARATION    OF    INDEPENDENCE.  Ill 

He  has  erected  a  multitude  of  new  offices,  and  sent  hither  swarms  of  officers  to 
harass  our  people  and  eat  out  their  substance. 

He  has  kept  among  us  in  times  of  peace,  standing  armies,  without  the  consent 
of  our  legislatures. 

He  has  affected  to  render  the  military  independent  of,  and  superior  to,  the  civil 
power. 

He  has  combined  with  others  to  subject  us  to  a  jurisdiction  foreign  to  our  con 
stitutions,  and  unacknowledged  by  our  laws ;  giving  his  assent  to  their  acts  of  pre 
tended  legislation : 

For  quartering  large  bodies  of  armed  troops  among  us ; 

For  protecting  them,  by  a  mock  trial,  from  punishment  for  any  murders  which 
they  should  commit  on  the  inhabitants  of  these  States ; 

For  cutting  off  our  trade  with  all  parts  of  the  world ; 

'For  imposing  taxes  on  us  without  our  consent ; 
For  depriving  us,  in  many  cases,  of  the  benefits  of  trial  by  jury  ; 

For  transporting  us  beyond  seas,  to  be  tried  for  pretended  offences  ; 

For  abolishing  the  free  system  of  English  laws  in  a  neighboring  province,  estab 
lishing  therein  an  arbitrary  government,  and  enlarging  its  boundaries,  so  as  to 
render  it  at  once  an  example  and  fit  instrument  for  introducing  the  same  absolute 
rule  into  these  colonies ; 

For  taking  away  our  charters,  abolishing  our  most  valuable  laws,  and  altering, 
fundamentally,  the  forms  of  our  governments  ; 

For  suspending  our  own  legislatures,  and  declaring  themselves  invested  with 
power  to  legislate  for  us  in  all  cases  whatsoever. 

He  has  abdicated  government  here,  by  declaring  us  out  of  his  protection,  and 
waging  war  against  us. 

He  has  plundered  our  seas,  ravaged  our  coasts,  burned  our  towns,  and  destroyed 
the  lives  of  our  people. 

He  is  at  this  time  transporting  large  armies  of  foreign  mercenaries  to  complete 
the  works  of  death,  desolation,  and  tyranny,  already  begun  with  circumstances  of 
cruelty  and  perfidy  scarcely  paralleled  in  the  most  barbarous  ages,  and  totally 
unworthy  the  head  of  a  civilized  nation. 

He  has  constrained  our  fellow-citizens,  taken  captive  on  the  high  seas,  to  bear 
arms  against  their  country,  to  become  the  executioners  of  their  friends  and  brethren, 
or  to  fall  themselves  by  their  hands. 

He  has  excited  domestic  insurrection  among  us,  and  has  endeavored  to  bring 
on  the  inhabitants  of  our  frontiers  the  merciless  Indian  savages,  whose  known  rule 
of  warfare  is  an  undistinguished  destruction  of  all  ages,  sexes,  and  conditions. 

In  every  stage  of  these  oppressions  we  have  petitioned  for  redress  in  the  most 
humble  terms ;  our  repeated  petitions  have  been  answered  only  by  repeated  injury. 
A  prince  whose  character  is  thus  marked  by  every  act  which  may  define  a  tyrant,  is 
unfit  to  be  the  ruler  of  a  free  people. 

Nor  have  we  been  wanting  in  our  attentions  to  our  British  brethren.  We  have 
warned  them,  from  time  to  time,  of  attempts  by  their  legislature  to  extend  an 
unwarrantable  jurisdiction  over  us.  We  have  reminded  them  of  the  circumstances 
of  our  emigration  and  settlement  here.  We  have  appealed  to  their  native  justice 


IV 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


and  magnanimity;  and  we  have  conjured  them,  by  the  ties  of  our  common  kin 
dred,  to  disavow  these  usurpations,  which  would  inevitably  interrupt  our  connec 
tions  and  correspondence.  They,  too,  have  been  deaf  to  the  voice  of  justice  and 
consanguinity.  We  must,  therefore,  acquiesce  in  the  necessity  which  denounces 
our  separation,  and  hold  them,  as  we  hold  the  rest  of  mankind,  enemies  in  war,  in 
peace  friends. 

We,  therefore,  the  Representatives  of  the  United  States  of  America,  in  General 
Congress  assembled,  appealing  to  the  Supreme  Judge  of  the  world  for  the  recti 
tude  of  our  intentions,  do,  in  the  name  and  by  the  authority  of  the  good  people  of 
these  colonies,  solemnly  publish  and  declare,  That  these  united  Colonies  are,  and 
of  right  ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  states ;  that  they  are  absolved  from  all 
allegiance  to  the  British  crown,  and  that  all  political  connection  between  them  and 
the  state  of  Great  Britain  is,  and  ought  to  be,  totally  dissolved;  and  that,  as  free 
and  independent  states,  they  have  full  power  to  levy  war,  conclude  peace,  contract 
alliances,  establish  commerce,  and  do  all  other  acts  and  things  which  independent 
states  may  of  right  do.  And,  for  the  support  of  this  declaration,  with  a  firm  reliance 
on  the  protection  of  Divine  Providence,  we  mutually  pledge  to  each  other  our  lives, 
our  fortunes,  and  our  sacred  honor. 


The  foregoing  Declaration  was,  by  order  of  Congress,  engrossed,  and  signed  by 
the  following  members :  — 


NEW    HAMPSHIRE. 

JOSIAH  BARTLETT, 
WILLIAM  WHIFFLE, 
MATTHEW  THORNTON. 

MASSACHUSETTS  BAY, 

SAMUEL  ADAMS, 
JOHN  ADAMS, 
ROBERT  TREAT  PAINE, 
ELBRIDGE  GERRY. 

RHODE   ISLAND. 

STEPHEN  HOPKINS, 
WILLIAM  ELLERY. 

CONNECTICUT. 

ROGER  SHERMAN, 
SAMUEL  HUNTINGTON, 
WILLIAM  WILLIAMS, 
OLIVER  WOLCOTT. 

NEW  YORK. 

WILLIAM  FLOYD, 
PHILIP  LIVINGSTON, 
FRANCIS  LEWIS, 
LEWIS  MORRIS. 


JOHN   HANCOCK. 

NEW   JERSEY. 
RICHARD  STOCKTON, 
JOHN  WITHERSPOON, 
FRANCIS  HOPKINSON, 
JOHN  HART, 
ABRAHAM  CLARK. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 
ROBERT  MORRIS, 
BENJAMIN  RUSH, 
BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN, 
JOHN  MORTON, 
GEORGE  CLYMER, 
JAMES  SMITH, 
GEORGE  TAYLOR, 
JAMES  WILSON, 
GEORGE  Ross. 

DELAWARE. 
C/ESAR  RODNEY, 
GEORGE  READ, 
THOMAS  M'KEAN. 

MARYLAND. 
SAMUEL  CHASE, 
WILLIAM  PACA, 
THOMAS  STONE, 


CHARLES  CARROLL,   of    Car- 
rollton. 

VIRGINIA. 
GEORGE  WYTHE, 
RICHARD  HENRY  LEE, 
THOMAS  JEFFERSON, 
BENJAMIN  HARRISON, 
THOMAS  NELSON,  JR., 
FRANCIS  LIGHTFOOT  LEE, 
CARTER  BRAXTON. 

NORTH   CAROLINA. 
WILLIAM  HOOPER, 
JOSEPH  HEWES, 
JOHN  PENN. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

EDWARD  RUTLEDGE, 
THOMAS  HAYWARD,  JR., 
THOMAS  LYNCH,  JR., 
ARTHUR  MIDDLETON. 

GEORGIA. 

BUTTON  GWINNETT, 
LYMAN  HALL, 
GEORGE  WALTON. 


DECLARATION    OF    INDEPENDENCE.  V 

Resolved,  That  copies  of  the  Declaration  be;  sent  to  the  several  assemblies,  con 
ventions,  and  committees,  or  councils  of  safety,  and  to  the  several  commanding 
officers  of  the  continental  troops;  that  it  be  proclaimed  in  each  of  the  United 
States,  at  the  head  of  the  army. 


VI  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


CONSTITUTION    OF  THE  UNITED   STATES.1 

WE,  the  People  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  perfect  union, 
establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the  common  defence,  pro 
mote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to  ourselves  and  our 
posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish  this  CONSTITUTION  for  the  United  States  of 
America. 

ARTICLE   I. 

SECTION  i.  All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in  a  Congress2 
of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives. 

1  Before  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  July  4, 1776,  the  Thirteen  Colonies  were  subject 
to  the  king  of  Great  Britain.    From  July  4,  1776,  the  United  States  of  America  were  governed 
by  a  Continental  or  General  Congress,  until  March  i,  1781,  when  the  states  adopted  a  con 
stitution,  called  the  "Articles  of  Confederation  and  Perpetual  Union  between  the  States." 
The  Confederation  had  no  president,  no  supreme  court ;  and  consisted  of  a  single  house  of 
Congress,  made  up  of  delegates  elected  by  the  legislatures  of  the  states.    Under  this  constitu 
tion  Congress  continued  to  govern  —  in  so  far  as  a  body  with  no  practical  authority  can  be 
said  to  govern  —  until  March  4,  1789;  but  on  May  14,  1787,  a  convention  of  delegates  from 
all  the  states,  except  Rhode  Island,  met  in  Philadelphia  "  to  form  a  more  perfect  union'1'1  (see 
the  opening  words  of  the  Constitution  above).    The  whole  number  of  delegates  that  attended 
was  fifty-five,  but  only  thirty-nine  signed  the  Constitution.    The  Articles  of  Confederation 
had  been  made  by  the  States  only ;  but  as  the  opening  words  of  the  new  compact  declare, 
"We,  the  People"  made  the  Constitution. 

George  Washington  presided  over  the  convention,  and  Benjamin  Franklin,  Robert  Morris, 
James  Madison,  Rufus  King,  Roger  Sherman,  Alexander  Hamilton,  John  Dickinson,  Charles 
C.  Pinckney,  Charles  Pinckney,  J.  Rutledge,  and  Gouverneur  Morris,  were  among  its  distin 
guished  members. 

Madison,  Hamilton,  Washington,  and  Franklin  took  the  leading  part  in  the  great  work  of 
drafting  the  new  Constitution,  and  after  its  adoption  by  the  convention,  Madison  and  Hamil 
ton  used  their  influence,  with  great  effect,  to  urge  its  ratification  by  the  states,  especially  by 
New  York  (see  their  papers  in  the  Federalist). 

After  a  stormy  session  of  nearly  four  months,  during  which  the  convention  several  times 
threatened  to  break  up  in  hopeless  dispute,  the  Constitution  was  at  last  adopted.  (For  the 
compromises  on  which  it  rested,  see  page  192,  note  3.) 

While  the  members  of  the  convention  were  signing  the  Constitution  (for  its  leading  pro 
visions,  see  page  194),  the  venerable  Dr.  Franklin,  then  aged  eighty-one,  rose  and  said  :  "  I 
have  often,  in  the  course  of  the  session,  and  the  vicissitudes  of  my  hopes  and  fears  as  to  its 
issue,  looked  at  the  sun  [painted  on  the  wall  back  of  the  president's  chair],  without  being  able 
to  tell  whether  it  was  rising  or  setting ;  but  now,  at  length,  I  have  the  happiness  to  know  that 
it  is  a  rising,  and  not  a  setting  sun." 

The  Constitution  was  then  submitted  to  the  thirteen  states.  In  1788  eleven  had  ratified 
it  (Rhode  Island  and  North  Carolina  declining  then,  though  they  gave  their  assent  before  the 
close  of  1790),  and  on  March  4,  1789,  the  new  Constitution  went  into  operation,  although, 
owing  to  delays,  Washington  was  not  inaugurated  as  the  first  President  until  April  30  of  that 
year. 

2  Congress  assembles  on  the  first  Monday  in  December;  the  session  closes,  by  custom,  at 
midnight  on  the  3d  of  the  following  March.     Each  Congress  exists  two  years. 


CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  Vll 

SECTION  2.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of  members  chosen 
every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  several  States,  and  the  electors  in  each  State 
shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of 
the  State  Legislature. 

No  person  shall  be  a  representative  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of 
twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who 
shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he  shall  be 
chosen. 

Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several  States 
which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  according  to  their  respective  numbers,1 
which  shall  be  determined  by  adding  to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons,  includ 
ing  those  bound  to  service  for  a  term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed, 
three-fifths  of  all  other  persons.2  The  actual  enumeration  shall  be  made  within 
three  years  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  and  within 
every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in  such  manner  as  they  shall  by  law  direct. 
The  number  of  representatives  shall  not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but 
each  State  shall  have  at  least  one  representative :  and  until  such  enumeration  shall 
be  made,  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose  three;  Massa 
chusetts,  eight ;  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations,  one ;  Connecticut,  five ; 
New  York,  six  ;  New  Jersey,  four ;  Pennsylvania,  eight ;  Delaware,  one  ;  Maryland, 
six;  Virginia,  ten;  North  Carolina,  five;  South  Carolina,  five;  and  Georgia,  three. 

When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State,  the  executive 
authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies. 

The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker3  and  other  officers; 
and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

SECTION  3.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two  senators 
from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  Legislature  thereof,  for  six  years ;  and  each  senator 
shall  have  one  vote. 

Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of  the  first  election, 
they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into  three  classes.  The  seats  of  the 
senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be  vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year ;  of 
the  second  class,  at  the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year ;  of  the  third  class,  at  the 
expiration  of  the  sixth  year,  so  that  one-third  may  be  chosen  every  second  year ;  and 
if  vacancies  happen  by  resignation,  or  otherwise,  during  the  recess  of  the  Legis 
lature  of  any  State,  the  executive  thereof  may  make  temporary  appointments  until 
the  next  meeting  of  the  Legislature,  which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

No  person  shall  be  a  senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of  thirty 
years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when 
elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  that  State  for  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  president  of  the  Senate,  but 
shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

1  At  present  (census  of  1890)  one  representative  is  sent  to  Congress  for  every  173,901 
persons ;  this  will  hold  good  until  1903. 

1  "  Persons  "  meaning  slaves.  This  has  been  amended  (by  Amendments  XIII.  and  XIV.), 
and  is  no  longer  in  force. 

*  The  Speaker  presides.     Other  officers  are  the  clerk,  sergeant-at-arms,  door-keeper,  etc. 


Vlll  THE    STUDENTS    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 

The  Senate  shall  choose  their  other  officers,1  and  also  a  president  pro  tempore, 
in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or  when  he  shall  exercise  the  office  of  Presi 
dent  of  the  United  States. 

The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  all  impeachments :  When  sitting 
for  that  purpose,  they  shall  be  on  oath  or  affirmation.  When  the  President  of  the 
United  States  is  tried,  the  Chief-Justice  shall  preside:  and  no  person  shall  be  con 
victed  without  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  the  members  present. 

Judgment  in  cases  of  impeachment  shall  not  extend  further  than  to  removal 
from  office,  and  disqualification  to  hold  and  enjoy  any  office  of  honor,  trust,  or 
profit  under  the  United  States;  but  the  party  convicted  shall  nevertheless  be  liable 
and  subject  to  indictment,  trial,  judgment,  and  punishment,  according  to  law. 

SECTION  4.  The  times,  places,  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for  senators 
and  representatives  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by  the  Legislature  thereof;  but 
the  Congress  may  at  any  time,  by  law,  make  or  alter  such  regulations,  except  as  to 
the  places  of  choosing  senators. 

The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and  such  meeting  shall  be 
on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they  shall  by  law  appoint  a  different  day. 

SECTION  5.  Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  returns,  and  qualifi 
cations  of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall  constitute  a  quorum  to 
do  business ;  but  a  smaller  number  may  adjourn  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be 
authorized  to  compel  the  attendance  of  absent  members,  in  such  manner,  and  under 
such  penalties,  as  each  house  may  provide. 

Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  punish  its  members  for 
disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds,  expel  a  member. 

Each  house  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from  time  to  time  pub 
lish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their  judgment  require  secrecy,  and 
the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of  either  house  on  any  question  shall,  at  the 
desire  of  one-fifth  of  those  present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

Neither  house,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the 
other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to  any  other  place  than  that  in  which 
the  two  houses  shall  be  sitting. 

SECTION  6.  The  senators  and  representatives  shall  receive  a  compensation2  for 
their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out  of  the  treasury  of  the  United 
States.  They  shall  in  all  cases,  except  treason,  felony,  and  breach  of  the  peace,  be 
privileged  from  arrest  during  their  attendance  at  the  session  of  their  respective 
houses,  and  in  going  to  and  returning  from  the  same ;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate 
in  either  house,  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

No  senator  or  representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which  he  was  elected,  be 
appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  which  shall 
have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments  whereof  shall  have  been  increased,  during 
such  time;  and  no  person  holding  any  office  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  a 
member  of  either  house  during  his  continuance  in  office. 


1  The  chief  of  these  are  the  secretary,  sergeant-at-arms,  door-keeper,  etc. 

2  $5000  a  year,  with  twenty  cents  for  every  mile  necessarily  travelled  in  coming  to  and 
returning  from  the  Capital. 


CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  IX 

SECTION  7.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives  ;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur  with  amendments  as  on  other  bills. 

Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives  and  the  Senate, 
shall,  before  it  become  a  law,  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United  States ; 
if  he  approve,  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if  not,  he  shall  return  it,  with  his  objections,  to 
that  house  in  which  it  shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objections  at  large 
on  their  journal,  and  proceed  to  reconsider  it.  If  after  such  reconsideration,  two- 
thirds  of  that  house  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  be  sent,  together  with  the 
objections,  to  the  other  house,  by  which  it  shall  likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if 
approved  by  two-thirds  of  that  house,  it  shall  become  a  law.  But  in  all  such  cases 
the  votes  of  both  houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the 
persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  be  entered  on  the  journal  of  each  house 
respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the  President  within  ten  days 
(Sunday  excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been  presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a 
law,  in  like  manner  as  if  he  had  signed  it,  unless  the  Congress  by  their  adjourn 
ment  prevent  its  return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law. 

Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of  the  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except  on  a  question  of  adjournment) 
shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of  the  United  States ;  and  before  the  same  shall 
take  effect,  shall  be  approved  by  him,  or  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed 
by  two-thirds  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  according  to  the  rules 
and  limitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

SECTION  8.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties, 
imposts,  and  excises,  to  pay  the  debts  and  provide  for  the  common  defence  and 
general  welfare  of  the  United  States ;  but  all  duties,  imposts,  and  excises  shall  be 
uniform  throughout  the  United  States  ; 

To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States  ; 

To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the  several  States,  and 
with  the  Indian  tribes ; 

To  establish  a  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform  laws  on  the  subject 
of  bankruptcies  throughout  the  United  States  ; 

To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coin,  and  fix  the 
standard  of  weights  and  measures; 

To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities  and  current  coin 
of  the  United  States  ; 

To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads ; 

To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by  securing,  for  limited 
times,  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to  their  respective  writings  and 
discoveries ; 

To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court ; 

To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the  high  seas,  and 
offences  against  the  law  of  nations ; 

To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make  rules  concerning 
captures  on  land  and  water ; 

To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to  that  use  shall  be 
for  a  longer  term  than  two  years ; 


X  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 

To  provide  and  maintain  a  navy ; 

To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land  and  naval  forces ; 

To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of  the  Union,  suppress 
insurrections  and  repel  invasions  ; 

To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  the  militia,  and  for  governing 
such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the  service  of  the  United  States,  reserving 
to  the  States  respectively  the  appointment  of  the  officers,  and  the  authority  of 
training  the  militia  according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress ; 

To  exercise  exclusive  legislation  in  all  cases  whatsoever  over  such  district  (not 
exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of  particular  States,  and  the  accept 
ance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  and  to 
exercise  like  authority  over  all  places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the  Legislature 
of  the  State  in  which  the  same  shall  be,  for  the  erection  of  forts,  magazines,  arsenals, 
dockyards,  and  other  needful  buildings ;  —  And 

To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carrying  into  execu 
tion  the  foregoing  powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this  Constitution  in  the 
government  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  department  or  officer  thereof. 

SECTION  9.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any  of  the  States 
now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be  prohibited  by  the  Congress 
prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight,  but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be 
imposed  on  such  importation,  not  exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each  person.! 

The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  suspended,  unless  when 
in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety  may  require  it. 

No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex-post-facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

No  capitation  or  other  direct  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  proportion  to  the  census 
or  enumeration  herein  before  directed  to  be  taken. 

No  tax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  State. 

No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or  revenue  to  the 
ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another ;  nor  shall  vessels  bound  to,  or  from,  one 
State,  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay  duties  in  another. 

No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury  but  in  consequence  of  appropriations 
made  by  law ;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account  of  the  receipts  and  expenditures 
of  all  public  money  shall  be  published  from  time  to  time. 

No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States  :  And  no  person  hold 
ing  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them,  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress, 
accept  of  any  present,  emolument,  office,  or  title,  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any 
king,  prince,  or  foreign  state. 

SECTION  10.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  confederation; 
grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal ;  coin  money ;  emit  bills  of  credit ;  make  any 
thing  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in  payment  of  debts  ;  pass  any  bill  of  attain 
der,  ex-post-facto  law,  or  law  impairing  the  obligation  of  contracts,  or  grant  any  title 
of  nobility. 

No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any  impost  or  duties  on 
imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  absolutely  necessary  for  executing  its 

1  "  Person"  meaning  slave ;  referring  to  the  foreign  slave-trade,  abolished  in  1808. 


CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  XI 

inspection  laws ;  and  the  net  produce  of  all  duties  and  impost,  laid  by  any  State  on 
imports  or  exports,  shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States ;  and  all 
such  laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of  the  Congress. 

No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty  of  tonnage,  keep 
troops,  or  ships-of-war,  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into  any  agreement  or  compact  with 
another  State,  or  with  a  foreign  power,  or  engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded, 
or  in  such  imminent  danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

ARTICLE  II. 

SECTION  i.  The  executive  power  shall  be  vested  in  a  President  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  He  shall  hold  his  office  during  the  term  of  four  years,  and, 
together  with  the  Vice-President;  chosen  for  the  same  term,  be  elected,  as  follows : 

Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  Legislature  thereof  may  direct, 
a  number  of  electors,  equal  to  the  whole  number  of  senators  and  representatives  to 
which  the  State  may  be  entitled  in  the  Congress :  but  no  senator  or  representative, 
or  person  holding  an  office  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be 
appointed  an  elector. 

[The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  two 
persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with 
themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all  the  persons  voted  for,  and  of  the  num 
ber  of  votes  for  each ;  which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify  and  transmit  sealed  to 
the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  president  of  the 
Senate.  The  president  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House 
of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The 
person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number 
be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed ;  and  if  there  be  more 
than  one  who  have  such  majority,  and  have  an  equal  number  of  votes,  then  the 
House  of  Representatives  shall  immediately  choose  by  ballot  one  of  them  for  Presi 
dent  ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from  the  five  highest  on  the  list  the 
said  house  shall,  in  like  manner,  choose  the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  Presi 
dent,  the  votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having 
one  vote ;  a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from 
two-thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice. 
In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of  the  President,  the  person  having  the  greatest  num 
ber  of  votes  of  the  electors  shall  be  the  Vice-President.  But  if  there  should  remain 
two  or  more  who  have  equal  votes,  the  Senate  shall  choose  from  them  by  ballot  the 
Vice-President.i] 

The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  electors,  and  the  day  on 
which  they  shall  give  their  votes;  which  day  shall  be  the  same  throughout  the 
United  States.2 

1  This  paragraph  in  brackets  has  been  set  aside  by  the  XII.  Amendment. 

1  The  electors  are  chosen  on  the  Tuesday  following  the  first  Monday  in  November,  next 
before  the  expiration  of  a  presidential  term.  They  vote  (by  Act  of  Congress  of  Feb.  3,  1887) 
on  the  second  Monday  in  January  following,  for  President  and  Vice-President.  The  votes 
are  counted,  and  declared  in  Congress  on  the  second  Wednesday  of  the  next  February. 


Xll  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 

No  person  except  a  natural  born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  at  the 
time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  eligible  to  the  office  of  President ; 
neither  shall  any  person  be  eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have  attained  to 
the  age  of  thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years  resident  within  the  United 
States. 

In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his  death,  resignation, 
or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties  of  the  said  office,  the  same  shall 
devolve  on  the  Vice-President,  and  the  Congress  may  by  law  provide  for  the  case 
of  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice-Presi 
dent,  declaring  what  officer  shall  then  act  as  President ;  and  such  officer  shall  act 
accordingly  until  the  disability  be  removed,  or  a  President  shall  be  elected. 

The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services  a  compensation  * 
which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished  during  the  period  for  which  he 
shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall  not  receive  within  that  period  any  other 
emolument  from  the  United  States,  or  any  of  them. 

Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  office,  he  shall  take  the  following  oath  or 
affirmation :  —  "I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  affirm)  that  I  will  faithfully  execute  the 
office  of  President  of  the  United  States,  and  will,  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve, 
protect,  and  defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 

SECTION  2.  The  President  shall  be  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  and  navy  of 
the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several  States,  when  called  into  the  actual 
service  of  the  United  States;  he  may  require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal 
officer  in  each  of  the  executive  departments,  upon  any  subject  relating  to  the  duties 
of  their  respective  offices ;  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant  reprieves  and  pardons 
for  offences  against  the  United  States,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment. 

He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate,  to  make 
treaties,  provided  two-thirds  of  the  senators  present  concur ;  and  he  shall  nominate, 
and  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  Senate  shall  appoint  ambassadors, 
other  public  ministers  and  consuls,  judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other 
officers  of  the  United  States,  whose  appointments  are  not  herein  otherwise  provided 
for,  and  which  shall  be  established  by  law :  but  the  Congress  may  by  law  vest  the 
appointment  of  such  inferior  officers,  as  they  think  proper,  in  the  President  alone, 
in  the  courts  of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

The  President  shall  have  power  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that  may  happen  during 
the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions  which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of 
their  next  session. 

SECTION  3.  He  shall  from  time  to  time  give  to  the  Congress  information  2  of  the 
state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  consideration  such  measures  as  he 
shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient ;  he  may,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  convene 
both  houses,  or  either  of  them,  and  in  case  of  disagreement  between  them  with 
respect  to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as  he  shall 


1  The  President  now  receives  $50,000  a  year ;  the  Vice-President,  $8000.  Previous  to 
1873  the  President  received  but  $25,000  a  year. 

1  The  Presidents,  beginning  with  Jefferson,  have  done  this  by  messages  sent  to  Congress. 
Washington  and  Adams  read  speeches  or  messages  to  that  body. 


CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  Xlll 

think  proper;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors  and  other  public  ministers;  he  shall 
take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed,  and  shall  commission  all  the  officers 
of  the  United  States. 

SECTION  4.  The  President,  Vice-President,  and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United 
States,  shall  be  removed  from  office  on  impeachment  for,  and  conviction  of,  treason, 
bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE   III. 

SECTION  i.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  be  vested  in  one 
Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may  from  time  to  time 
ordain  and  establish.  The  judges,  both  of  the  Supreme  and  inferior  courts,  shall 
hold  their  offices  during  good  behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  their 
services  a  compensation  which  shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  continuance  in 
office. 

SECTION  2.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law  and  equity, 
arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United  States,  and  treaties  made,  or 
which  shall  be  made,  under  their  authority ;  —  to  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors, 
other  public  ministers,  and  consuls ;  —  to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  juris 
diction  ; —  to  controversies  to  which  the  United  States  shall  be  a  party;  —  to  con 
troversies  between  two  or  more  States;  —  between  a  State  and  citizens  of  another 
State ;  *  —  between  citizens  of  different  States ;  —  between  citizens  of  the  same  State 
claiming  lands  under  grants  of  different  States,  and  between  a  State,  or  the  citizens 
thereof,  and  foreign  states,  citizens  or  subjects. 

In  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and  consuls,  and  those 
in  which  a  State  shall  be  party,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  original  jurisdiction. 
In  all  other  cases  before  mentioned,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  juris 
diction,  both  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions  and  under  such  regulations 
as  the  Congress  shall  make. 

The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall  be  by  jury;  and 
such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said  crimes  shall  have  been  committed  ; 
but  when  not  committed  within  any  State,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or  places 
as  the  Congress  may  by  law  have  directed. 

SECTION  3.  Treason  against  the  United  States  shall  consist  only  in  levying  war 
against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them  aid  and  comfort. 

No  person  shall  be  convicted  of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony  of  two  witnesses 
to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open  court. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishment  of  treason,  but  no 
attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood,  or  forfeiture,  except  during  the 
life  of  the  person  attainted. 

ARTICLE  IV. 

SECTION  i.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to  the  public  acts, 
records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other  State.  And  the  Congress  may  by 

1  But  compare  Amendment  XI. 


XIV  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 

general  laws,  prescribe  the  manner  in  which  such  acts,  records,  and  proceedings 
shall  be  proved,  and  the  effect  thereof. 

SECTION  2.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all  privileges  and 
immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other  crime,  who  shall 
flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State,  shall,  on  demand  of  the  executive 
authority  of  the  State  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed  to  the 
State  having  jurisdiction  of  the  crime. 

No  person  1  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the  laws  thereof,  escaping 
into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or  regulation  therein,  be  discharged 
from  such  service  or  labor,  but  shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom 
such  service  or  labor  may  be  due. 

SECTION  3.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into  this  Union ;  but 
no  new  State  shall  be  formed  or  erected  within  the  jurisdiction  of  any  other  State  ; 
nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the  junction  of  two  or  more  States,  or  parts  of  States, 
without  the  consent  of  the  Legislatures  of  the  States  concerned  as  well  as  of  the 
Congress. 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all  needful  rules  and 
regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other  property  belonging  to  the  United 
States ;  and  nothing  in  this  Constitution  shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any 
claims  of  the  United  States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 

SECTION  4.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this  Union  a 
republican  form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of  them  against  invasion, 
and  on  application  of  the  Legislature,  or  of  the  Executive  (when  the  Legislature 
cannot  be  convened)  against  domestic  violence. 

ARTICLE  V. 

The  Congress,  whenever  two-thirds  of  both  houses  shall  deem  it  necessary,  shall 
propose  amendments  to  this  Constitution,  or,  on  the  application  of  the  Legisla 
tures  of  two-thirds  of  the  several  States,  shall  call  a  convention  for  proposing 
amendments,  which,  in  either  case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  as 
part  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratified  by  the  Legislatures  of  three-fourths  of  the 
several  States,  or  by  conventions  in  three-fourths  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other 
mode  of  ratification  may  be  proposed  by  the  Congress;  provided  that  no  amend 
ment  which  may  be  made  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight 
shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth  section  of  the 
first  article  ;  and  that  no  State,  without  its  consent,  shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal 
suffrage  in  the  Senate. 

ARTICLE  VI. 

All  debts  contracted,  and  engagements  entered  into,  before  the  adoption  of  this 
Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid  against  the  United  States  under  this  Constitution,  as 
under  the  confederation. 

1  "  Person  "  here  means  slave.  This  was  the  original  Fugitive  Slave  Law.  It  now  has  no 
force,  since,  by  Amendment  XIII.  to  the  Constitution,  slavery  is  prohibited. 


CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES. 


XV 


This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which  shall  be  made  in 
pursuance  thereof ;  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  the 
authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  the  supreme  law  of  the  land;  and  the 
judges  in  every  State  shall  be  bound  thereby,  anything  in  the  Constitution  or  laws 
of  any  State  to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

The  senators  and  representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the  members  of  the 
several  State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and  judicial  officers,  both  of  the  United 
States  and  of  the  several  States,  shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  affirmation  to  support 
this  Constitution ;  but  no  religious  test  shall  ever  be  required  as  a  qualification  to 
any  office  or  public  trust  under  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  VII. 

The  ratification  of  the  Conventions  of  nine  States  shall  be  sufficient  for  the  estab 
lishment  of  this  Constitution  between  the  States  so  ratifying  the  same. 

Done  in  conventions,  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States  present,  the 
seventeenth  day  of  September,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  one  thousand 
seven  hundred  and  eighty-seven,  and  of  the  independence  of  the 
United  States  of  America  the  twelfth. 

In  witness  whereof,  we  have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names. 


GEORGE   WASHINGTON, 
President,  and  Deputy  from  Virginia. 


NEW   HAMPSHIRE. 
JOHN  LANGDON, 
NICHOLAS  GILMAN. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
NATHANIEL  GORHAM, 
RUFUS  KING. 

CONNECTICUT. 
WILLIAM  SAMUEL  JOHNSON 
ROGER  SHERMAN. 

NEW  YORK. 
ALEXANDER  HAMILTON. 

NEW   JERSEY. 
WILLIAM  LIVINGSTON, 
DAVID  BREARLEY, 
WILLIAM  PATERSON, 
JONATHAN  DAYTON. 


PENNSYLVANIA. 
BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN, 
THOMAS  MIFFLIN, 
ROBERT  MORRIS, 
GEORGE  CLYMER, 
THOMAS  FITZSIMONS, 
JARED  INGERSOLL, 
JAMES  WILSON, 
GOUVERNEUR  MORRIS. 

DELAWARE. 
GEORGE  READ, 
GUNNING  BEDFORD,  JR., 
JOHN  DICKINSON, 
RICHARD  BASSETT, 
JACOB  BROOM. 

MARYLAND. 
JAMES  M'HENRY, 
DANIEL   OF    ST.    THOMAS 

JENIFER, 
DANIEL  CARROLL. 


VIRGINIA. 
JOHN  BLAIR, 
JAMES  MADISON,  JR. 

NORTH   CAROLINA. 

WILLIAM  BLOUNT, 
RICHARD  DOBBS  SPAIGHT, 
HUGH  WILLIAMSON. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

JOHN  RUTLEDGE, 
CHARLES  C.  PINCKNEY, 
CHARLES  PINCKNEY, 
PIERCE  BUTLER. 

GEORGIA. 

WILLIAM  FEW, 
ABRAHAM  BALDWIN. 


Attest: 


WILLIAM    JACKSON,  Secretary. 


XVI  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


AMENDMENTS 

To    THE    CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES,    RATIFIED    ACCORDING 

TO  THE   PROVISIONS  OF  THE  FlFTH  ARTICLE  OF 

THE   FOREGOING  CONSTITUTION. 

ARTICLE  I.1 — Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of 
religion,  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise  thereof ;  or  abridging  the  freedom  of  speech, 
or  of  the  press ;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to  assemble,  and  to  petition 
the  government  for  redress  of  grievances. 

ARTICLE  II.  —  A  well-regulated  militia  being  necessary  to  the  security  of  a  free 
State  the  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms  shall  not  be  infringed. 

ARTICLE  III.  —  No  soldier  shall,  in  time  of  peace,  be  quartered  in  any  house, 
without  the  consent  of  the  owner ;  nor  in  time  of  war  but  in  a  manner  to  be  pre 
scribed  by  law. 

ARTICLE  IV.  —  The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses, 
papers,  and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall  not  be  violated, 
and  no  warrants  shall  issue,  but  upon  probable  cause,  supported  by  oath  or  affir 
mation,  and  particularly  describing  the  place  to  be  searched,  and  the  persons  or 
things  to  be  seized. 

ARTICLE  V. —  No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital,  or  otherwise 
infamous  crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  grand  jury,  except  in 
cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the  militia,  when  in  actual  service  in 
time  of  war  and  public  danger ;  nor  shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the  same  offence 
to  be  twice  put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb ;  nor  shall  be  compelled  in  any  criminal 
_  case  to  be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor  to  be  deprived  of  life,  liberty,  or  property, 
without  due  process  of  law;  nor  shall  private  property  be  taken  for  public  use, 
without  just  compensation. 

ARTICLE  VI.  —  In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to 
a  speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and  district  wherein  the 
crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district  shall  have  been  previously  ascer 
tained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed  of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation ;  to  be 
confronted  with  the  witnesses  against  him ;  to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtaining 
witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel  for  his  defence. 

ARTICLE  VII.  —  In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall 
exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved,  and  no  fact  tried 
by  a  jury  shall  be  otherwise  re-examined  in  any  court  of  the  United  States  than 
according  to  the  rules  of  common  law. 

ARTICLE  VIII.  —  Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed, 
nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted. 

1  The  first  ten  amendments  were  offered  in  1789,  and  adopted  before  the  close  of  1791. 
They  were  largely  the  work  of  James  Madison.  They  were  adopted,  says  Judge  Story,  in  order 
to  "more  efficiently  guard  certain  rights  already  provided  for  in  the  Constitution,  or  to  pro 
hibit  certain  exercises  of  authority  supposed  to  be  dangerous  to  the  public  interests." 


CONSTITUTION    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES.  XV11 

ARTICLE  IX.  —  The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution  of  certain  rights  shall  not 
be  construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

ARTICLE  X.  —  The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitu 
tion,  nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States  respectively,  or  to 
the  people. 

ARTICLE  XL1 — The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  con 
strued  to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted  against  any 
of  the  United  States  by  citizens  of  another  State,  or  by  citizens  or  subjects  of  any 
foreign  state. 

ARTICLE  XII.2  —  The  electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote 
by  ballot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall  not  be  an 
inhabitant  of  the  same  State  with  themselves ;  they  shall  name  in  their  ballots  the 
person  voted  for  as  President,  and  in  distinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice- 
President  ;  and  they  shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President, 
and  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number  of  votes  for  each, 
which  list  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of  the  govern 
ment  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  president  of  the  Senate  ;  —  the  president 
of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives, 
open  all  the  certificates,  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted ;  —  the  person  having 
the  greatest  number  of  votes  for  President,  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number 
be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed ;  and  if  no  person  have 
such  majority,  then  from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers  not  exceeding 
three  on  the  list  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of  Representatives  shall 
choose  immediately,  by  ballot,  the  President.  But  in  choosing  the  President,  the 
votes  shall  be  taken  by  States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote ; 
a  quorum  for  this  purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two-thirds 
of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  And  if 
the  House  of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a  President  whenever  the  right  of 
choice  shall  devolve  upon  them,  before  the  fourth  day  of  March  next  following,  then 
the  Vice-President  shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other  con 
stitutional  disability  of  the  President.  The  person  having  the  greatest  number  of 
votes  as  Vice-President,  shall  be  the  Vice-President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority 
of  the  whole  number  of  electors  appointed ;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then 
from  the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list,  the  Senate  shall  choose  the  Vice-Presi 
dent  ;  a  quorum  for  the  purpose  shall  consist  of  two-thirds  of  the  whole  number  of 
senators,  and  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  But 
no  person  constitutionally  ineligible  to  the  office  of  President  shall  be  eligible  to  that 
of  Vice-President  of  the  United  States. 

ARTICLE  XIII.3  —  Section  i.  Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except 
as  a  punishment  for  crime,  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly  convicted,  shall 
exist  within  the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject  to  their  jurisdiction. 

Section  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

1  Proposed  in  1794;  adopted  1798.  A  number  of  states  have,  at  different  times,  taken 
advantage  of  this  amendment  to  repudiate  their  debts.  *  Adopted  1804. 

3  This  confirmed  the  Proclamation  of  Emancipation  ;  it  was  adopted  in  1865. 


xviii  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

ARTICLE  XIV.1  — Section  i.  All  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United 
States,  and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United  States  and 
of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No  State  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which 
shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United  States ;  nor  shall 
any  State  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of 
law,  nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws. 

Section  2.  Representatives  shall  be  appointed  among  the  several  States  accord 
ing  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number  of  persons  in  each 
State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed.  But  when  the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for 
the  choice  of  electors  for  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  repre 
sentatives  in  Congress,  the  executive  or  judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or  the  members 
of  the  Legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male  inhabitants  of  such  State, 
being  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens  of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way 
abridged,  except  for  participation  in  rebellion  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  represen 
tation  therein  shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such  male 
citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  in 
such  State. 

Section  3.  No  person  shall  be  a  senator  or  representative  in  Congress,  or  elector 
of  President  or  Vice-President,  or  hold  any  office,  civil  or  military,  under  the  United 
States,  or  under  any  State,  who  having  previously  taken  an  oath  as  a  member  of 
Congress,  or  as  an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State  Legis 
lature,  or  as  an  executive  or  judicial  officer  of  any  State,  to  support  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States,  shall  have  engaged  in  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the 
same,  or  given  aid  or  comfort  to  the  enemies  thereof.  But  Congress  may,  by  a  vote 
of  two-thirds  of  each  house,  remove  such  disability. 

Section  4.  The  validity  of  the  public  debt  of  the  United  States,  authorized  by 
law,  including  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions  and  bounties  for  services  in 
suppressing  insurrection  or  rebellion,  shall  not  be  questioned.  But  neither  the 
United  States  nor  any  State  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  obligation  incurred  in 
aid  of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim  for  the  loss 
or  emancipation  of  any  slave ;  but  all  such  debts,  obligations,  and  claims  shall  be 
held  illegal  and  void. 

Section  5.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate  legislation,  the 
provisions  of  this  article. 

ARTICLE  XV.2  —  Section  i.  The  rights  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote 
shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States,  or  by  any  State,  on  account 
of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude. 

Section  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate 
legislation. 

1  Adopted  1868.     The  object  of  sections  i  and  2  was  to  make  the  freedmen  (negroes), 
emancipated  during  the  Civil  War,  citizens  of  the  United  States. 

2  Adopted  1870.     Its  object  was  to  give  the  freedmen  (negroes)  the  right  to  vote. 


APPENDIX. 


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A    SHORT    LIST   OF    BOOKS   ON   AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


Bibliography, 

Charming  and  Hart's  Guide  to  the  Study  of 
American  History  (1492-1865). 

Adams's  Manual  of  Historical  Literature. 

References  in  Winsor's  Narrative  and  Criti 
cal  History  of  America,  8  vols. 

Foster's  References  to  United  States  His 
tory. 

Hinsdale's  How  to  Study  and  Teach 
History. 

Historical  Geography  and  Maps. 

Hart's  Epoch  Maps  of  the  United  States 

(no  text). 
Scribner's  Statistical  Atlas  of  the   United 

States. 
MacCoun's    Historical    Geography  of   the 

United  States  (revised  edition). 
Gannett's    Boundaries    of    the  States    (no 

maps). 
Shaler's  United  States,  2  vols. 

Works  of  Reference. 

Lalor's  Cyclopaedia  of  U.  S.  History,  3  vols. 

Larned's  History  for  Ready  Reference,  5 
vols. 

Lossing's  Cyclopaedia  of  U.S.  History,  2  vols. 

Jameson's  Dictionary  of  U.  S.  History. 

Macdonald's  Select  Documents,  U.S.  His 
tory  (1776-1861). 

Richardson's  Messages,  etc  ,  of  the  Presi 
dents  (1789-1901),  10  vols. 

Rand's  Economic  History  since  1763. 

Harper's  Book  of  Facts. 

Appleton's  Annual  Cyclopaedia  (from  1876). 

Poole's  Index  to  Reviews. 

Jones's  Index  to  Legal  Periodicals. 

Index  to  Congressional  Documents. 

The  American  Historical  Review. 

The  Magazine  of  American  History. 

The  Magazine  of  Western  History. 

Harper's  First  Century  of  the  Republic. 


The  Yale  Review. 

The  North  American  Review  for  1876. 

The  Johns  Hopkins  University  Studies. 

The  Political  Science  Quarterly. 

The  Harvard  Historical  Studies. 

The  Columbia  University  Studies. 

American  State  Papers,  50  vols. 

The  Papers  of  the  American  Historical 
Association. 

The  Papers  of  the  American  Antiquarian 
Society. 

The  American  Academy  of  Political  and 
Social  Science. 

Debates  in  Parliament. 

Parliamentary  History. 

Appleton's  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Biogra 
phy,  6  vols. 

The  National  Cyclopaedia  of  American  Bi 
ography,  6  vols. 

The  Collections  of  State  Historical  Societies. 

Colonial  Records. 

Sparks's  American  Biography,  25  vols. 

Morse's  American  Statesman,  25  vols.  (in 
progress). 

Scudder's  American  Commonwealths,  13 
vols.  (in  progress). 

Bishop's  American  Manufactures,  2  vols. 

Boone's  Education  in  the  United  States. 

Richardson's  American  Literature,  2  vols. 

Wright's  Industrial  Evolution  of  the  United 
States. 

Bryce's  American  Commonwealth,  2  vols. 
(revised  edition). 

Hubert's  Inventors. 

The  Tribune  Almanac. 

Niles's  Register  (1811-1849),  76  vols. 

The  Atlantic  Magazine. 

The  North  American  Review. 

The  Forum. 

The  Nation. 

Scribner's  Magazine. 

The  Century  Magazine. 

Harper's  Magazine. 

The  Statesman's  Year-Book. 


SHORT    LIST    OF    BOOKS    ON    AMERICAN    HISTORY.        XXV 


Constitutional  and  Political  History. 

Von  Hoist's  Constitutional  History  of  the 
United  States  (to  1861),  9  vols. 

Bryce's  American  Commonwealth,  2  vols. 
(revised  edition). 

Elliot's  Debates  in  the  Constitutional  Con 
vention,  3  vols. 

Foster's  Commentaries  on  the  Constitution, 
2  vols. 

Landon's  Constitutional  History. 

Poore's  State  Charters  and  Constitutions,  2 
vols. 

Benton's  Abridgment  of  Congressional  De 
bates  (1789-1850),  16  vols. 

Wheeler's  History  of  Congress,  2  vols. 

The  Congressional  Globe. 

The  Congressional  Record. 

Moore's  History  of  Congress. 

Hazard's  State  Papers  (1492-1767),  2  vols. 

Pickering's  (English)  Statutes  at  Large, 
109  vols. 

Force's  American  Archives(i774-i783),9  vols. 

The  Federalist. 

Preston's  Documents  illustrative  of  Ameri 
can  History. 

Williams's  Statesman's  Manual  (1789-1847), 

2  vols. 

Johnston's  American  Politics. 
Stanwood's  Presidential  Elections. 
Carson's  History  of  the  United  States  Court. 
Boutwell's  The  Constitution  at  the  End  of 

the    Century.       (U.    S.    Supreme    Court 

decisions.) 
United    States   Statutes  (and  Treaties)  at 

Large,  28  vols.  (in  progress). 
Bolles's    Financial    History  of  the  United 

States,  2  vols. 

Sumner's  American  Currency. 
Taussig's  Tariff  History. 
Mason's  History  of  the  Veto  Power. 
Laughlin's  Bimetallism  (revised  edition). 
Walker's  International  Bimetallism. 
Mead's    Old    South    Leaflets,   75  nos.   (in 

progress). 
Hart    and    Channing's    American    History 

Leaflets,  24  nos.  (in  progress). 
White's  Money  and  Banking. 
Cooper's  American  Politics. 
Wilson's  The  State. 
Scott's  Constitutional  Liberty. 
Wilson's  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Slave  Power, 

3  vols. 


Adams's  British  Orations,  3  vols. 

Johnston's  American  Orations,  4  vols. 

McPherson's  Political  History  of  the  Rebel 
lion. 

McPherson's  Political  History  of  Recon 
struction. 

McPherson's  Handbook  of  Politics  (from 
1870),  13  double  vols.  (in  progress). 

The  Collected  Works  of  Franklin,  Wash 
ington,  Jefferson,  Hamilton,  Jay,  John 
Adams,  Madison,  Morris,  Clay,  Calhoun, 
Webster,  Lincoln,  Seward,  and  Sumner. 

Memoirs  of  J.  Q.  Adams  (1795-1848),  12  vols. 

Ingersoll's  Recollections  (1792-1803),  2  vols. 

Benton's  Thirty  Years  in  the  Senate  (1820- 
1850),  2  vols. 

Wise's  Seven  Decades  (1790-1862). 

Elaine's  Twenty  Years  in  Congress  (1861- 
1881),  2  vols. 

Sargent's  Public  Men  and  Events  (1817- 
1895),  2  vols. 

Julian's  Political  Recollections  (1840-1872). 

McCulloch's  Men  and  Measures  of  Half  a 
Century  (1833-1883). 

Cox's  Three  Decades  (1855-1885). 

Chittenden's  Personal  Reminiscences  (1840- 
1890). 

Sherman's  Recollections  (1855-1895),  2  vols. 

Thompson's  Recollections  of  Sixteen  Presi 
dents  (1789-1865),  2  vols. 

Histories  of  the  United  States  in 
General. 

Scribner's    United   States   (Bryant  &   Gay 

revised)  (1492-1896),  5  vols. 
Hart's  Epochs  of  American  History  (1492- 

1889),  3  vols. 
Scribner's  American  History  Series  (1492- 

1889),  5  vols. 
Higginson's  Larger  History  of  the  United 

States  (1492-1837). 

Goldwin  Smith's  United  States  (1492-1871). 
Andrews's  United  States  (1492-1890),  2  vols. 
Winsor's  Narrative  and  Critical  History  of 

America  (1000-1850),  8  vols. 
Schouler's  United  States  (1783-1861),  5  vols. 
Bancroft's  United  States  (1492-1789),  6  vols. 
H.  H.  Bancroft's  Pacific  States,  34  vols. 
Hildreth's  United  States  (1492-1821),  6  vols. 
Johnston's   United   States   (reprinted  with 

additions  from  the  Encyclopaedia  Britan- 

nica  (1492-1889). 


XXVI 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


Tucker's  United  States  (1607-1841),  3  vols. 
McMaster's    United  States,    (1784-1861),  4 

vols.  (in  progress). 

Adams's  United  States  (1801-1817),  9  vols. 
Moireau's  Des  Etats-Unis  (1492-1800),  2  vols. 
Rhodes's  United  States  (1850-1865)  3  vols. 

(in  progress). 
Hart's  American   History  as  told  by  Con 

temporaries,  4  vols.  (in  progress). 

I.  PERIOD  OF  DISCOVERY  (1492- 

1521). 

§Major's  Select  Letters  of  Columbus. 
§Hakluyt's  Divers  Voyages. 

Winsor's  Columbus. 

Markham's  Columbus. 

Harrisse's  Discovery  of  America. 

Fiske's  Discovery  of  North  America,  2  vols. 

Winsor's  America,  vols.  I.  -III. 

II.  PERIOD  OF  EXPLORATION  AND 
SPANISH  COLONIZATION  OF 

AMERICA  (1509-1587). 

Irving's  Companions  of  Columbus,  2  vols. 

H.  H.  Bancroft's  Pacific  States,  34  vols. 
§De  Soto's  Conquest  of  Florida  (Hakluyt). 

Parkman's  Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New 
World. 

Cooke's  Virginia. 
§Hakluyt's  Voyages  (Goldsmid),  vol.  XIII. 

pp.  169-276  (reasons  for  colonization). 
§Hart's  Contemporaneous  History. 

Winsor's  America,  vols.  II.  -III. 

Edward's  Sir  Walter  Raleigh. 
On  the  Indians  : 

Ellis's  The  Red  Man  and  the  White. 

Schoolcraft's  Indian  Tribes,  6  vols. 

Morgan's  League  of  the  Iroquois. 

Colden's  Five  Nations. 

Parkman's  Conspiracy  of   Pontiac   (chap. 


III.    PERIOD  OF  PERMANENT  ENG 

LISH  AND  FRENCH  SETTLE 

MENTS  (1607-1763). 

Scribner's  United  States,  5  vols. 
Winsor's  America,  8  vols. 


Doyle's  The  English  in  America,  3  vols. 

Parkman's  Pioneers  of  France  in  the  New 
World. 

Eggleston's  The  Beginners  of  a  Nation. 

Eggleston's  Articles  in  the  Century,  vols. 
III.-VIII. 

Thwaite's  Colonies. 

Fisher's  Colonial  Period. 

Lodge's  English  Colonies. 

Parkman's  Frontenac. 

Parkman's  Old  Regime  in  Canada. 

Parkman's  Jesuits  in  North  America. 

Parkman's  Half  Century  of  Conflict,  2  vols. 

Parkman's  Montcalm  and  Wolfe,  2  vols. 

Winsor's  Mississippi  Basin. 
§Force's  North  American  Colonies,  4  vols. 

Seeley's  Expansion  of  England. 

Lecky's  England   in  the   i8th  Century,  8 
vols. 

Chalmer's  Annals  of  the  Colonies. 

Chalmer's  Revolt  of  the  Colonies,  2  vols. 

Goldwin  Smith's  American  Colonies. 
§Captain    John    Smith's    Works    (Arber's 

edition). 
§Brown's    Genesis    of    the    United    States 

(1607-1616),  2  vols. 
§Beverly's  Virginia  (1584-1720). 
§Stith's  Virginia  (1607-1747). 
§Jefferson's  Notes  on  Virginia. 
§Neill's  Virginia  Company. 
§Neill's  Virginia  Vetusta. 
§Neill's  Virginia  Carolorum. 
§Hening's  Statutes  (1619-1792),  13  vols. 

Bruce's  Economic   History  of  Virginia,  2 
vols. 

Cooke's  Virginia. 

The  Virginia  Magazine  of  History,  etc.  (in 

progress). 
§Brodhead's  New  York  (1664-1691),  2  vols. 

Roberts's  New  York,  2  vols. 

Wilson's  City  of  New  York,  4  vols. 

Lamb's  City  of  New  York,  2  vols. 

Palfrey's  New  England,  5  vols. 
§Winthrop's  New  England,  2  vols. 

Fiske's  Beginnings  of  New  England. 

Weeden's  Economic  History  of  New  Eng 
land,  2  vols. 

§Bradford's  History  of  Plymouth. 
§Arber's  Story  of  the  Pilgrims. 
§Young's  Chronicle   of  the  Pilgrims. 

Goodwin's  Pilgrim  Republic. 


§  Contemporaneous  or  Early  History. 


SHORT    LIST    OF    BOOKS    ON    AMERICAN    HISTORY.       XXV11 


Barry's  Massachusetts,  3  vols. 
§Lowell   Lectures  (1869)  on   Early   Massa 
chusetts. 
§Young's   Chronicles  of  Massachusetts  Bay. 

Ellis's  Puritan  Age  in  Massachusetts. 
§Hutchinson's  Massachusetts,  3  vols. 

Oliver's  Puritan  Commonwealth. 

Thornton's  Reply  to  Oliver. 

Adams's  Emancipation  of  Massachusetts. 

Adams's  Three  Episodes  in  the  History  of 

Massachusetts,  2  vols. 
§Mather's  Magnalia. 
§Sewall's  Diary  (1674-1729),  3  vols. 

Winsor's  Memorial  History  of  Boston,  4 
vols. 

Arnold's  Rhode  Island,  2  vols. 

Greene's  Rhode  Island. 

Trumbull's  Connecticut,  2  vols. 

Johnston's  Connecticut. 

Sanborn's  New  Hampshire. 

Belknap's  New  Hampshire,  2  vols. 

Browne's  Maryland. 

Scharf's  Maryland,  3  vols. 
§Proud's  Pennsylvania  (1681-1742),  2  vols. 

Fisher's  Making  of  Pennsylvania. 

Fisher's  Colony  and  Commonwealth  of 
Pennsylvania. 

Scharf  and  Westcott's  Philadelphia. 

The  Pennsylvania  Magazine  (in  progress). 

Scharf's  Delaware,  2  vols. 

Williamson's  North  Carolina. 

Moore's  North  Carolina,  2  vols. 

Simm's  South  Carolina. 

Raum's  New  Jersey,  2  vols. 

Jones's  Georgia,  2  vols. 

Baird's  Huguenot  Emigration  to  America. 

Roosevelt's  Winning  of  the  West,  3  vols. 

Hinsdale's  Old  Northwest. 

Tyler's  Colonial  Literature. 

Biography.  See  Sparks's  American  Biogra 
phy  for  Lives  of  Nathaniel  Bacon,  Daniel 
Boone,  Lord  Baltimore  (Calvert),  Jona 
than  Edwards,  John  Eliot,  Patrick 
Henry,  Anne  Hutchinson,  John  Led- 
yard,  Cotton  Mather,  Governor  Ogle- 
thorpe,  James  Otis,  Sir  W.  Phips, 
William  Penn,  Count  Rumford  (Benj. 
Thompson),  Captain  John  Smith,  Roger 
Williams,  Governor  Winthrop ;  Bige- 
low's  Benjamin  Franklin,  3  vols.,  Mont 
gomery's  'Franklin  (Ginn  &  Co.). 


IV.     THE  REVOLUTION  AND  THE 
CONSTITUTION  (1763-1789). 

Winsor's  America,  vol.  VI. 
Scribner's  United  States. 
Frothingham's  Rise  of  the  Republic. 
Lecky's  England  (i8th  century),  8  vols. 
Bancroft's  United  States,  6  vols. 
Hildreth's  United  States,  vols.  I. -1 1 1. 
Hart's  Formation  of  the  Union  (1750-1829). 
Sloane's  French  War  and  Revolution. 
§Hart's  Contemporaneous  History. 
Greene's  American  Revolution. 
Ludlow's  War  of  Independence. 
Winsor's  Handbook  of  the  Revolution. 
Rand's  Economic  History   since  1763  (re 
vised  edition). 

§Stedman's  American  War  (British  account). 
§Almon's  "Prior  Documents"  (1764-1775). 
§Almon's  Remembrancer  (1775-1784),  17 

vols. 

Hosmer's  Life  of  Gov.  Hutchinson. 
§Moore's  Diary  of  the  Revolution,  2  vols. 
§Thacher's  Military  Journal. 
§Baroness  Riedesel's  Memoirs. 
§Galloway's  Rise  of  the  Rebellion  (Tory). 
Sabine's  Loyalists. 

Carrington's  Battles  of  the  Revolution. 
Abbott's  Revolutionary  Times. 
Scudder's  America  too  Years  Ago. 
Jefferson's  Anas  (in  his  Works),  vol.  IX. 
Gouverneur    Morris's    Diary  (1775-1815), 

2  vols. 
Tyler's   Literature   of  the    Revolution,    2 

vols. 
Lossing's  Field  Book  of  the  Revolution,  2 

vols. 

Von  Hoist's  Constitutional  History,  vol.  I. 
McMaster's  United  States,  vol.  I. 
Landon's    Constitutional    History  of    the 

United  States. 
§The  Federalist. 
§  Elliot's  Debates  on  the  Constitution,  3 

vols. 

Wilson's  The  State. 

Foster's   Commentaries  on  the   Constitu 
tion,  2  vols. 
Curtis's   History    of    the    Constitution,   2 

vols. 

Fiske's  Critical  Period  in  United   States 
History. 


§  Contemporaneous  or  Early  History. 


XXV111 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


Biography.  Parker's  Historic  Americans, 
Bigelow's  Franklin,  3  vols.,  Hosmer's 
Samuel  Adams,1  Morse's  John  Adams,1 
Greene's  General  Greene,  2  vols.,  Lodge's 
Washington,  2  vols.,1  Fiske's  Irving's 
Washington  and  his  Country  (Ginn  & 
Co.),  Sparks's  American  Biography, 
Lodge's  Hamilton,1  Gay's  Madison,1 
Roosevelt's  Gouverneur  Morris.1 

V.    THE  UNION  —  NATIONAL  DE 
VELOPMENT  (1789-1861). 

Schouler's  United  States,  5  vols. 
Scribner's  United  States,  5  vols. 
Hildreth's  United  States,  vols.  IV.-VI. 
Wilson's  Division  and  Reunion. 
Burgess's  United  States. 
Bryce's  American  Commonwealth,  2  vols. 

(revised  edition). 

Walker's  The  Making  of  the  Nation. 
Winsor's  America,  vol.  VII. 
McMaster's   United   States  (1784-1861),  4 

vols.  (in  progress). 

Tucker's  United  States  (1607-1841),  4  vols. 
Adams's  United  States  (1801-1817),  9  vols. 
H.  H.  Bancroft's  Pacific  States,  34  vols. 
Rhodes's  United  States  (1850-1865),  3  vols. 

(in  progress). 

Roosevelt's  Naval  War  of  1812. 
Lossing's  Field  Book  of  the  War  of  1812. 
Cooper's  Naval  History. 
Maclay's  History  of  the  Navy,  2  vols. 
Wilson's  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Slave  Power, 

3  vols. 

Page's  The  Old  South. 
Ingle's  Southern  Side  Lights. 
Ripley's  War  with  Mexico. 
Jay's  Mexican  War. 

Richardson's  American  Literature,  2  vols. 
Stedman  and  Hutchinson's  American  Lit 
erature,  10  vols. 
Buckingham's    Newspaper     Literature,   2 

vols. 

Thomas's  History  of  Printing,  2  vols. 
Bishop's  American  Manufactures,  2  vols. 
Johnston's  American  Politics. 
Stanwood's  Presidential  Elections. 
§Dwight's  Travels  (1796-1821),  4  vols. 
Lewis  and  Clark's  Expedition  (1804-1806), 

2  vols.  (Coues's  edition). 


Breck's  Recollections  (1771-1862). 

Fred.  Douglass's  Autobiography. 

Lyman  Beecher's  Autobiography  (1775- 
1857),  2  vols. 

Curtis's  Buchanan,  2  vols. 

Greeley's  Recollections  (1811-1860). 

Dolly  Madison's  Memoirs. 

Quincy's  Figures  of  the  Past. 

Goodrich's  Recollections  (1797-1854),  2 
vols. 

S.  J.  May's  Autobiography. 

S.  J.  May's  Anti-Slavery  Days. 

J.  F.  Clarke's  Anti-Slavery  Days. 

Martin  eau's  Society  in  America  (1834- 
1836),  4  vols. 

Johnston's  American  Orations,  4  vols. 

Tuckerman's  American  Art. 

Webster's  Great  Orations  (Whipple). 

Hubert's  Lives  of  Inventors. 

Nile's  Register  (1811-1849),  76  vols. 

For  histories  of  the  States,  see  Scudder's 
American  Commonwealth  Series,  13  vols. 
(in  progress). 

Biography.  See  in  Morse's  American 
Statesmen  Series  (Houghton  &  Mifflin), 
the  Lives  of  John  Adams,  J.  Q.  Adams, 
Benton,  Calhoun,  Clay,  Jackson,  Jeffer 
son,  Madison,  Monroe,  Morris, Randolph, 
Washington,  and  Webster;  in  Sparks's 
American  Biography,  the  Lives  of  Fulton 
and  Rumford ;  Redpath's  John  Brown, 
Johnson's  Garrison, Garrison's  Life  by  his 
Children,  4  vols.,  Prime's  Morse,  Rice's 
Morton,  Abbott's  Kit  Carson,  Upham's 
Fremont,  Parton's  Famous  Americans, 
Mrs.  Stowe's  Men  of  Our  Times,  Hunt's 
American  Merchants. 


VI.    THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  CIVIL 
WAR  (1861-1865). 

Scribner's  United  States. 

Wilson's    Division    and    Reunion    (1829- 

1889). 

Burgess's  United  States. 
Curtis's  Life  of  Buchanan,  2  vols. 
Greeley's  American  Conflict,  2  vols. 
Draper's  Civil  War,  3  vols. 
The  Comte  de  Paris's  Civil  War,  4  vols. 
Scribner's  Campaigns  of  the  War,  13  vols. 


1  In  Morse's  American  Statesmen  Series.        §  Contemporaneous  or  Early  History. 


SHORT    LIST    OF    BOOKS    ON    AMERICAN    HISTORY.        XXIX 


Johnson's  Short  History  of  the  War. 
Dodge's  Bird's-Eye  View  of  the  Civil  War 

(revised  edition). 
Rope's  Civil  War. 
The  Battles  and  Leaders  of  the  Civil  War 

(Century  Company),  4  vols. 
Nichol's  Story  of  the  Great  March. 
Conyngham's  Sherman's  March. 
McPherson's  Political  History  of  the  Re 
bellion. 
Elaine's    Twenty    Years   in    Congress,    2 

vols. 

Swinton's  Decisive  Battles  of  the  War. 
Billings's  Hard  Tack  and  Coffee. 
Pollard's  Lost  Cause  (Confederate). 
Davis's  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Confederate 

Government  (Confederate),  2  vols. 
Cooke's  Wearing  of  the  Gray  (Confederate). 
Johnston's   Narrative  of    the   War  (Con 
federate). 

Stephens's  War  between  the  States  (Con 
federate),  2  vols. 
Longstreet's  From  Manassas  to  Appomat- 

tox  (Confederate). 

Official  Records  of  the  War  of  the  Rebel 
lion  (with  atlas),  120  vols.  (in  progress). 
Harper's  Pictorial  History  of  the  Rebel 
lion. 

Biography.  Nicolay  and  Hay's  Abraham 
Lincoln,  Holland's  Lincoln,  Herndon's 
Lincoln,  3  vols.,  Carpenter's  Six  Months 
in  the  White  House,  Lodge's  Lincoln, 
2  vols.,  McClure's  Lincoln,  McClellan's 
Own  Story,  Roman's  Beauregard,  2  vols., 
Badeau's  U.  S.  Grant,  3  vols.,  Grant's 
Personal  Memoirs,  2  vols.,  Sherman's 
Memoirs,  2  vols.,  Sheridan's  Memoirs, 
2  vols.,  Farragut's  Life  of  Farragut, 
Schuckers's  Life  of  S.  P.  Chase,  Cooke's 
Robert  E.  Lee,  Cooke's  "  Stonewall " 
Jackson,  Johnston  and  Browne's  Life 
of  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  Sherman's 
Letters;  the  Lives  of  Generals  Scott, 
Hancock,  Thomas,  J.  E.  Johniton, 


Lee,  and  Admirals  Farragut  and  Porter, 
in  the  Great  Commander  Series. 

VII.  RECONSTRUCTION — THE  NEW 

NATION  (1865  TO  THE  PRESENT 

TIME). 

Scribner's  United  States. 

Wilson's  Division  and  Reunion. 

Burgess's  United  States. 

McPherson's  Political  History  of  Recon 
struction. 

Barnes's  History  of  the  3gth  Congress. 

Chadsey's  Struggle  between  President 
Johnson  and  Congress  (Columbia  Uni 
versity  Studies,  1896). 

Scott's  Reconstruction. 

Bryce's  American  Commonwealth,  2  vols. 
(revised  edition). 

Life  and  Works  of  Henry  W.  Grady. 

Elaine's  Twenty  Years  in  Congress,  2  vols 

Johnston's  American  Politics. 

Pike's  Prostrate  State  (South  Carolina). 

McPherson's  Political  Handbooks  (1870- 
1894). 

Appleton's  Annual  Cyclopaedia  (1876  to 
the  present  time). 

Bancroft's  Pacific  States,  34  vols. 

Thayer's  New  West. 

McClure's  The  South. 

Williams's  Negro  Race  in  America,  2  vols. 

Whitney's  United  States. 

Shaler's  United  States,  2  vols. 

King's  The  New  South. 

Curry's  The  South. 

Badeau's  Grant  in  Peace. 

Stoddard's  Life  of  Garfield. 

Wilson's  Presidents  (1789-1893). 

Andrews's  Last  Quarter  of  a  Century 
(1875-1895),  2  vols. 

Whittle's  Life  of  Cleveland. 

Morris's  War  with  Spain. 

Harper's  War  with  Spain,  3  vols. 

McKinley's  Messages  to  Congress. 


AUTHORITIES    CITED. 


NOTE.  — Except  in  a  very  few  instances,  editions  are  not  designated. 


(References  1-100.)  1.  Reeves's  Wineland,  30,  42;  Winsor's  America,  I.  67;  2. 
Reeves's  Wineland,  6  ;  3.  Markham's  Columbus,  23  ;  Adams's  Columbus,  28  ;  4.  Bancroft's 
U.  S.  (Cent,  ed.),  I.  i  ;  Winsor's  America,  I.  66;  6.  Myers's  Gen.  Hist.,  410-437;  Mont 
gomery's  Eng.  Hist.,  40^58;  6.  Gibbins's  Hist.  Commerce,  75;  7.  Major's  Prince  Henry, 
192;  8.  Winsor's  America,  I.  30;  9.  Navarrete's  Columbus,  268;  Kerr  s  Voyages,  III.  23; 

10.  Markham's  Columbus,  26;  Cooley's  Maritime  Discov.,  I.  385  ;  11.  Kettell's  Journal  of 
Columbus,  174;  12.  Hakluyt  Soc.  Pub.,   LXXXVI.  17;    13.  Irvine's  Columbus,  I.   49; 
Adams's  Columbus,  49  ;  14.  Herrera,  Higginson's  Larger  U.  S.,  25  ;  15.  Winsor's  America, 

11.  52;  16.  Hakluyt  Soc.  Pub.,  LXVIII.  41  ;  17.  Fiske's  N.  America,  I.  450;  18.  Kerr's 
Travels,  III,  89;  19.  Spotorno's  Columbus,  172  ;  Brown's  Gen.  of  U.  S.,  I.  2;   20.  Win 
sor's   Columbus,  252-4;  21.  Winsor's   America,  I.  43;  22.  Winsor's  America,  I.  i  ;  23. 
Winsor's  America,  III.  20;  24.  Winsor's  America,  III.  2,  24;  25.  Winsor's  America,  III. 
54;    26.  Hakluyt  Soc.  Pub.,  XII.  29;    27.  Winsor's   America,   III.    144;    28.  Winsor's 
America,  II.  156;  29.  Winsor's  Columbus,  541;  30.  Winsor's  America,  II.  147;  31.  Win 
sor's  Columbus,  529;  32.  Weise's  America,  221 ;  Eden's  P.  Martyr,  Chap.  X.;  33.  Her- 
rera's  Indies,  II.  33  ;  34.   H.  H.  Bancroft's  Cent.  America,  I.  371  ;  35.  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  I. 
44;  36.  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  I.  37;  37.   Winsor's  America,  III.  251,  292,  497;  38.  Winsor's 
America,  VIII.  254  ;  39.  Shipp's  Florida,  578  ;  Parkman's  Pioneers  of  France  ;  40.  Hakluyt 
Soc.  Pub.,  XIII.  340-1  ;  41.  Hakluyt  Soc.  Pub.,  XIII.  383-4;  42.  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  II. 
100 ;  43.  Morgan's  Iroquois,  414;  44.  Shaler's  U.  S.  ;  Shaler's  Our  Continent;  Seebohm's 
Prot.  Revolution ;  Seeley's  Expansion  of  England ;  Fiske's  N.  America  ;  Gladstone's  Kin 
beyond  Sea:  McCulloch  s  Geog.  Diet.,  "America";  Payne's  America;  Cunningham's  Eng. 
Commerce  :  Freeman  in  "  Forum,"  IV.  459;  Rambaud's  Hist,  de  la  Civilisation  Frangaise  ; 
45.  Sabine's  Fisheries,  40;  Brown's  Gen.  of  U.  S.,  I.  25;  46.  Winsor's  America,  III.  127; 
47.  Hume's  England  Append,  to  Chap.  XLIX.  192  ;  Hakluyt's  Western  Planting  ;  Gorges's 
Narrative;  Seeley's  Expansion  of  England;  Goldwin  Smith's  Am.  Cols.;  Brown's  Genesis 
of  the  U.  S.  ;  Arber's  John  Smith's  Works;  48.  Popre's  Charters;  Preston's  Documents; 
49.  Poore's  Charters  ;  Preston's  Documents  ;  50.  Winsor's  America,  III.  108;  51.  Poore's 
Charters;  Preston's  Documents  ;  52.  Poore's  Charters;  Preston's  Documents;  53.  Arber's 
John  Smith's  Works,  XIII.  ;  Doyle's  Va.,  175;  54.  Brown's  Genesis  of  U.  S.,  I.  229;  55. 
Bancroft's  U.  S.,  I.  443  ;  Cooke's  Va.,  229;  56.  Mrs.  Jackson's  Life  of  Jackson,  2,  3;  Lin 
coln's  Works,  I.  596;  II.  638;  57.  Johnson's  Cyclopaedia,  "Tobacco";  58.  Preston's  Doc 
uments,  32;  Va.  Mag.  of  Hist.,  July,  1894,  57;  69.  Hening's  Statutes  of  Va.,  I.  110-18; 
Wynne's    Records,    81  ;    60.  Hildreth's    U.    S.,  I.    522;    61.  Preston's    Documents,  35; 
62.  Lodge's  Colonies,  12  ;  Va.  Mag.  of  Hist.  July,  1894,  66;  63.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  I.  518  ; 
64.  Jefferson's    Works,    I.    170;    65.    Neill's   Va.   Comp.,  262;   66.  Cooke's  Va.  172-3; 
67.  Cooke's  Va.,    193;  68.  Cooke's  Va.,  229-30;  69.  Winsor's   America,    III.    149;   70. 
Bancroft's  U.  S.,  I.  353;  71.  Cooke's  Va.,  295;  Force's  Tracts,  I.  No.  8;  72.  Parkman's 
Montcalm  and  Wolfe,  I.   140;  73.  Brodhead's  N.  Y.,  I.  28;  74.  Brodhead's  N.  Y.,  I.  62; 
75.  Brodhead's  N.  Y.,  I.  194,  304;  76.  Brodhead's  N.  Y.,  I.  374;  77.  Brodhead's  N.  Y., 
1.406,  413;  78.  Brodhead's  N.  Y.,  I.  618;  79.  Brodhead's  N.  Y.,  II.  42;  80.  Brodhead's 
N.  Y.,  II.  72;  81.  Brodhead's  N.  Y.,  II.  454;  82.  Lamb's  N.  Y.  City,  I.  327  ;  83.  Brod 
head's  N.  Y.,  II.  553;  84.  Parkman's  Frontenac,  189;  86.  Brodhead's  N.  Y.,  II.  567;  86. 
Brodhead's  N.   Y.,   II.  619;   87.  Sparks's  Leisler,  236;  Brodhead's  N.   Y.,   II.  649;  88. 
Lodge's  Colonies,  320;  Winsor's  America,  V.  191  ;  De  Courcy  and  Shea's  Catholic  Church, 
331  ;  89.  N.  Y.  Col.  Docs.,  IV.  288;  90.  Winsor's  America,  V.  191  ;  Acts  of  N.  Y.  (1691- 
1708),  45;  91.  Winsor's  America,  V.  193;  92.  Winsor's  America,  V.  198;  93.  Chandler's 
Trials,  I.  160;  94.  Winsor's  America,  V.  199;  95.  Bancroft's  U.  S. ;  96.  Brown's  Genesis 
of  U.  S.,  I.;  97.  Smith's  N.  J.,  60;  98.  Hatfield's  Elizabethtown,  53;  99.  N.  J.  Docs., 
I.  30;  100.  Winsor's  America,  III.  431. 

(References  101-200.)  101.  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Stud.,  III.  448;  102.  N.  J. 
Docs.,  I.  228;  103.  N.  J.  Docs.,  I.  263-7;  !<>*•  Scott's  Const.  Liberty,  71;  105.  N.  J. 

Docs.,  I.  253;    106.  Bancroft's  U.   S., ;   107.  Winsor's  America,  IV.  438;  108,  109. 

Bancroft's  U.  S.,  II.  357  ;  Doyle's  13  Cols.,  86  ;  110.  Chalmer's  Colonies,  I.  293  ;  111.  N.  J. 
Hist.  Coll.,  III.  169;  112.  Palfrey's  N.  E.,  I.  48;  113.  Gardner's  England,  I.  157;  114. 
Young's  Chronicles,  23 ;  115.  Young's  Chronicles,  45-7;  116.  Young's  Chronicles,  381-2  ; 
117.  Goodwin's  Pilgrim  Repub.,  41;  118.  Young's  Chronicles,  82;  Goodwin's  Pilgrim 


AUTHORITIES    CITED.  XXXI 

Repub.,  45;  119.  Young's  Chronicles,  82;  120.  Young's  Chronicles,  87;  121.  Young's 
Chronicles,  396;  Dexter's  Congregationalism,  402;  122.  Young's  Chronicles,  120;  Deane's 
Bradford,  89;  123.  Young's  Chronicles,  120;  Preston's  Documents,  29;  124.  Young's 
Chronicles,  21;  Palfrey's  N.  E.,  II.  36;  125.  Plymouth  Records,  XI.  26;  126.  Lowell 
Lectures,  172;  127.  P.  Col.  Laws,  76,  102;  128.  P.  Col.  Records,  XI.  177;  129.  P.  Col. 
Laws,  258;  130,  131.  P.  Col.  Laws  (1671),  I.  i;  Bradford's  Plymouth;  132.  133.  Brad 
ford's  Letter  Book,  38,46;  134.  Lowell  Lectures,  168  ;  135.  Poore's  Charters  ;  136.  Poore's 
Charters;  137.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  I.  1 80 ;  Winsor's  America,  111.311-12;  138.  Winthrop's 
Winthrop,  I.  309;  139.  Winsor's  Boston,  I.  116;  140.  Winsor's  Boston,  I.  114;  141. 
Winthrop's  N.  E.  (Savage),  I.  30;  142.  Poore's  Charters;  143.  Palfrey's  N.  E.,  I.  118; 
Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Stud.,  XII.;  144.  Mass.  Records,  I.  115;  145.  Mass.  Records,  I. 
87  ;  146.  Mass.  Hist.  Soc.  Coll.,  XXVIII.  219;  Lowell  Lectures,  63  ;  147.  Mass.  Records, 
II.  197  ;  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Stud.,  XII.  425  ;  148.  Clark's  Cong.  Churches  in  Mass.,  69 ; 
Allen's  Jon.  Edwards,  257;  149.  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Stud.,  XII.;  150.  Winthrop's 
N.  E.,  I.  70 ;  151.  Johns  Hopkins  Univ.  Stud.,  XII.;  152.  Winsor's  Boston,  I.  148;  153. 
Winthrop's  Winthrop;  154.  Poore's  Charters;  Lowell  Lectures;  155.  Hazard's  State 
Papers,  I.  423;  Lodge's  Colonies,  347,  359;  156.  Winsor's  Boston,  I.  156;  157.  Lodge's 
Colonies,  347;  158.  Mass.  Records,  I.  137  ;  169.  Arnold's  R.  I.,  I.  27;  160.  Arnold's  R. 
I.,  I.  131;  161.  Mass.  Records,  I.  115,  139;  Dexter's  R.  Williams,  33;  162.  Palfrey's  N. 
E.,  I.  164;  163.  Winthrop's  N.  E.,  I.  162;  164.  Winthrop's  N.  E.,  I.  165;  Diman's  R. 
Williams,  31  ;  165.  Arnold's  R.  I.,  I.  39 ;  Palfrey's  N.  E.,  I.  421 ;  166.  Hutchinson's  Mass., 
II.  423  ;  Welde's  Antinomians,  preface;  167.  Chandler's  Am.  Trials,  I.  20;  Mass.  Records, 

I.  207 :  168.  Quincy's  Harv.  Coll.  ;  169.  Clapp's  Dorchester,  420 ;  170.  Mass.  Records, 

II.  203;  171.  Horace  Mann  on  Mass.  Schools;  172.  Hazard's  State  Papers,  I.  1-6;  173. 
Johns    Hopkins   Univ.    Stud.,   XII.;    174.  McClintock  and   Strong's   Cyc.,   "Friends," 
"Fox,"   "Naylqr";    176.   Hazard's  State  Papers,  II.  631;  176.  Hazard's  State  Papers, 


Everett's  Orations,  I.  634;  186.  Caverly's  Ind.  Wars,  184;  187.  Barry's  Mass.,  I.  440; 
188.  Francis's  J.  Eliot,  273;  189.  Hazard's  State  Papen,  II.  606;  Chalmer's  Annals,  450; 
190.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  I.  463-7;  191.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  I.  496;  192.  Dummer's  Defence 
of  the  Charters  ;  193.  Adams's  Emanc.  of  Mass.,  215;  194.  R.  I.  Records,  III.  212;  195. 
Hutchinson's  Mass.,  I.  355;  196.  Whitmore's  Andros  Tracts  ;  197.  Doyle's  Eng.  Cols.,  II. 
343;  198.  Poore's  Charters;  Palfrey's  N.  E.,  IV.  78;  199.  Palfrey's  N.  E.,  IV.  96;  200. 
Palfrey's  N.  E.,  IV.  116;  Sewall's  Diary. 

(References  201-300.)  201.  Palfrey's  N.  E.,  IV.  117;  202.  Lodge's  Colonies; 
203.  Winsor's  America,  III.  329;  204.  Winsor's  America,  III.  326;  205.  Winsor's 
America,  III.  367;  206.  Osgood's  N.  E.,  300;  207.  Encyc.  Brit.,  XV.  300-1;  208.  Am. 
Antiq.  Soc.  (1876);  209.  Poore's  Charters;  Adams's  Emanc.  of  Mass.,  183;  210. 
Winsor's  America,  III.  326;  Belknap's  N.  H.;  211.  Mass.  Hist.  Coll.  (4th  s.),  VI.  108 ; 
Mclintock's  N.  H.,  47;  212.  Mass.  Records,  II.  29;  213.  Parker's  Londonderry,  50;  214.- 
Webster's  P.  Corresp.,  I.  5-6;  215.  Smith's  Dartmouth  Coll.  ;  216.  Sanborn's  N.  H., 
143;  Robinson's  Vt.,  57;  217.  Preble's  U.  S.  Flag,  274;  Sanborn's  N.  H.,  206;  218. 
J.  Hopkins  Univ.  Stud.,  XI.  10  ;  219.  Walker's  Hooker,  84;  Winthrop's  N.  E. ;  Doyle's 
Cols.;  220.  Walker's  Hooker,  84;  221.  Walker's  Hooker,  87-90;  Fiske's  N.  E.;  222. 
Mason's  Pequot  War ;  Underbill's  Pequot  War ;  223.  Walker's  Hooker,  125;  224.  Conn. 
Records,  I.  22;  225.  Conn.  Records,  I.  303;  226.  Conn.  Records,  1.331;  227.  Bancroft's 
U.  S.,  I.  359;  228.  Fiske's  N.  E.;  229.  N.  Haven  Records,  I.  12,  17;  230.  N.  Haven 
Records,  I.  130,  191  ;  Levermore's  N.  Haven,  153;  231.  Levermore's  N.  Haven,  151 ;  232. 
Levermore's  N.  Haven,  153  ;  233.  N.  Haven  Records,  I.  62,  210;  Levermore's  N.  Haven; 
234.  Dexter's  Yale  Coll.;  235.  N.  E.  Mag.,  Oct.  1893  ;  236.  Atwater's  N.  Haven,  429;. 
237.  Poore's  Charters;  238.  Johnston's  Conn.,  200;  239.  Appleton's  Cyc.  Biog.,  VI. 
168;  240.  Scharf's  Md.,  I.  47;  241.  Winsor's  America,  III.  520;  242.  Scharf's  Md.,  I. 
163;  243.  Scharf's  Md.,  I.  53;  Winsor's  America,  III.  524;  244.  J.  Hopkins  Univ.  Stud., 
X.;  Winsor's  America,  III.;  245.  J.  Hopkins  Univ.  Stud.,  X.;  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  I.  158; 
246.  Winthrop's  N.  E.,  II.  249;  247.  Scharf's  Md.,  I.  174-6;  248.  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  I. 
438;  249.  Bruce's  Calvert,  135;  250.  Bruce's  Calvert,  147-8;  261.  Strong's  Babylon  in 
Md.;  252.  Browne's  Md.,  80;  253.  Bruce's  Calvert,  149;  254.  Scharf's  Md.,  I.  335-6; 
255.  Lodge's  Cols.,  108 ;  Browne's  Md.,  199;  256.  Scharf's  Md.,  I.  383;  257.  R.  I. 
Records,  I.  22;  258.  Montgomery's  French  Hist.,  134;  259.  Arnold's  R.  I.,  I.  126;  260. 
Williams's  Letters,  278;  Arnold's  R.  I.,  I.  255;  261.  R.  I.  Records,  I.  376;  262.  R.  I. 
Records,  I.  27-8;  Winsor's  America,  III.  336;  263.  Arnold's  R.  I.,  I.  256;  264.  Poore's 
Charters;  266.  Poore's  Charters;  Arnold's  R.  I.,  I.  290;  266.  Greene's  R.  I.;  267. 
Arnold's  R.  I.,  II.  490,  494;  Winsor's  America,  III.  379;  268.  Winsor's  America,  III. 
379;  269.  Arnold's  R.  1.,  II.  249;  270.  Arnold's  R.  I.;  271.  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  I.  509; 
272.  Poore's  Charters;  Lodge's  Cols.;  273.  Bancroft's  U.  S.  Const.,  II.  249;  274. 
Poore's  Charters;  275.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  II.  28;  276,  277.  Poore's  Charters,  II.  1389; 


XXX11  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 

278.  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  I.  421  ;  279.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  II.  30;  280-289.  Poore's  Charters, 
II.  397,  arts,  no,  23.  72,  15,  i,  2,  95,  97,  95,  101,  96;  290.  Lodge's  Cols.,  142,  166 ;  Winsor's 
America,  V.  294;  291.  Fisher's  Colonies,  296;  292.  Charleston  Year-Book  (1883),  380; 
293.  Baird's  Huguenots;  Appleton's  Cyc.  Am.  Biog. ;  294.  Hewatt's  S.  C. ;  Hildreth's 
U.  S.,  II.  290;  295.  Hewatt's  S.  C..  I.  120,  159;  296.  Charleston  Year-Book  (1883),  400; 
297.  Colden's  Five  Nations;  298.  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  III.  394;  Roosevelt's  West,  I.  160 ; 
299.  Roosevelt's  West,  I.  134,  236;  300.  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  III.  107. 

(References  301-400.)  301.  Poore's  Charters;  302.  Hazard's  Pa.,  500;  303. 
Clarkson's  Pa.,  I.  264  ;  Janney's  Penn. ;  304.  Stoughton's  Penn. ;  305.  Poore's  Charters; 
Hildreth's  U.  S.,  II.  63;  Chalmer's  Revolt  of  the  Cols.,  I.  152;  306.  Clarkson's  Pa.,  I. 
281;  307,  308.  Proud's  Pa.,  I.  289;  309.  Hazard's  Pa.,  561;  310.  Stoughton's  Penn. v 
180;  311.  Hazard's  Pa.;  312.  Hazard's  Pa.,  619;  313-315.  Hazard's  Pa.,  621;  316. 
Proud's  Pa.,  I.  288;  317.  Doyle's  13  Cols.,  89;  318.  Franklin's  Pa.,  32,  53-67;  Proud's 
Pa.,  I.  297,  300;  319.  Bryant  and  Gay's  U.  S.,  III.  177;  320.  Winsor's  America,  III.  493; 
Thomas's  Hist.  Printing;  321.  Stoughton's  Penn.,  30;;  Pennypacker's  Germantown,  42 ; 
Bryant  and  Gay's  U.  S.,  III.  175-6;  322.  Bryant  and  Gay's  U.  S.,  175;  Dixon's  Penn., 
301;  323.  Bishop's  Manufactures;  324.  Pa.  Hist.  Soc.  Coll.,  II.;  325.  J.  Hopkins 
Univ.  Stud.,  X.;  326.  J.  Hopkins  Univ.  Stud.,  X.;  Doyle's  13  Cols.,  90;  327.  Encyc. 
Brit.,  "  Pennsylvania";  328.  Franklin's  Pa.;  329.  Montgomery's  B.  Franklin,  240;  330. 
Hinsdale's  Northwest,  103  ;  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  I.  570  ;  331.  Hinsdale's  Northwest,  103  ; 
332.  Stille's  Dickinson;  333-336.  Poore's  Charters;  Winsor's  America,  V.  364;  337. 
Stevens's  Ga.,  I.  279;  338.  Winsor's  America,  V.  366;  Jones's  Ga.,  I.  189  ;  339.  Stevens's 
Ga.,  I.  287;  340.  Jones's  Ga.,  I.  221;  Ga.  Hist.  Coll.,  II.  279;  341.  Jones's  Ga.,  I.  86; 
Winsor's  America,  V.  358;  342.  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  II.  286;  343.  Jones's  Ga.,  I.  217;  344. 
Overton's  J.  Wesley,  57;  345,  346.  Jones's  Ga.,  I.  405;  Stevens's  Ga.,  I.  309;  347-352. 
Jones's  Ga.,  I.  302,  464,  460,  152,  156,  368;  353.  Pa.  Hist.  Soc.  Mem.,  V.  33;  354.  Win 
sor's  America,  IV.  264;  35o.  Winsor's  America,  IV.  Chap.  VI.;  Parkman's  Jesuits  in  N. 
America;  356.  Winsor's  America,  IV.  208;  Parkman's  La  Salle  ;  357-359.  Parkman's 
La  Salle,  74,  114,  168,  281;  360.  Parkman's  Half-Cent,  of  Conflict,  I.  293;  361.  Mont 
gomery's  French  Hist.,  190;  362.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  2,  136;  363.  Parson's  Pepperrell ; 
364.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  II.  433;  365.  Washington's  Diary,  Nov.  22,  1753  ;  366.  Parkman's 
Montcalm  and  Wolfe,  I.  147;  367.  Frothingham's  Republic;  Chalmer's  Revolt  of  Cols.; 
368.  Irving's  Washington,  I.  186;  369.  Winsor's  America,  V.;  Parkman's  Montcalm,  I.; 
370.  Bancroft's  U.S.,  II.;  Parkman's  Montcalm,  II.;  371.  Parkman's  Pontiac  ;  372,373. 


Parkman's  Montcalm,  II.  405;  374.  Lecky's  i8th  Cent.,  III.  319;  375.  Burke  on  Concili 
ation;  376.  Wright's  Indust.   Evol. 


.Lecky's  istn  i^ent.,  ill.  310;  3<o.   tsurke  on  ^oncm- 
U.  S.,  15;  37^  Doyle's   Cols.;   Webster's   Works; 

Burke's  Works;  378.  Stille's  Pa.  Mag.,  IX.  390;  379.  Wilson's  The  State,  458;  Macy;s 
Civil  Gov.,  12-19;  J.  Hopkins  Univ.  Stud.,  II.;  380.  Chalmer's  Ann.  of  N.  America; 
381.  Webster's  Works;  382.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  II.  427;  Du  Bois's  Slave-Trade;  383. 
Washington's  Works,  XII.  305  ;  384.  Babson's  Gloucester,  251 ;  385.  Adams's  Brit.  Ora 
tions,  I.  113;  386-389.  Bishop's  Am.  Manufact. ;  390.  Eggleston's  Cent.  Mag.  (n.s.),  VI. 
249;  391.  See  Advt.  on  p.  152;  392.  Adams's  Emanc.  Mass.,  92  ;  393.  Hildreth's  U.  S.  ; 
394.  Randall's  Jefferson,  I.  205;  Hening's  Statutes;  395.  J.  Hopkins  Univ.  Stud.,  XII.  ; 
396.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  II.  343;  397.  Tyler's  Am.  Lit.,  II.  32;  Lodge's  Cols.;  398. 
White's  Am.  Lit.,  27;  Dwight's  Jon.  Edwards;  399.  NeilFs  Va.  Carolorum,  338 ;  400. 
Franklin's  Works,  VI.  194;  Tyler's  Am.  Lit. 

(References  401-500.)  401.  Tyndall's  Heat;  Ellis's  Rumford  ;  402.  Burke  on 
Conciliation;  403.  Lodge's  Cols.,  474;  404.  Mayhew's  Sermon,  Jan.  4,  1761;  405.  Ban 
croft's  U.  S.,  II.  212;  Lodge's  Cols.,  474;  406.  Wilson's  The  State;  Lodge's  Cols.; 
Frothingham's  Republic;  407.  Wright's  Indust.  Evol.  of  U.  S. ;  408.  May's  Const.  Hist. 
Eng.;  409.  Ransome's  Const.  Hist.  Eng.  ;  410.  May's  Const.  Hist.  Eng.,  II.  552-62; 
411.  May's  Const.  Hist.  Eng.,  II.  552;  Winsor's  America,  VI.  16;  Lecky's  England;  412. 
Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations,  II.;  413.  Lodge's  Cols.,  491;  Lecky's  England,  III.  342; 
May's  England,  II.  557;  Winsor's  America,  VI.  24;  414.  Hening's  Va.  Statutes,  I.  124; 
415.  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  I.  308;  416.  Laws  of  New  Plymouth  (1671);  417.  Fisher's  Cols., 
247;  418.  Hosmer's  S.  Adams,  104;  419.  Winsor's  America,  VI.  11  ;  420.  Tudor's  Otis, 
77;  421.  Henry's  P.  Henry,  I.  30-43  ;  422.  Lecky's  England;  423.  Larned's  Hist,  for  R. 
Ref.,  V.  3183  ;  424.  Franklin's  Works,  IV.;  425.  Burke's  Works,  II.  74;  426.  Lecky's 
England,  III.  337  ;  427.  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  III.  89;  428.  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  III.  104  ;  429. 
Tyler's  P.  Henry,  62;  430.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  II.  529;  431.  Larned's  Hist,  for  R.  Ref.,  V. 
3191;  432.  Lecky's  England,  111.366;  Adams's  British  Orations  ;  433.  Winsor's  America, 
VI.  32;  434.  Winsor's  America,  VI.  39;  435.  Stilhi's  Dickinson;  Tyler's  Lit.  of  the 
Revol.;  436.  Hosmer's  S.  Adams;  Winsor's  Boston;  437.  Winsor's  America,  VI.  52; 
Burke  on  Conciliation;  438.  Winsor's  America,  VI.  49;  Winsor's  Boston,  III.  32;  439. 
Hosmer's  S.  Adams;  440.  Corresp.  of  George  III.  with  L.  North,  I.  202;  441-444. 
Goldwin  Smith's  U.  S.,  83  ;  Winsor's  America,  VI.  58;  Hosmer's  S.  Adams;  445.  Ban 
croft's  U.  S.  ;  Hildreth's  U.  S.  ;  446.  Frothingham's  Republic;  447.  Frothingham's  Re 
public,  360;  Winsor's  America,  VI.  99;  448,  449.  Jones's  Ga.,  II.  157;  450-463.  Force's 


AUTHORITIES    CITED.          ,    "  XXX111 

Archives,  I.  910  et  seq.;  454.  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  IV.  103;  455.  Hart's  Revolution,  63; 
466.  Winsor's  America,  VI.  116;  457.  Sloane's  Revolution,  177;  Hart's  Revolution,  81 ; 
458.  Weiss's  T.  Parker;  Higginson's  Larger  U.  S. ;  459.  Shattuck's  Concord,  107;  R.  W. 
Emerson's  Works ;  460.  Stedman's  American  War,  I.  118;  461.  Frothingham's  Siege  of 
Boston;  462.  Hosmer's  S.  Adams,  336;  463.  Force's  Archives,  II.  1848;  464.  Winsor's 
America,  VI.  558;  Carrington's  Revol.;  465.  Sumner's  Finances  of  the  Revol.,  146-8; 
466.  Washington's  Writings  ;  467.  Greene's  Revolution;  468,  469.  Am.  Hist.  Review,  I. 
24;  470-478.  Sumner's  Finances  of  the  Revol.;  479.  Frothingham's  Siege  of  Boston,  140  ; 
480.  Goldwin  Smith's  U.  S.,  85;  Fiske's  Revolution;  481.  Preble's  American  Flag; 
Frothingham's  Republic,  468;  482.  Journal  of  Cong.,  I.  103;  483.  Bryant  and  Gay's  U.  S., 
III.;  Sparks's  Arnold;  484.  I rving's  Washington  ;  Sabine's  Loyalists;  485.  Bancroft's 
U.  S.,  IV.  397;  486.  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  IV.  391;  487.  Journal  of  Cong.,  I.  199;  488. 
May's  Const.  Hist.  Eng.  ;  489,  490.  Frothingham's  Republic,  472-80;  491.  Journal 
of  Cong.,  I.  344;  492.  Frothingham's  Republic,  516;  493.  Sloane's  Revolution,  229; 
Winsor's  America,  VI.;  494.  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  V.  8;  495.  Winsor's  America,  VI.  284; 
496,  497.  Irving's  Washington;  498.  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  V.  99;  499.  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  V. 
103  ;  Sparks's  Corresp.  of  the  Revol.,  I.  16;  500.  Fiske's  Revolution,  I.  232. 

(References  501-600.)  501.  Fiske's  Revolution;  Stedman's  Am.  War,  I.  239; 
502,  503.  Carrington's  Battles  of  the  Revol.  ;  504.  Winsor's  America,  VI.  301  ;  505,  506. 
Mahon's  England,  VI.  287-8-  Winsor's  America,  VI.;  Creasy's  Decisive  Battles;  507. 
Ford's  Washington's  Writings, VI.  257  ;  608.  Sparks's  Jos.  Reed,  403  ;  Sabine's  Loyalists,  I. 
144;  Washington's  Writings;  509.  Fiske's  Revolution;  510.  Almon's  Remembrancer, 
VII.  131;  511.  Sloane's  Revolution,  295  ;  512.  Bancroft's  U.  S.,  V.  272  ;  513.  Bancroft's 
U.  S.,  V.  276;  Lee's  Papers,  III.  192;  514.  Lee's  Papers,  III.  208;  515.  Winsor's 
America,  VI.  634;  516.  Sparks's  Sullivan,  147;  517.  Roosevelt's  West,  II.  46;  518. 
Sloane's  Revolution,  316;  519,  520.  Carrington's  Battles  of  the  Revol.,  498,  517;  521. 
Arnold's  Arnold,  211;  522.  Irving's  Washington,  IV.  44;  523-525.  Sparks's  Arnold; 
Arnold's  Arnold;  526.  Moore's  Congress,  691;  Sumner's  Finances  of  the  Revol.;  627. 
Ford's  Washington's  Writings,  IX.  97;  528.  Draper's  King's  Mountain  ;  Winsor's  America, 
VI.:  529,  530.  Greene's  Greene;  Irving's  Washington;  531.  Ross's  Comwallis ;  532, 
533.  Greene's  Greene;  534.  Tuckerman's  Lafayette,  I.  130;  535.  Ross's  Cornwallis,  I. 
in;  Winsor's  America,  VI.  498;  536.  Ford's  Washington's  Writings,  IX.  212;  537. 
Fiske's  Revolution,  II.  277;  538.  Ford's  Washington's  Writings,  IX.  355;  539.  Winsor's 
America,  VI. ;  540.  Wraxhall's  Memoirs  ;  541.  U.  S.  Stat.  at  Large  (Treaties),  VIII.  80  ; 
542,  543.  J.  Hopkins  Univ.  Stud.,  III.  26;  644.  Story's  Const,  of  the  U.  S.;  545. 
Story's  Const,  of  the  U.  S. ;  Fiske's  Critical  Period  in  the  U.  S.  Hist.;  546.  The  Federalist 
(Hamilton),  No.  15;  547.  Moore's  Congress,  83;  548.  Hildreth's  U.  S.;  549.  Landon's 
U.  S.  Const.,  56-7;  550.  McMaster's  U.  *.,  I.  405-6;  551.  Curtis's  Hist.  U.  S.  Const.,  I. 
269;  552.  McMaster's  U.  S.,  I.;  553.  Curtis's  Hist.  U.  S.  Const.,  I.  321;  554.  White's 
Money ;  McMaster's  U.  S.,  I.  ;  555.  U.  S.  Const.,  Art.  I.,  Sect.  VIII. ;  566.  U.  S.  Const. 
Tenth  Amend.;  557.  U.  S.  Const.,  Art.  I.,  Sects.  II.,  IX.;  658.  McMaster's  U.  S.,  I.; 
Bigelow's  Franklin  ;  659.  Foster's  Comment,  on  the  Const.,  I.  ;  560.  Elliot's  Debates  on 
the  Const.,  I.  327;  561.  Preamble  to  the  Const.  ;  Foster's  Comment,  on  the  Const.  ;  562. 
McMaster's  U.  S.,  1.540;  563.  Carson's  Supreme  Court;  564-567.  U.  S.  Stat.  at  Large, 
I.;  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  IV.;  568.  Tribune  Almanac  (1897)  Statistics;  569.  Hamilton's 
Works,  III.;  Schouler's  U.  S.,  I.  130;  670.  Johnston's  Am.  Politics,  23;  571,  572. 
Hildreth's  U.  S.,  IV.;  Schouler's  U.  S.,  I.  136;  673.  Johnston's  Am.  Politics,  23; 
McMaster's  U.  S.,  I.  582  ;  674-577.  McMaster's  U.  S.,  II.  28;  Schouler's  U.  S.,  I.  159; 
578.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  IV.  260,  314;  579.  Jefferson's  Anas.;  580.  Hart's  U.  S.,  140; 
581.  Schouler's  U.  S.,  I.  174;  582.  Von  Hoist's  U.  S.,  I.  306;  583,  584.  Washington's 
Writings;  585.  Hamilton's  Works;  586.  McMaster's  U.  S.,  II.  633;  687.  McMaster's 
U.  S.,  I.  298;  588-590.  Olmsted's  Whitney;  Greeley's  Am.  Conflict,  I.;  Webster's 
Works,  V.  338:  591-594.  Schouler's  U.  S.,  I.  205;  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  IV.  297-357;  »95. 
Schouler's  U.  S.,  1.258;  596.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  IV.  4"?  697.  Williams's  Statesman's 
Man.,  I.;  598,  699.  Johnston's  Am.  Politics,  31;  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  IV.  432;  600. 
Schouler's  U.  S.,  I.  246-256. 

(References  601-700.)  601.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  IV.  420;  602.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  IV. 
498;  McMaster's  U.  S.,  II.  100 ;  603.  Williams's  Statesman's  Man.,  I.  53-57;  604. 
King's  Ohio,  256  ;  605.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  IV.  545;  606.  McMaster's  U.  S.,  II.  ;  Pellew's 
Jay;  607-609.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  IV.  Chap.  VIII.;  610,  611.  Hart's  U.  S.,  184;  Hil 
dreth's  U.  S.,  IV.  567;  612,  613.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  IV.  569;  Lodge's  Washington;  614. 
Hildreth's  U.  S.,  IV.  696:  V.  43  ;  615.  Schouler's  U.  S.,  I. ;  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  IV.;  616. 
Adams's  Adams,  II.  219;  617.  Williams's  Statesman's  Man.,  I.  104;  618.  Adams's  Adams, 
11.227;  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  V.;  619.  Williams's  Statesman's  Man.,  I.  108;  620.  Schouler's 
U.  S  I  378;  621.  Adams's  Adams;  622.  Adams's  Works,  IX.  159;  623.  Schouler's  U. 
S.,  I.  387;  Appleton's  Cyc.  Biog.  (C.  C.  Pinckney) ;  624.  Hildreth's  U.  S. ;  625-629. 
Hildreth's  U.  S.  ;  Schouler's  U.  S. ;  McMaster's  U.  S. ;  630-634.  Elliot's  Debates,  IV. 
528;  Lalor's  Cyclopaedia;  Warfield's  Ky.  Resolutions;  635.  Winsor's  America,  VII.  270 


XXXIV  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 

(note);  636.  Schouler's  U.  S.,  I.  451  ;  637.  Adams's  U.  S.,  I.  274;  638.  Williams's  States 
man's  Man.,  I.  137;  Johnston's  Am.  Politics,  58;  639.  Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth;  640. 
Hildreth's  U.  S.  ;  Lalor's  Cyclopaedia;  641-646.  Adams's  U.  S.,  I.  208,  192,  156,  83,  87; 
647-649.  Adams's  U.  S.,  I.  73  ;  Jefferson's  Works;  Adams's  U.  S.,  I.  227;  650.  Adams's 
Gallatin,  I.  130;  Jefferson's  Works,  IV.  486;  Hart's  U.  S.,  179;  Am.  Hist.  Assoc.,  II.  51  ; 
651-655.  Jefferson's  Works;  Adams's  U.  S.,  I.  411,  436;  656-659.  Adams's  U.  S.,  I. 
96,  108,  in  ;  Benton's  Debates,  III.  10 ;  Adams's  N.  E.  Federalism,  148;  660.  Adams's  U 
S.,  I.  160;  661.  Benton's  Debates,  IV.  327  ;  662.  Adams's  U.  S.,  VI.  441  ;  663.  Adams's 
U.  S.,  V.  325  ;  664,  665.  Coues's  Lewis  and  Clark,  II.  702  and  Preface;  666.  McMaster's 
U.  S.,  III.  144;  667.  McMaster's  U.  S.,  III.  198;  668.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  V.  534;  669. 
Kirkland'sPreble,28;670,671.  Adams's  U.  S. ;  672.  Adams's  U.  S.,  I.  68  ;  673.  Reigart's 
Fulton;  674.  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  IV.  238,  572;  675-677.  Adams's  U.  S. ;  Hildreth's  U  S  ; 
678.  Hart's  U.  S.,  191;  679.  Encyc.  Brit.,  art.  "  U.  S.";  680.  McMaster's  U.  S.,  III. 
225;  681.  Stephen's  War  in  Disguise;  682,  683.  Encyc.  Brit.,  art.  "U.  S.";  684. 
McMaster's  U.  S.,  III.  257  (note) ;  685.  Adams's  U.  S.  ;  686.  Schouler's  U.  S.,  III.  325; 
687-696.  Adams's  U.  S.,  IV.;  Hildreth's  U.  S.,  VI.;  McMaster's  U.  S.,  III.;  Encyc. 
Brit.,  art.  "  U.  S."  ;  Schouler's  U.  S.,  II.;  697.  Adams's  U.S.,  V.  15-16;  698,  699. 
Adams's  U.  S. ;  700.  Hildreth's  U.  S. ;  Schouler's  U.  S. 

(References  701-800.)  701.  Adams's  U.  S.,  IV.  472  ;  702-706.  Adams's  U  S.  ; 
Hildreth's  U.  S. ;  Gay's  Madison;  McMaster's  U.  S.  ;  70>,  708.  Adams's  U.  S.,  III.; 
709-712.  Adams's  U.  S.,  V.;  Schurz's  H.  Clay;  Sumner's  Jackson;  713-715.  Adams's 
U.  S.,  VI.  ;  Schouler's  U.  S.  ;  Ingersoll's  War  of  1812,  I.  219;  716.  Williams's  Statesman's 
Man.,  I.;  Adams's  U.  S.,  VI.;  717,  718.  Adams's  U.  S.,  VI.;  Schouler's  U.  S.  ;  719. 
Winsor's  America,  VII.  377-8;  720.  Schurz's  H.  Clay;  721.  Adams's  U.  S.,  VIII.  231; 
722. 'Schurz's  H.  Clay,  I.  98;  723.  Niles's  Register,  II.  358;  724.  Hildreth's  U.  S.  ; 
McMaster's  U.  S.  ;  Cooley's  Michigan,  175;  725.  Niles's  Register,  VII.  393;  726. 
Roosevelt's  War  of  1812;  Maclay's  Am.  Navy;  727-729.  Brit.  Ann.  Register  (1812),  173; 
Roosevelt's  War  of  1812;  730.  Adams's  U.  S.  ;  Maclay's  Am.  Navy  (Preface);  731.  Hil 
dreth's  U.  S.,  VI.  523;  732.  Brit.  Ann.  Register  (1813),  109;  733.  Schouler's  U.  S.,  II. 
393;  734.  Roosevelt's  War  of  1812,261;  735.  Mackenzie's  Perry;  Adams's  U.S.;  736, 
737.  Schouler's  U.  S.,  II.  385;  Appleton's  Cyc.  Biog.,  "Perry";  Adams's  U.  S.  ;  738. 
Roosevelt's  War  of  1812;  739.  Niles's  Register,  VI.  443!  740.  Gay's  Madison;  Brit. 
Register  (1814) ;  741,  742.  Sumner's  Jackson;  Johnston's  Am.  Politics;  Adams's  U.  S.  ; 
743,  744.  Niles's  Register,  VII.;  Lalor's  Cyclopaedia ;  Dwight's  Hartford  Convention; 
745.  Greeley's  Am.  Conflict,  I.  86  (note);  746-750.  Dwight's  Hartford  Convention; 
Lalor's  Cyclopsedia;  Adams's  U.  S.,  VIII.,  IX.  ;  751,  752.  Niles's  Register,  VII.  374-6; 
Roosevelt's  War  of  1812  ;  Parton's  Jackson  ;  Adams's  U.  S. ;  Schurz's  H.  Clay ;  J.  Hop- 


S.,  VI. 646;  Schouler's  U.  S.,  III.  74;  769,  760.  McMaster's  U.  S.,  IV.  487,  496;  761. 
Hildreth's  U.  S.,  VI.  648;  Schouler's  U.  S.,  II.  252  ;  762.  McMaster's  U.  S.  ;  Diet.  Eng. 
Biog.,  art.  "  Cunard " ;  763.  Story's  Judge  Story,  I.  340;  764.  Benton's  Debates,  VI. 
334;  Schurz's  Clay;  765.  Benton's  Debates,  VI.;  766.  Randall's  Jefferson,  III.  456; 
767,  768.  Benton's  Debates,  VI.  351,  357;  Schurz's  Clay;  769-773.  Von  Hoist's  U.  S., 
I. ;  Benton's  Debates,  VI.  ;  Gilman's  Monroe  ;  Rhodes's  U.  S.,  I. ;  McMaster's  U.  S., 
IV.;  774.  Randolph's  Jefferson,  IV.  324;  775.  Gilman's  Monroe,  148;  Adams's  Diary, 
etc.;  776.  Schurz's  Clay;  777.  Hart's  U.  S.,  246;  Fiske's  Civil  Gov't ;  778-780.  Gil 
man's  Monroe;  Schouler's  U.  S.,  III.  ;  781.  H.  H.  Bancroft's  Texas;  Benton's  Debates; 
782-790.  Gilman's  Monroe;  Morse's  J.  Q.  Adams;  Randolph's  Jefferson,  IV.;  Williams's 
Statesman's  Man.,  I.  ;  Lalor's  Cyclopaedia ;  Hart's  U.  S. ;  Winsor's  America,  VII.,  VIII.  ; 
791,  792.  Schouler's  U.  S.,  III.;  Harper's  Book  of  Facts  (Tariff);  793-795.  Gilman's 
Monroe;  Niles's  Register;  Schurz's  Clay;  796-800.  Johnston's  Am.  Politics;  Stanwood's 
Presidential  Elections;  Schurz's  Clay;  Von  Hoist's  Calhoun ;  Sumner's  Jackson;  Morse's 
J.  Q.  Adams. 

(References  801-900.)  801-803.  Morse's  J.  Q.  Adams;  Williams's  Statesman's 
Man.,  I. ;  804-807.  Renwick's  Dewitt  Clinton  ;  Lamb's  N.  Y.  City;  Schouler's  U.  S.,  III.; 
Scribner's  U.  S.  ;  Harper's  Mag.,  June,  1893  ;  808-811.  Higginson's  Larger  U.  S.  ;  Larned's 
Hist.  R.  Ref.,  V.  3362,  3371;  Macy's  Civil  Gov't;  Schouler's  U.  S.,  III.;  812-814.  Wil 
liams's  Statesman's  Man.,  I.  ;  Von  Hoist's  U.  S.,  I.  ;  Schouler's  U.  S.,  III.;  Hart's  U.  S. ; 
815.  Williams's  Statesman's  Man.,  I.;  816,  817.  Niles's  Register,  XXXII.  395;  Web 
ster's  Works,  III.;  818.  Webster's  Works,  III.  237;  819,820.  Lalor's  Cyclopaedia,  art. 
"Tariff";  Benton's  Debates,  IX.;  Johnston's  Am.  Politics,  107;  Am.  Hist.  Regist.  (1827), 
61;  821,  822.  Schouler's  U.  S.,  III.;  Harper's  Book  of  Facts  (Tariff);  823.  Schurz's 
Clay;  Lalor's  Cyclopaedia,  art.  "Tariff";  824.  Calhoun's  Works,  VI.  i;  825.  Webster's 
Correspond.;  Von  Hoist's  Calhoun,  83;  826-828.  Parton's  Jackson,  III.  171,  170;  II. 
361;  Sumner's  Jackson,  50;  829.  Poore's  Reminiscences,  I.  95;  830.  Morse's  J.  Q. 
Adams;  Sumner's  Jackson  ;  831.  Schurz's  Clay,  I.  367  ;  Sumner's  Jackson,  145  ;  832,  833. 


AUTHORITIES    CITED.  XXXV 


Hoists  U.  S.,  11.86;  8*8.  Benton's  Senate,  I.  585;  853,  854.  Garrisons's  Garrison,  II 
20  ;  III.  88;  855.  Files  of  the  Liberator;  856.  Julian's  J.  R.  Giddings,  65  ;  857-859.  Von 
Hoist's  Calhoun  ;  Schurz's  Clay,  II.  73;  Calhoun's  Works,  II.  488;  860.  J.  Q.  Adams's 
Memoirs,  IX.  23;  861.  Benton's  Senate,  I.  623;  Rhodes's  U.  S..  I.;  Madison's  Works- 
862.  Seward's  Works;  863.  Von  Hoist's  U.  S.,  II.  118;  864.  Schurz's  Clay,  I.  360  \ 


874.  Part 
Niles's 


rton's  Gen.  Jackson,  310;  875-878.  Scribner's  U.  S.  ;  C.  F.  Adams's  Railroads'; 
Register;  Scribner's  Statist.  Atlas;  Pat.  Office  Centennial;  Shaler's  U.  S.  ;  Poore's 
Railroads;  879.  Appleton's  Cyc.  Biog.,  "  Hoe  ";  880.  Parton's  Jackson,  III.  257;  Bolles's 
Financ.  Hist.  U.  S.;  881.  Schouler's  U.  S.,  III.  ;  Parton's  Jackson,  III.  ;  882,  883.  Wil- 
liams's  Statesman's  Man.,  I.  713;  Sumner's  Jackson;  884.  Sumner's  Jackson;  885.  Par- 
ton's  Jackson,  111.399;  886-888.  Williams's  Statesman's  Man.,  II.  863-868;  Mason's 
Veto  Power;  889,  890.  Sumner's  Jackson;  Clay's  Speeches,  II.  100;  891.  Benton's 
Senate,  I.  159,  193  251,257;  892.  Schurz's  Clay,  I.  381;  893.  Sumner's  Jackson;  Benton's 
Senate;  894-896.  Schurz's  Clay;  Shepard's  Van  Buren  ;  Von  Hoist's  U.  S.,  II.  178-9, 
194;  Cooley's  Michigan  ;  897.  Sumner's  Jackson;  898.  Benton's  Senate.  II.  39;  899,  900^ 
Mason's  Veto  Power. 

(References  901-1000.)  901.  Williams's  Statesman's  Man.,  II.  1049;  902.  Shep 
ard's  Van  Buren,  234  ;  903.  Stanwood's  P.  Elections;  904.  Congress.  Globe,  Feb.  26  1861  • 
905.  Nicolayand  Hay's  Lincoln,  III.  328;  906.  Lamb's  N.  Y.,  11.732;  907.  Niles's  Reg 
ister  (1837),  166;  Benton's  Senate,  II.  17;  908.  Williams's  Statesman's  Man.,  II.  1069; 
Shepard's  Van  Buren,  320;  909.  Sumner  in  Harper's  ist  Cent.  Report,  252;  910.  Sar 
gent's  Public  Men,  II.  113;  911.  Williams's  Statesman's  Man.,  II.  1053-4;  912.  Greeley's 
Recollections,  144;  913.  Codman's  Brook  Farm  ;  Nordhoff's  Communistic  Soc.  ;  914-918. 
Cannon's  (Mormon)  Hand  Book;  Ford's  Illinois;  Moses's  Illinois,  I.;  H.  H.  Bancroft's 
Utah;  Schouler's  U.  S.,  V.;  Chambers's  Encyclopaedia  (Mormons);  919.  White's  W. 
Miller;  920.  McClintock  and  Strong's  Cyclopaedia,  IX.  956;  Greeley's  Recollections 
234;  921,  922.  Von  Hoist's  U.  S.,  11.272;  Schurz's  Clay,  II.  159;  923,  924.  Morse's  J. 
Q.  Adams,  244,  261  ;  Schouler's  U.  S.  ;  925.  Appleton's  Cyc.  Biog.,  III.  84  ;  926.  Prime's 
Morse;  927.  Eng.  Diet.  Nat.  Biog.  (S.  Cunard);  928.  Gov't  Report  on  Immigration; 
929,  930.  Greeley's  Recollections,  132  ;  Shepard's  Van  Buren,  323  ;  Von  Hoist's  US  II 
377;.McCulloch's  Men  and  Measures,  53;  931.  Tyler's  The  Tylers,  II.  12;  932,  933. 
Williams's  Statesman's  Man.,  II.  ;  Mason's  Veto  Power;  934,  935.  Niles's  Register,  Sept. 
18,  1841  ;  Williams's  Statesman's  Man.,  II.  1418;  Lodge's  Webster;  Schouler's  U  S  IV. 
394;  936,  937.  Greene's  R.  I.;  938,  939.  Schuyler's  N.  Y.,  I.  243-285;  940.  Curtis's 
Webster,  II.  97,  123;  941.  Julian's  J.  R.  Giddings;  942.  Carson's  Supreme  Court;  943, 
944.  Wilson's  Slave  Power;  945,  946.  Williams's  Houston  ;  Greeley's  Slavery  Extension  ; 
Benton's  Debates;  Wilson's  Slave  Power;  Von  Hoist's  U.  S.  ;  Niles's  Register;  Schurz's 
Clay;  Von  Hoist's  Calhoun;  947,  948.  Greeley's  Slavery  Extension,  34,  40;  949,  950.  Von 
Hoist's  U.  S.,  II.  646;  Greeley's  Slavery  Extension;  9ol,  952.  Benton's  Senate.  II.  582, 
584,  604-5;  vs.  Parton's  Jackson,  III.  658;  953.  Tyler's  The  Tylers,  II.  306;  Greeley's 
Slavery  Extension,  35  ;  954.  Benton's  Senate,  II.  616;  955.  Benton's  Senate,  II.  167-18; 
956-960.  Stanwood's  P.  Elections;  Johnston's  Am.  Politics;  Schurz's  Clay,  II.  259;  961. 
Schurz's  Clay,  II.  27I;  962-967.  Prime's  Morse;  Morse  Memorial;  Shaler's  U.  S.  ;  Scrib- 


Von  Hoist's  U.  S.;  Tyler's  The  Tylers.  II.  439 ;  Missionary  Herald,  March,  1869;  Benton's 
Debates;  980.  Williams's  Statesman's  Man.  II.  1489;  981.  Nicolayand  Hay's  Lincoln,  I. 
270;  982.  Howard's  Taylor;  983.  Wright's  Scott,  196;  984.  Grant's  Memoirs,  I.  igt ; 
985-987.  Fremont's  Memoirs,  1.488;  Benton's  Senate,  11.689;  988-991.  H.H.Bancroft's 
California;  Benton's  Senate,  11.692;  Encyc.  Brit. (California) ;  992,993.  U.  S.  Statutes,  IX.; 
Lalor's  Cyclopaedia,  1.98;  994.  Harper's  Book  of  Facts  and  Lalor's  Cyclopaedia  (Tariff); 
995-997.'  Johnston's  Am.  Politics;  Schouler's  U.  S. ;  Von  Hoist's  U.  S. ;  Stephen's  War 
between  the  States,  II.  178;  McPherson's  Rebellion,  254;  998,999.  Von  Hoist's  Calhoun; 
Von  Hoist's  U.  S. ;  Benton's  Debates ;  1000.  Stanton's  Hist.  Woman  Suffrage. 

(References  1001-1100.)  1001-1008.  H.  H.  Bancroft's  California;  Royce's  Cali 
fornia;  Benton's  Debates,  XVI.  261;  Century  Mag.,  Feb.,  1891;  Sherman's  Memoirs,  II. 
40;  Shaler's  U.  S. ;  Johnson's  Cyclopaedia  (Gold) ;  1009.  Wright's  Industrial  Evolution  of 


XXXVI  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 

the  U.  S.  ;  Pat.  Office  Centennial;  1010.  Rice's  Morton;  Hodges's  Introd.  of  Ether 
Scribner's  Mag.,  Oct.,  1892;  Atlantic  Mag.,  Nov.,  1896;  1011,  1012.  Stanwood's  P.  Elec 
tions;  Johnston's  Am.  Politics;  Schurz's  Clay,  II.  311;  1013-1015.  Howard's  Taylor 
FIT'S  Taylor:  1016.  Cutts's  Douglas  and  Party  Questions,  86-124;  1017.  Schurz's  Clay, 
11.320;  1018.  Julian's  J.  R.  Giddings ;  1019-1021.  Von  Hoist's  U.  S.,  III.  472;  Con 
gress.  Globe  (1849),  29;  Johnston  and  Browne's  Stephens,  245;  1022,  1023.  Benton's  Sen 
ate,  II.  742-765;  102-1-1027.  Johnston's  Am.  Politics;  Von  Hoist's  U.  S.  ;  Schurz's  Clay, 

II.  333  ;  Calhoun's  Works,  IV.  572,  577 ;  Benton's  Senate,  II. ;  1028.  Webster's  Works,  V. 
361,  1029.  Seward's  Seward,  I.  126;  1030.  Johnston's  Am.  Politics;  Von  Hoist's  U.  S.  ; 
1031.  Sumner's  Works,  II.  439;  1032.  Giddings's  The  Rebellion,  347;  1033.  Von  Hoist's 
U.  S.,  III.  15;  1034,  1035.  Curtis's  Webster,  II.  519;  1036.  Nicolayand  Hay's  Lincoln, 

III.  327;  1037.  Lalor's  Cyclopedia,    III.   162;  Von    Hoist's   U.  S.  ;  Nicolay  and  Hay's 
Lincoln,  III.  17;  1038.  U.  S.  Census  (1860)  Miscellaneous  Stat.,  337;  1039.  Von  Hoist's 
U.  S.,  III.  552 ;  1040.  May's  Anti-Slavery  Days  ;  Coffins's  Underground  R.  R. ;  Von  Hoist's 
U.  S.,  Ill ;  1041.  Giddings's  The  Rebellion;  1042.  Stowe's  Mrs.  Stowe  ;  1043.  Rhodes's 
U.  S.,  I.  278;  1044,  1045.  Appleton's  Cyc.  Biog.  (Helper) ;  Von  Hoist's  U.  S..VII. ;  1046, 
1047.  Stanwood's  P.  Elections  ;  Johnston's  Am.  Politics;  1048.  U.  S.  Immigration  Reports, 
1049-1051.  Stanwood's  P.  Elections;  Lalor's  Cyclopaedia;  Johnston's  Am.  Politics;  Von 
Hoist's  U.  S.;  1052.  Congress.  Globe,  XXVII.  Append.,  244;  1053.  Greeley's  World's 
Fair;  Bolles's  Indust.  Hist.  U.  S.;  1054-1057.  Rhodes's  U.  S. ;  Von  Hoist's  U.  S.,  IV.; 
Johnston's  Am.  Politics ;  U.  S.  Statutes  at  Large,  X.  283  ;  Cutts's  Douglas ;  1058.  Sum 
ner's  Works,  IV.   155;  1059.  Riddle's  Wade,   227;  1060.  Von    Hoist's   U.  S.,  IV.  349; 
1061.  Seward's  Works;  1062,  1063.  Von  Hoist's  U.  S.,  IV.  407,  301  ;  1064-1067.  Von 
Hoist's  U.  S.,  IV.  363;  Wilson's  Slave  Power,  II.  392;  Von  Hoist's  U.  S.,  IV.  364;  Wil 
son's  Slave  Power,  II.  395;  1068.  Greeley's  Slavery  Extension,  79;  1069.  Thayer's  Kan 
sas   Crusade,  3;  1070.  Greeley's  Slavery   Extension;  1071,    1072.  Lalor's   Cyclopedia; 
Johnston's    Am     Politics-    Stanwood's    P.    Elections    (Republican    Party);    1073-1076. 
Thayer's   Kansas  Crusade ;  Spring's   Kansas ;  Rhodes's    U.    S.  ;  Johnston's  Am.  Politics ; 
Lalor's  Cyclopsedia;  Wilson's  Slave  Power;  Von  Hoist's  U.  S.;    1077.  Sanborn's  John 
Brown;  Von  Hoist's  John  Brown;  Thayer's  Kansas  Crusade  ;  1078.  Spring's  Kansas,  41 ; 
1079.  Greeley's   Am.    Conflict,    I.  241;   Johnston's     Am.    Politics,    172;    1080.  Spring's 
Kansas;  1081,  1082.  Greeley's   Am.  Conflict,    I.  241;  Congress.  Report;   1083,  1084. 
Johnston's   Am.   Politics,  174;  Rhodes's    U.    S.:  1085-1087.  Sumner's   Works,    IV.  144, 
276;  Seward's  Works  ;  Rhodes's  U.S.,  II. ;  1088.  Griffis's  Perry ;  1089-1091.  Claiborne's 
Quitman ;  Lalor's  Cyclopsedia  (Filibusters);   Rhodes's  U.  S. ;  Curtis's   Buchanan;    1092- 
1094.  Stanwood's  P.  Elections;  1095.  Rhodes's  U.  S.,  II.  295;  Nicolayand  Hay's  Lin 
coln;    1096-1100.  Howard's  Rep't   Dred  Scott   Case,   423,    427,   452;  Carson's  Supreme 
Court;  Von  Hoist's  U.  S.  ;  Rhodes's  U.  S.  ;  Benton's  Dred  Scott  Case  ;  Curtis's  Buchanan; 
Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth;  Nicolayand  Hay's  Lincoln. 

(References  1101-1200.)  1101.  Seward's  Works;  1102.  Congressional  Globe; 
1103-1106.  McCulloch's  Half  Century;  Appleton's  Ann.  Cyc.,  1893.399;  Harper's  Cent, 
of  Progress,  252  ;  Rhodes's  U.  S.  ;  Johnson's  Cyc.  (Com.  Crisis) ;  1107-1110.  H.  H.  Ban 
croft's  Nevada,  101 ;  Harper's  ist  Cent,  of  the  Republic;  Whitney's  U.  S. ;  Reports  of 
Director  of  the  U.  S.  Mint;  1111,  1112.  Whitney's  U.  S.;  Harper's  ist  Cent,  of  the 
Republic,  190  ;  1113,  1114.  Whitney's  U.  S.  ;  Carnegie's  Oil  and  Gas  Wells,  Macmillan's 
Mag.,  LI.  208;  1115.  H.  H.  Bancroft's  Utah;  1116-1118.  Curtis's  Buchanan,  II.  ;  H.  H. 
Bancroft's  Utah;  Von  Hoist's  U.  S.  ;  Schouler's  U.  S.,  V. ;  1119,  1120.  Nicolayand  Hay's 
Lincoln;  1121-1123.  Morse's  Lincoln;  Elaine's  Congress;  Herndon's  Lincoln;  Sheahan's 
Douglas;  Rhodes's  U.  S.,  II.;  1124,  1125.  Sanborn's  John  Brown;  Rhodes's  U.  S.; 
Wilson's  Slave  Power;  1126.  Mrs.  Jackson's  "Stonewall"  Jackson;  1127.  Emerson's 
Works;  1128.  Nicolay  and  Hay's  Lincoln;  1129.  Tyler's  The  Tylers;  1130.  Congres 
sional  Report  on  the  John  Brown  Raid;  1131.  Von  Hoist's  John  Brown;  1132.  Stan- 
wood's  P.  Elections;  1133.  Johnston  and  Browne's  Stephens,  355;  1134,  1135. 
Stanwood's  P.  Elections;  Johnston's  Am.  Politics;  1136.  Rhodes's  U.  S. ;  Nicolay  and 
Hay's  Lincoln;  1137.  Nicolayand  Hay's  Lincoln;  1138.  Stanwood's  P.  Elections;  1139 
Nicolay  and  Hay's  Lincoln;  Moore's  Rebellion  Record,  I.;  1140.  Curtis's  Buchanan,  II.  ; 
1141.  Morse's  Lincoln,  I.  192;  Curtis's  Buchanan;  Greeley's  Am.  Conflict,  I.  359;  1142. 
Cleveland's  Stephens,  710;  1143.  Lalor's  Cyclopedia;  Johnston's  Am.  Politics;  1144. 
Moore's  Rebellion  Record,  I.;  Rhodes's  U.  S. ;  Greeley's  Am.  Conflict;  1145.  McPher- 
son's  Rebellion,  14;  1146.  Moore's  Rebellion  Record,  I.;  Morse's  Lincoln;  1147. 
McPherson's  Rebellion,  15;  1148.  Rhodes's  U.  S. ;  1149.  Nicolay  and  Hay's  Lincoln; 
1150.  Pollard's  The  Lost  Cause;  1151,  1152.  McPherson's  Rebellion,  26,  103-4; 
1153.  Davis's  Confederate  States  (Confed.  Const.) ;  1154.  Madison's  Works ;  Jefferson's 
Works;  Wilson's  Slave  Power;  1155,  1156.  Wilson's  Slave  Power;  Smith's  Georgia; 
1157.  Smith's  Georgia;  1158,  1159.  Trenholm  in  Wright's  Indust.  Evol.  U.  S. ;  1160. 
Nicolay  and  Hay's  Lincoln;  1161.  Lincoln's  Works,  II.  15;  1162.  Lothrop's  Seward; 
Rhodes's  U.  S. ;  1163.  Warden's  Chase,  371  ;  Julian's  Recollections,  190  ;  1164.  Wright's 
Scott, 299;  1165.  Lincoln's  Works,  II.  11-22  ;  1166.  Rhodes's  U.  S.,  III.;  1167.  Rhodes's 
U.S.,  1 1 1.;  Nicolay  and  Hay's  Lincoln;  116*.  Lincoln's  Works  ;  1169.  Morse's  Lincoln  ; 


AUTHORITIES    CITED.  XXXV11 

Nicolayand  Hay's  Lincoln;  Greelev's  Am.  Conflict;  1170.  U.  S.  Immigration  Reports; 
1171,  117-2.  Grant's  Memoirs;  1173.  Greeley's  Am.  Conflict  (Append.);  Dodge's  Civil 
War;  1174.  Congressional  Report;  1175,1176.  Pollard's  Lost  Cause;  1177.  McPher- 
son's  Rebellion,  517;  1178.  Goldwin  Smith's  U.  S.  ;  1179,  1180.  Lincoln's  Works; 
1181.  Jackson's  Report,  Records  of  the  Rebellion,  II.  482;  1182.  Morse's  Lincoln,  I. 
306;  11S3.  Lincoln's  Works;  1184.  Lothrop's  Seward ;  1185.  Seward's  Works;  1186. 
McPherson's  Rebellion,  342;  1187.  Grant's  Memoirs;  1188.  Morse's  Lincoln;  1189. 
Welles's  (Annals  of  the  War),  24;  1190.  Lincoln's  Works;  1191.  Mahan's  Farragut; 
1192,1193.  McClellan's  Own  Story  ;  1194.  Rope's  Pope  ;  Andrews's  U.  S.  ;  1195,1196. 
Cooke's  Lee;  1197.  Lincoln's  Works;  1198.  Seward's  Diplomatic  Corresp.;  1199. 
McPherson's  Rebellion  ;  1200.  Phillip's  Speeches. 

(References  1201-1300.)  1201.  Parton's  Butler;  1202.  Morse's  Lincoln;  1203- 
1206.  Lincoln's  Works;  Greeley's  Am.  Conflict;  1207.  Nicolay  and  Hay's  Lincoln; 
1208.  Greeley's  Am.  Conflict;  1209.  Lincoln's  Works;  1210.  Greeley's  Am.  Conflict; 
1211.  Report  on  the  Conduct  of  the  War  (1865),  III.  (Misc.)  77;  1212.  Greeley's  Am. 
Conflict;  1213.  Lincoln's  Works,  II.;  1214,  1215.  Cooke's  Lee;  Longstreet's  Ma- 
nassas  to  Appomattox;  1216.  Doubleday's  Gettysburg;  Century  Co.'s  Civil  War,  III.; 
1217,1218.  Grant's  Memoirs,  1.443,444,449;  1219,1220.  Century  Co.'s  Civil  War,  III.  ; 
1221.  Scribner's  Civil  War,  VIII.  (Greene's  Mississippi),  202;  1222.  Badeau's  U.  S. 
Grant;  1223.  Lincoln's  Works;  1224.  Grant's  Memoirs;  1225.  Official  Records, 
XXXII.  176  (Sherman's  Report;;  1226,  1227.  Grant's  Memoirs;  1228,  1229.  Century 
Co.'s  Civil  War,  IV. ;  Grant's  Memoirs  ;  1230-1232.  Greeley's  Am.  Conflict ;  Grant's 
Memoirs;  1233.  Century  Co.'s  Civil  War  ;  Greeley's  Am.  Conflict ;  1234-1236.  Badeau's 
U.  S.  Grant;  Grant's  Memoirs;  1237.  Grant's  Memoirs;  1238.  Sheridan's  Memoirs; 
Davies's  Sheridan;  1239.  Grant's  Memoirs;  1240.  Sherman's  Memoirs;  1241.  Swinton's 
Decisive  Battles;  1242,  1243.  Sherman's  Memoirs,  II.  in,  118,  126-7;  1244,  1245.  Stan- 
wood's  P.  Elections;  McPherson's  Rebellion,  421;  1246.  Sherman's  Memoirs;  1247. 
Grant's  Memoirs ;  1248.  Sherman's  Memoirs;  1249.  Thomas's  Report;  Swinton's  Deci- 


(Statistics);  Dodge's  Civil  War  (rev.  ed.) ;  1260.  Foster's  Comment,  on  the  Constitution; 
1261.  Poore's  Charters  and  Constitutions;  1262.  Decisions  of  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court 
(Texas  -us.  White)  (1868);  1263-1265.  Savage's  Johnson;  McPherson's  Reconstruction; 
1266.  Lodge's  Lincoln;  Lincoln's  Works;  1267-1269.  Lodge's  Lincoln;  Lincoln's 
Works;  1270.  Savage's  Johnson;  McPherson's  Reconstruction;  1271.  Calender's 
Stevens;  Morse's  Lincoln;  1272.  Boutwell's  Constitution;  1273.  Cleveland's  Stephens, 
806;  1274.  Hughes's  Johnston,  281  ;  1275,  1276.  McPherson's  Reconstruction;  1277. 
Savage's  Johnson ;  1278.  McPherson's  Reconstruction;  Johnson's  Speeches;  Elaine's 
Congress,  II.  239;  1279.  McPherson's  Reconstruction;  Lalor's  Cyclopedia;  1280. 
McPherson's  Reconstruction;  Chadsey's  Johnson  in  Columbia  Univ.  Papers;  1281. 
Boutwell's  Constitution ;  1282.  McPherson's  Reconstruction,  261;  1283,  1284.  Moore's 
Congress,  421-434;  McPherson's  Reconstruction;  Chadsey's  Johnson  vs.  Congress  in 
Columbia  Univ.  Papers  (1897);  1285,  1286.  McPherson's  Reconstruction;  1287. 
Seward's  Seward,  III.  346;  1288.  McPherson's  Reconstruction,  416;  1289.  H.  H. 
Bancroft's  California;  Grant's  Memoirs,  II.  551  ;  Supplement  to  Encyc.  Brit.  (Rail 
roads);  1290.  Moore's  Congress,  467;  1291-1294.  Andrews's  Last  Quarter  Century,  I. 
120,  155;  Williams's  Negro  Race,  II.  381;  Bryce's  Am.  Commonwealth,  III.  94;  Lalor's 
Cyclopedia  ;  Pike's  Prostrate  State  ;  1295.  Lalor's  Cyclopedia  (Ku  Klux  Klan) ;  Elaine's 
Congress,  II.  469;  1296.  Wright's  Indust.  Evol.  U.  S.;  Ely's  Labor  Movement;  1297. 
Elaine's  Congress,  II.  632  ;  Lalor's  Cyclopedia  (Treaties) ;  1298-1300.  Stanwood's  P. 
Elections  ;  Johnston's  Am.  Politics ;  Lalor's  Cyclopedia. 

(References  1301-1343.)  1301.  Laughlin's  Bimetalism  (rev.  ed.) ;  John  Sherman's 
Autobiog.,  II.  467;  Walker's  Internal.  Bimetallism  ;  1302.  Senate  Rept.  Belknap  Impeach 
ment,  200;  1303.  Andrews's  Last  Quarter  Century,  1.253;  Appleton's  Ann.  Cyc.  (1893), 
599;  1304.  Ely's  Labor  Movement;  Polit.  Science  Quarterly,  1891;  1305.  McPherson's 
Handbook  of  Politics  (1874);  1306,  1307.  Stanwood's  P.  Elections,  307,  302-344;  1308. 
C.  Schurz  in  Harper's  Weekly,  XLI.  219;  Chadwick's  G.  W.  Curtis;  1309.  Wright's 
Indust.  Evol.  U.  S. ;  Reports  of  Labor  Bureau;  1310.  McPherson's  Reconstruction;  1311. 
McPherson's  Handbook  of  Politics,  1878;  1312.  John  Sherman's  Autobiog.,  II.  618;  Taus- 
sig's  Silver  Situation;  Andrews's  Last  Quarter  Century;  Elaine's  Congress;  1313.  Stan- 
wood's  P.  Elections;  1314.  Appleton's  Ann.  Cyc.  (Eads);  1315.  Ridpath's  Garneld; 
Appleton's  Ann.  Cyc.  (1881),  318;  Andrews's  Last  Quarter  Century;  1316.  McPherson's 
Handbook  of  Politics  (1884);  Lalor's  Cyclopedia;  1317.  Andrews's  Last  Quarter  Century; 
1318.  Carson's  Supreme  Court,  498;  1319.  Johnson's  Cyclopedia  ^Mormons) ;  1320. 
Appleton's  Ann.  Cyc.  (1885),  231;  McPherson's  Handbook  of  Politics;  1321.  Whittle's 
Cleveland;  1322.  McPherson's  Handbook  of  Politics  (i  888) ;  1323.  Mason's  Veto  Power; 
McPherson's  Handbook  of  Politics  (1887);  1324.  Stanwood's  P.  Elections;  1326. 


XXXV111  THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 

McPherson's  Handbook  of  Politics  (1890) ;  1326.  U.  S.  Pension  Office  Report ;  1327,  1328. 
John  Sherman's  Autobiog.,  II.  1188;  1329,  1330.  Mulhall's  Diet.  Statistics;  Wright's 
Indust.  Evol.  U.S.;  1331.  Pat.  Off.  Centennial  Proc. ;  Wright's  Indust.  Evol.  U.  S.  ; 
13352.  Labor  Bureau  Report ;  1333.  Stanwood's  P.  Elections ;  1334.  McPherson's  Hand 
book  of  Politics  (1894) ;  1335.  John  Sherman's  Autobiog.  ;  1336.  McPherson's  Handbook 
of  Politics  (1894);  1337.  Estimates  by  Labor  Bureau;  Ely's  Labor  Movement;  1338. 
McPherson's  Handbook  of  Politics  (1894) ;  Harper's  Book  of  Facts  (Tariff)  ;  1339. 
McPherson's  Handbook  of  Politics  (1890),  61 ;  1340.  U.  S.  Commissioner  of  Ed.  Report, 
1894-5;  Andrews's  Last  Quarter  Century;  1341,  1342.  Appleton's  Ann.  Cyc.  (1896); 
1343.  Stanwood's  P.  Elections;  1344,  1345.  Appleton's  Ann.  Cyc.  (1897);  1346.  Johns 
Hopkins  Univ.  Studies,  III;  Ely's  Socialism;  1347.  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  U.S., 
1897,  1898,  pub.  by  the  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Statistics;  Appleton's  Ann.  Cyc.  (1898);  1348. 
Morris's  War  with  Spain;  Harper's  War  with  Spain;  McKinley's  Messages  to  Congress; 
Reports  of  the  Departments  of  War,  the  Treasury,  and  Navy,  1898 ;  Appfaton's  Ann.  Cyc. 
(1897,  1898) ;  1349,  1350.  Statistical  Abstract  of  the  U.  S.,  1898  (see  above) ;  Report  of  the 
Department  of  Agriculture,  1898. 


TABLE    OF    BOUNDARIES.  XXXviH  * 


TABLE    OF    BOUNDARIES    OF   THE    UNITED    STATES. 

( The  student  of  A  merican  History  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  political  boundaries  of 
the  United  States  have  been  determined  to  a  very  large  degree  by  the  natural  boundaries 
of:  i.  coast  lines;  2.  rivers  and  lakes  ;  3.  watersheds  ;  4.  mountain  ranges.) 

I.  (1783)  By  the  final  Treaty  of  Peace  of  1783  the  boundary  of  the  American 
Republic  (see  "  Map  of  U.S.  in  1783  »)  was  fixed,  in  general  terms,  as  fol 
lows:  The  line  separating  the  United  States  from  the  British  possessions 
began  at  the  Bay  of  Fundy  and  ran  to  "the  northwest  angle  of  Nova  Scotia," 
thence  "to  the  Highlands,"  and  thence  "  along  the  said  Highlands  which 
divide  those  rivers  that  empty  themselves  into  the  river  St.  Lawrence,  from 
those  which  fall  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean."  Thence  the  line  ran  westerly 
along  the  45th  parallel,  the  middle  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  the  middle  of 
the  Great  Lakes  to  the  Lake  of  the  Woods.  On  the  west,  the  line  sepa 
rating  the  United  States  from  the  Spanish  province  of  Louisiana  was 
drawn  from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  to  the  head-waters  of  the  Mississippi 
and  thence  down  the  middle  of  that  river  to  the  3ist  parallel  —  or  the 
frontier  of  the  Spanish  province  of  West  Florida.  On  the  south,  the  line 
extended  due  east  from  the  Mississippi  along  the  3ist  parallel  to  the  Chat- 
tahoochee  River  in  Georgia  and  thence  to  the  sea  as  shown  on  the  map. 
(See  "U.  S.  Statutes  at  Large,"  VIII.,  80;  Macdonald's  "Select  Docu 
ments  of  U.  S.  History";  Winsor's  "  America,"  VII. ;  Gannett's  "  Bound 
aries  of  the  U.S.";  Hinsdale's  "  Bounding  the  Original  U.  S."  in  "  Mag. 
of  Western  History,"  II.,  401;  Hart's  "Epoch  Maps  of  American  His 
tory.") 

Much  of  the  region  through  which  the  northern  boundary  ran  was  an 
unexplored  wilderness  and  the  line  was  largely  pure  guesswork.  This  was 
the  case  west  of  Lake  Superior,  and  notably  so  in  the  northeast,  between 
what  is  now  the  State  of  Maine  and  the  British  possessions.  The  result 
was  that  for  nearly  sixty  years  this  northeast  line  was  a  subject  of  angry 
dispute  and  the  controversy  was  not  finally  settled  until  the  negotiation  of 
the  Webster-Ashburtbn  Treaty  of  1842.  (See  Winsor's  "America,"  VII.; 
and  Benton's  "Thirty  Years  in  the  U.  S.  Senate,"  II.,  421.) 

H.  (1795)  Spain  refused  to  recognize  the  southern  boundary  of  the  United 
States  as  determined  by  the  Treaty  of  Peace  of  1783  (see  above,  No.  I.). 
She  claimed  that  her  province  of  West  Florida  extended  no  miles  north  of 
the  3ist  parallel  and  that  the  true  boundary  line,  separating  her  possessions 
in  that  quarter  from  the  United  States,  extended  due  east  from  the  Missis 
sippi  from  the  mouth  of  the  Yazoo  to  the  Chattahoochee  River  in  Georgia. 


xxxviii  **         STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

In  1795  Spain  relinquished  her  claim  to  the  disputed  territory,  and, 
furthermore,  granted  to  the  United  States  the  free  navigation  of  the  lower 
Mississippi,  besides  conceding  the  temporary  right  of  deposit  (or  storage 
for  merchandise)  at  the  port  of  New  Orleans.  (See  "  U.  S.  Statutes  at 
Large,"  V1IL,  and  Winsor  and  Hinsdale,  as  above.) 

III.  (1803)     In  1803  the  United  States  purchased  the  province  of   Louisiana, 

which  Spain  had  receded  to  France.  That  immense  territory  extended 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi  northward  to  its  source,  and  had  the 
Rocky  Mountains  as  its  natural  boundary  on  the  west.  We  bought  the 
country  without  receiving  any  definite  limits,  and  hence  further  negotia 
tions  became  necessary  with  respect  to  boundary  lines  (see  below). 

IV.  (1818)     In  consequence  of  the  above  purchase  of  Louisiana  a  treaty  made  by 

us  with  Great  Britain  in  1818  extended  the  northern  line  of  the  United 
States  from  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  (see  above,  No.  I.)  westward  along  the 
49th  parallel  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  same  treaty  provided  that  the 
country  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  north  of  the  42d  parallel  (or  the  recog 
nized  Spanish  frontier),  and  known  as  the  Oregon  country,  should  be  held 
jointly  by  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain. 

V.  (1819-1825)     In  1819  Spain  sold  Florida  to  us,  and  in  the  treaty  defined  the 

unsettled  western  boundary  of  Louisiana  (see  above,  Nos.  III.  and  IV.)  by 
an  irregular  line  which  began  at  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  approximately  fol 
lowed  the  watershed  south  and  west  of  the  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi  to 
the  42d  parallel.  At  the  same  time  Spain  agreed  to  renounce  all  claims 
to  the  Oregon  country.  This  was  to  us  a  most  important  concession. 
Six  years  later  (1825)  a  treaty  made  with  Russia  fixed  the  northern 
limit  of  the  Oregon  country  (before  unsettled)  at  54°  40',  or  what  is  now  the 
southern  boundary  of  Alaska. 

VI.  (1842)     In  1842  the  Webster-Ashburton  Treaty  (see  Index  under  "  Treaty") 

settled  the  long  dispute  over  the  northeastern  boundary  (see  above,  No.  I.) 
and  reaffirmed  the  line  of  1818  to  the  Rocky  Mountains  (see  above,  No. 
IV.). 
VII.   (1845)     In  1845  we  annexed  Texas;  the  boundary  question  was  settled  by  the 

Mexican  War. 

VIII.  (1846)  In  1846  a  treaty  made  by  us  with  Great  Britain  divided  the  Oregon 
country  between  the  two  nations  by  extending  the  boundary  line  of  the  49th 
parallel  (see  above,  No.  IV.)  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  Pacific. 
(See  in  general  the  "  Map  of  Acquisitions  of  Territory.") 

IX.    (1848-1867)     All  subsequent  United  States  boundary  lines  on  the  continent 
(see  map  cited  above)  were  determined  by  Mexican  cessions  in  1848,  the 
Gadsden  Purchase  in  1853,  and  the  Alaska  Purchase  in  1867. 
X.   (1898-1899)     The  islands  recently  acquired  by  the  United  States  present  no 
difficulties  respecting  boundaries. 


STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


XXXIX 


POPULATION  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AT  EACH  CENSUS. 


YEAR. 

POPULATION. 

POPULATION 
LIVING  IN  CITIES. 

INHABITANTS  OF 
CITIES  >N  EACH  ioo  OF 
THE  TOTAL  POPU 
LATION. 

1790 

3,929»2I4 

131,472 

3-35 

1800 

5.308483 

210,873 

3-97 

1810 

7,239,881 

356,920 

4-93 

1820 

9,633,822 

475,135 

4-93 

1830 

12,866,020 

1,864,509 

6.72 

1840 

17,069,453 

i,453>994 

8.52 

1850 

23,191,876 

2,897,586 

12.49 

1860 

31,443,321 

5,072,256 

16.13 

1870 

38,558,371 

8,071,875 

20.93 

1880 

50,155.783 

11,318,547 

22.57 

1890 

62,622,250 

18,284,385 

29.20 

1900 

76,304,799 

24,992,199 

33-'o 

All  places  having  a  population  of  8000  and  over  are  classed  as  cities. 

POPULATION   OF  THE   FREE  AND  THE    SLAVE    STATES, 
1790-1860. 


YEAR. 

FREE  STATES. 

SLAVE  STATES. 
(Including  Negroes.) 

1790 

1,968,455 

1,961,372 

1800 

2,684,616 

2,621,316 

1810 

3>758,9!0 

3,480,902 

1820 

5,152,372 

4,485,819 

1830 

7,006,399 

5,848,312 

1840 

9,733,922 

7,334,433 

1850 

1  3»  599,488 

9,663,997 

1860 

19,128,418 

'2,315,372 

xl 


STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


REPRESENTATION   IN   CONGRESS    FROM    1790  TO   1893. 


YEAR. 

SENATE. 

HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES. 

RATIO  OF 
REPRESEN 
TATION.1 

FREE  STATES. 

SLAVE  STATES. 

FREE  STATES. 

SLAVE  STATES. 

1790 

14 

12 

35 

3° 

3O,OOO 

'793 

16 

14 

57 

48 

33>ooo 

1796 

16 

16 

57 

49 

33,000 

1803 

18 

16 

76 

65 

33,000 

1813 

18 

18 

103 

78 

35,000 

1816 

20 

18 

103 

78 

35.ooo 

1821 

24 

24 

I05 

81 

35.000 

1823 

24 

24 

123 

90 

40,000 

1833 

24 

24 

141 

99 

47,700 

1837 

26 

26 

142 

IOO 

47,700 

1843 

26 

26 

135 

88 

70,680 

1848 

30 

30 

140 

9i 

70,680 

1853 

32 

30 

144 

90 

93»423 

1860 

36 

30 

i47 

90 

93»423 

1863 

72 

243 

127,381 

1873 

76 

293 

I3M25 

1883 

76 

325 

151,9" 

1893 

88 

356 

i73.9oi 

1  The  number  of  representatives  is  fixed  by  Congress  every  ten  years  (Constitution,  Art.  I. 
sect.  2).  By  the  last  act  (1892)  it  was  provided  that  there  should  be  one  representative  for 
every  173,901  persons;  this  will  hold  good  until  1903.  To  find  the  electoral  vote,  add  to 
gether  the  number  of  Senators  and  Representatives;  e.g.,  the  electoral  vote  in  1790  wa»  91. 


STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

THE    SECTIONS    IN    1870. 


xli 


SECTIONS. 

POPULATION 
IN  1870. 

ENATE. 

1 

o 
ffi 

1 

OJ 

H 

W 

THE  SOUTH  :  (Ala.,  Ark.,  Fla.,  Ga.,  Ky.,  La 

.,  Md., 

Miss.,  N.  C.,  S.  C.,  Tenn.,  Tex.,  Va., 
THE    NORTHWEST:    (111.,    la.,    Ind.,    Ks., 

W.  V.) 
Mich., 

12,032,225 

28 

92 

1  20 

Minn.,  Mo.,  Neb.,  O.,  Wis.)      .     .     . 

12,702,299 

2O 

98 

118 

THE  MIDDLE  STATES  :  (Del.,  N!  J.,  N.  Y., 
NEW  ENGLAND  :  (Conn.,  Mass.,  Me.,  N.  H 

Penn.) 
,R.  I., 

8,941,625 

8 

68 

76 

Vt.)  ... 

28 

THE  PACIFIC  :  (Cal.,  Col.,  Nev.,  Or.)    .     . 

889,789 

8 

7 

15 

Total 

76 

,6q 

The  total  population  includes  Territories  and  Indians. 


THE   SECTIONS    IN   1880. 


SECTIONS. 

POPULATION 
IN  1880. 

SENATE. 

H 

D 
O 

ffi 

</> 

1 

5 

w 

THE  SOUTH 

28 

106 

THE  NORTHWEST    

THE  MIDDLE  STATES       . 

g 

-9 

NEW  ENGLAND 

26 

11 

THE  PACIFIC  

1,296,367 

8 

9 

17 

Total 

76 

SgiF"  The  total  population  includ 
Feb.  25,  1882,  took  effect  March  3,  i 


des  Territories  and  Indians.     The  Apportionment  Act  of 


THE   SECTIONS   IN   1890. 


SECTIONS. 

POPULATION 
IN  1890. 

SENATE. 

H 

D 
O 

ffi 

I 

o 
> 

W 

THE  SOUTH     

28 

THE  NORTHWEST               .                   . 

128   ' 

g 

'ii 

THE  PACIFIC  

2,606,495 

16 

*7 

33 

Total  

88 

•»c6 

Jg^"  The  new  States  of  Montana,  Washington,  Idaho,  Wyoming,  and  Utah  are  classed 
with  the  Pacific  States.  The  Dakotas  are  classed  with  the  Northwest.  The  total  population 
includes  the  Territories.  The  Apportionment  Act  of  Feb.  7,  1891,  took  effect  March  3, 1893. 
The  next  apportionment  will  take  effect  in  1003. 


INDEX. 


Abolitionists,  rise  of  the,  311,  324. 
Acadians,  expulsion  of  the,  139. 
Adams,  John,  elected  President,  236. 
administration  of,  238. 
John  Quincy,  elected  President,  297. 
administration  of,  298. 
and  slavery,  311,  314,  324,  326,  331. 
and  the  Monroe  Doctrine,  294,  295. 
Samuel,  169,  173,  175. 
Agriculture  in  the  West,  324,  372,  520,  540. 
Alabama  admitted,  286. 
"  Alabama,"  the,  claims,  408,  486. 
Alaska,  purchase  of,  478. 
Albany  founded,  43,  49. 

plan  of  union,  138. 
Algiers,  war  with,  253. 

treaty  with,  236. 
Alien  and  Sedition  Laws,  240. 
Allen,  Ethan,  174. 

Amendments  to  the  Constitution,  the  first 
twelve,  221,  247. 

after  the  Civil  War,  470,  471,  477. 
America  discovered  by  the  Northmen,  i. 
discovered  by  Columbus,  5. 
continent  of,  discovered  (1497)  by  John 
Cabot,  8. 

claimed  (1497)  by  England,  8,  9. 
how  discovered  to  be  a  continent,  10. 
name  of,  9. 

effects  of  the  discovery  of,  on  Europe,  24. 
English  and  French  colonies,  16,  18. 
England's  reasons  for  colonizing,  27. 
first  law-making  assembly  in,  33. 
Dutch  settlements  in,  43. 
first  permanent  English  settlement  in, 

28. 

French  settlements  in,  16,  17. 
Spanish  settlements  in,  16. 
Swedish  settlements  in,  108. 
struggle   of    England  and   France   for, 

128-143. 

declares  itself  independent,  185. 
first  flag  of,  182,  193. 
"  American  Policy"  (tariff),  296,  315. 
Americas,  Congress  of  the  three,  510. 
Amnesty,  proclamations  of,  467,  473,  477, 

S'4- 

Anarchists  at  Chicago,  505. 
Anderson,  Major  R.,  at  Fort  Sumter,  396, 402. 
Andersonville  prison-pen,  430. 
Andre  executed,  201. 
Andros,  Governor,  50,  51,  59,  82,  97. 
Anne's,  Queen,  War,  135. 
Annexation  of  Texas,  339-342. 
Anthracite  coal  discovered,  120. 
Antietam,  battle  of,  424. 
Anti-Slaver}'  (see  Abolitionists),  311. 


Appomattox,  Lee's  surrender  at,  460. 
Apprentices,  white,  in  Virginia,  33,  35. 
Arbitration,  international,  486,  517,  520,  523 
Arkansas  slave  territory,  287. 

admitted,  325. 
Army  of  the  Revolution,  175. 

of  the  War  of  1812,  266. 

of  the  Mexican  War,  349. 

of  the  Civil  War,  403,  407,  461,  469. 
Arnold,   Benedict,  in  the   Revolution,   183, 
194. 

treason  of,  200. 
Art,  early  American,  158. 
Arthur  becomes  President,  501. 
Articles  of  Confederation,  186,  209,  210,  215. 
Assemblies,  Colonial,  34,  47,  49,  55,  57,  66, 
71,  84,  88,  95,  97,  101,  102,  105,  106,  109, 
112,  119,  120,  127. 
Assistance,  Writs  of,  165. 
Association,  Articles  of,  172,  173. 
Assumption  of  State  debts,  223. 
Astor,  John  J.,  and  the  War  of  1812,  267. 

and  Oregon,  346. 
Atlanta  taken  by  Sherman,  449. 

Exhibition,  518. 

Atlantic  telegraph  completed,  478. 
Austin,  S.  F.,  and  Texas,  293. 
Australian  ballot  introduced,  508. 
Authors,  American,  318. 

Bacon,  Nathaniel,  rebellion  of,  39,  40. 
Balboa  discovers  the  Pacific,  13. 
Ballot,  Australian,  or  secret,  508. 
Baltimore,  Lord,  founds  Maryland,  99. 
Baltimore,  city  of,  founded,  103. 

first  blood  in  Civil  War  shed  at,  404. 
Bank,  the  first  U.  S.,  established,  224. 

the  second  U.  S.,  279. 

U.  S.,  Jackson  and  the,  319-323. 
Banks,  the  "  pet,"  322. 

state,  322. 

wildcat,  322. 

national,  established,  408. 

savings-banks,  growth  of,  542. 
Banks,  General  N.  P.,  422,  441. 
Baptist  Church,  the  first,  105. 
Baptists  driven  out  of  Massachusetts,  78. 

go  to  Rhode  Island,  105. 
Battle  of  Alamance,  114. 

Allatoona,  452. 

Antietam,  or  Sharpsburg,  424. 

Atlanta,  449. 

Averysboro',  457. 

Ball's  Bluff  (note),  415. 

Bemis  Heights,  193. 

Benninsrton,  192. 

Dentonville,  458. 


xliv 


THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


Battle  of  Big  Black  River,  439. 
Bladensburg,  272. 
Brandywine,  191. 
Buena  Vista,  350. 
Bull  Run  (first),  or  Manassas,  414. 
Bull  Run  (second),  or  Manassas,  424. 
Bunker  Hill,  181,  182. 
Camden  (first),  200. 
Camden  (second;,  or  Hobkirk's   Hill, 

204. 

Cerro  Gordo,  351. 
Champion  Hills,  439. 
Chancellorsville,  433. 
Chapultepec,  352. 
Charleston,  199. 

evacuated,  457. 

Chesapeake  and  Shannon,  270. 
Chickamauga,  441. 
Chippewa,  272. 
Chrysler's  Farm,  272. 
Churubusco,  352. 
Cold  Harbor,  446. 
Concord,  174. 
"  Constellation,"  the,  captures  a  French 

frigate,  240. 

"  Constitution  "  and  "  Guerriere,"  268. 
Contreras,  352. 
Corinth,  432. 
Cowpens,  202. 
Crown  Point,  174. 
Dallas,  449. 

Detroit,  Hull's  surrender  of,  267. 
"  Essex,"  the,  in  the  Pacific,  269. 
Eutaw  Springs,  205. 
Fair  Oaks,  or  Seven  Pines,  423. 
Flamborough  Head  (Paul  Jones),  198. 
Fort  Donelson,  416. 
Fort  Duquesne,  137. 
Fort  Fisher,  456. 
Fort  Henry,  416. 
Fort  McAllister,  454. 
Fort  McHenry,  273. 
Fort  Mims  (massacre),  273. 
Fort  Moultrie,  184. 
Fort  Pillow,  430. 
Fort  Stanwix,  193. 
Fort  Sumter,  403. 
Fort  Wagner,  430. 
Fort  Washington,  188. 
Franklin,  454. 
Fredericksburg,  425. 
Germantown,  192. 
Gettysburg,  434-437- 
Guilford  Court  House,  204. 
Hobkirk's  Hill,  204. 
Horseshoe  Bend   or  Tohopeka,  273. 
Island  Number  Ten,  418. 
luka,  432. 

"  Kearsarge  "  and  "  Alabama,"  455. 
Kenesaw  Mountain,  449. 
King's  Mountain,  202. 
Lake  Champlain,  271. 
Lake  Erie,  270. 
Lexington,  173,  174. 
Long  Island,  186-188. 
Lookout  Mountain,  442. 
Louisburg,  135. 
Lundy's  Lane,  272. 
Manila,  534,  537,  53»- 
Mill  Spring,  417. 


Battle  of  Missionary  Ridge,  44*. 

Mobile  Bay,  455. 

Molino  del  Ray,  352. 

"  Monitor  "  and  the  "  Merrimac,"  419. 

Monmouth,  195. 

Monterey,  350. 

Murfreesboro',  or  Stone  River,  432. 

Narragansett  Fort,  80. 

Nashville,  454. 

New  Orleans  (1815),  276. 

New  Orleans  (1862),  420. 

Oriskany,  193. 

Palo  Alto,  349. 

Pea  Ridge,  415. 

Peninsular  Campaign,  421. 

Pequot  Fort,  94. 

Perryville,  431. 

Petersburg,  446. 

Petersburg  (Mine),  447. 

Pittsburg  Landing,  or  Shiloh,  418. 

Port  Hudson,  440. 

Princeton,  189. 

Quebec  (1759),  140. 

Quebec  (1775),  183. 

Resaca,  449. 

Resaca  de  la  Palma,  350. 

San  Juan,  536. 

Santiago,  536. 

Saratoga,  194. 

Savannah,  454. 

Seven  days  round  Richmond,  423. 

Spottsylvania  Court  House,  446. 

Stony  Point,  198. 

Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point,  174,  175. 

Tippecanoe, 264. 

Tohopeka,  273. 

Trenton,  189. 

Tripoli,  253. 

Tuflahoma,  432,  441. 

Turner's  Falls,  80. 

Vera  Cruz,  351. 

Vicksburg,  siege  and  capture  of,  438-441. 

Wilderness,  the,  445. 

Wilson's  Creek  (note),  415. 

Winchester,  448. 

Yorktown,  207. 

Beauregard,  General  P.  G.  T.,403,  418,  431. 
Behring  Sea  case,  517. 
Bemis  Heights,  or  Saratoga,  battle  of,  193. 
Benton,  Thomas  H.,  321,  340,  346,  364,  373. 
Berkeley,  Sir  William,  37- 
Biloxi,  the  French  build  a  fort  at,  133. 
Black  Hawk  War,  3  iq. 

Bland-Allison  Silver  Act,  497 ;  repealed,  511. 
Blockade,  the,  in  the  Civil  War,  461. 
Boone,  Daniel,  in  Kentucky,  115. 
Border  States  in  the  Civil  War,  405. 
Boston,  settlement  of,  69. 

Latin  School,  74. 

Massacre,  168. 

"Tea  Party,"  169. 

port  of,  closed,  170. 

siege  of,  173-183. 

evacuated  by  the  British,  184. 
Braddock's  defeat,  138,  139. 
Bradford,  Governor,  of  Plymouth,  64. 
Bragg,  General  B.,  431. 
Brown,  John,  in  Kansas,  377. 

raid  and  execution  of,  390. 

John  Brown  song,  391. 


INDEX. 


xlv 


Brown  University  founded,  107. 
Buchanan  elected  President,  381. 

administration  of,  383-399. 
Buell,  General  D.  C.,  417,  431,  432. 
"  Bummers,"  Sherman's,  455. 
Burgesses,  House  of,  established,  34. 
Burgoyne  expedition,  191-194. 
Burnside,  General  A.  E.,  425,  434. 
Burr,  Aaron,  conspiracy  of,  255. 
Butler,  General  B.  F.,  and  the  contrabands, 
426. 
at  New  Orleans,  421  ;   427,  456. 

Cabeza  de  Vaca,  13. 
Cabinet,  the  first,  220. 

the  enlarged  (note),  506. 
Cabot,  John,  discovers  (1497)  the  continent 
of  America,  8. 

claims  America  (1497)  for  England,  8,9. 
Cabots,  voyages  of  the,  7,  8. 
Calhoun  and  nullification,  315. 

resolutions  (.1837),  331  ;  (1847),  355. 

defends  slavery,  314,  331,  364. 

exposition  and  protest,  306. 

urges  the  annexation  of  Texas,  339. 

advocates  War  of  1812,  265. 

"  Liberty  dearer  than  Union,"  310. 

and  Compromises  of  1850,  364. 
California,  conquest  of,  352,  353. 

gold  found  in,  357. 

emigration  to,  358. 

vigilance  committee,  359. 

results  of  production  of  gold,  358,  359. 

debate  on  admission  of,  as  free  State,  364. 

admission  of,  365. 
Canal,  the  Erie,  299. 

Carolina,  settlements  of  North  and  South, 
no. 

"  The  Grand  Model,"  in. 

religious  toleration,  112. 

settlement  of  Charleston,  112. 

Huguenot  emigrants,  112. 

trade  in  rice  and  indigo,  113. 

Indian  wars,  113. 

Governor  Tryon,  114. 

battle  of  Alamance,  114. 

Robertson  and  Sevier,  115. 

Stamp  Act  Congress,  115. 

nullification  in,  314. 

secession  of,  394. 

negro  rule  in,  483. 
Carpenters'  Hall,  the  first  Congress  meets 

in,  171. 

Carpet-Baggers,  483,  484- 
Carrier's  explorations,  16. 
Carver,  Governor  John,  64. 
Catholics,  the,  in  England,  100. 

severe  treatment  of,  31,  53. 

not  allowed  to  enter  Virginia,  31. 

emigrate  to  Maryland,  100. 

establish    the    first     English    Catholic 
Church  in  America,  100. 

first  in  Pennsylvania,  154. 

grant  religious  freedom  to  all  Christians, 
101. 

are  deprived  of  their  rights,  102. 

missions,  129. 

the,  in  the  different  colonies,  153,  154. 
Cavaliers,  the,  in  Virginia,  37. 
Census,  the  first  (1790),  227. 


Census  of  1800,  245. 

of  1860,  406. 

of  1890,  512;  of  1900,  547. 
Centennial  Exhibition  of  1876,  492. 

celebrations,  507,  508. 

Patent  Office,  celebration  of,  512. 
Chambersburg,  burning  of,  446. 
Champlain,  the  French  explorer,  128. 
Channing,  Dr.,  on  slavery,  311. 
Charleston,  South  Carolina,  settlement  of, 
112. 

surrenders  to  the  Union  army,  457. 
Charters,  Colonial  (see  colonies). 
Charter  Oak,  the,  98. 
Charter  of  the  Virginia  Companies  (1606), 

28. 

Chase,  Secretary  in  Lincoln's  Cabinet,  403. 
Chatham,  Lord  (see  Pitt). 
"  Chesapeake,"  the,  and  the  "  Shannon," 

270. 
Chicago,  first  settlement  at,  3 19. 

Anarchists  in,  505. 

strike  at,  517. 

Columbian  Exposition  at,  515. 
Chinese  immigration,  502,  507. 
Christian  Commission,  the,  411. 
Cincinnati,  settlement  of,  227. 
Cities,  growth  and  government  of  5.46. 
Civil  Service  Reform,  495,  501. 

progress  in,  521,  523. 
Civil  War,  beginning  of  the,  402. 

uprising  of  the  North,  403. 

uprising  of  the  South,  404. 

North  vs.  South  in  the,  405-407. 

financial  side  of,  408. 

Union  navy  in,  408. 

Confederate  privateers  in,  408. 

foreign  powers  in,  410. 

Sanitary  and  Christian  Commissions  in, 
411. 

woman's  work  in  the,  411. 

object  of,  412. 

cost  of,  461. 

loss  of  life  in,  461. 

results  of,  462-464. 

the  grand  review,  469. 

condition  of  the  South  after  the,  470. 
Clark  and  Lewis,  expedition  of,  251. 

George  Rogers,  and  the  West,  197. 
Clay,    Henry,     his    American    system,    or 
tariff,  280,  296,  315.    . 

Compromise  Measures,  291,  364. 

advocates  War  of  1812,  265,  267. 

condemnation  of  slavery,  311. 

denunciation  of  Abolitionists,  314. 

letter  of,  341. 

favors  the  extension  of  slavery,  287. 

resolutions  on  slavery,  331. 
Claybome  and  Ingle,  ipi,  102. 
Cleveland  elected  President,  503. 

administration  of,  504-509. 

vetoes  by,  507. 

second  election  of,  514. 

administration  of,  515-523. 
Clinton,  De  Witt,  and  the  Erie  Canal,  800. 
Clinton,  General,  175,  184,  195,  196,  206. 
Coal  comes  into  use,  228. 
Codfisheries,  Newfoundland  (1497-8),  8,  9; 

(1600),  27;  (1775),  173  ;  (1783),  208. 
Coinage,  first,  225. 


xlvi 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


Coinage,  New,  Act,  489,  490. 

Silver,  Act,  497,  511. 

repealed,  516. 
College,  Harvard,  founded,  74,  158. 

William  and  Mary,  158. 

Yale,  founded,  96,  158. 

University  of  Pennsylvania,  158. 

Columbia,  158. 

Brown  University,  106,  158. 

Dartmouth,  90. 
Colonies,  Dutch,  42. 

English,  18,  28. 

French,  16,  17. 

Spanish  (St.  Augustine),  17. 

Swedish,  108. 

general  view  of,  in  1763,  143-162. 

population  of,  143. 

government  of,  145. 

laws  of,  147. 

slavery  in,  148. 

conflicting  interests  in,  148. 

"  Poor  Whites"  in,  148. 

industries  in,  150. 

commerce,  150. 

manufactures,  151. 

currency,  151. 

roads,  152. 

travel,  152. 

post-office,  153. 

religion,  153. 

press,  154. 

literature  and  education,  155-158. 

science  and  art,  158. 

discoveries  and  inventions,  158,  159. 

mode  of  life,  159,  160. 

indications  of  the  coming  Revolution, 
160,  161. 

importance  of  colonial  period,  162. 

loyalty  of,  163. 
Colorado,  admitted,  493. 
Colt's  revolver,  324. 
Columbia  River  discovered,  229. 
Columbus    proposes  a  new   route    to    the 
Indies,  4. 

voyage  to  America  (1492),  5. 

letter  of,  respecting  the  New  World,  6. 

his  return  to  Spain,  6. 

what  he  discovered,  7. 

his  death,  7. 

greatness  of  his  work,  7. 
Compromise  Measures  of  1850,  363. 

Missouri,  289,  291. 

Crittenden,  393. 
Confederacy,  New  England  (1643),  75. 

the  Southern,  organized,  396. 
Confederation,  Articles  of,  209. 

provisions  of  the,  210. 

weakness  of  the,  211. 

state  of  country  under  the,  211. 

attempts  of  Congress  to  raise  money, 

21 1,  212. 

Congregationalists  in  colonies,  153,  154. 
Congress,  First  Continental,  171. 

Second  Continental,  174. 

first  under  the  Constitution,  219. 

Panama,  303. 

Pan-American,  510. 
Congressional  Library  Building,  527. 
Connecticut,  first  settlement  of,  91. 

reasons  for  settling,  93 . 


Connecticut,  war  with  the  Pequots,  94. 

constitution  of,  95. 

New  Haven  Colony,  96. 

free  schools,  96. 

Yale  University,  96. 

regicides,  97. 

Andros  and  the  charter  of,  97. 

New  Haven  united  with,  97. 

Charter  Oak,  98. 

extent  of,  under  its  charter,  97. 
Constitution,  Convention  to  frame,  214. 

conflicting  opinions  in  Convention,  215 

the  three  great  compromises  of  the,  216. 

the  new,  adopted,  217. 

"  broad  "  -vs.  "  strict  "  construction  of, 
225,  226,  245. 

amendments  to,  221,  247,  471,  472,  479, 
480,  482. 

the  "  elastic  article  "  of,  226. 

the  "Grand  Model,"  in. 

of    Pennsylvania  ("  Great   Law"),  118. 
Constitutions,  revised  State,  463  >  528. 
"  Contrabands  "  (fugitive  slaves),  426. 
Convicts  sent  to  America,  149. 
"  Copperheads  "  in  the  Civil  War,  409,  425, 

426,  434. 
Cornwallis,  General,  184,  189,  190,  199,  203, 

207,  208. 

Coronado's  expedition,  15. 
Corporations  and  "Trusts,"  524. 
Correspondence  Committees  (1772-3),  169. 
Cotton  first  exported,  229. 

gin  invented,  229. 

effect  on  slavery,  229. 

exhibition  at  New  Orleans,  503. 

manufacture  first  established,  229. 

effect  of  War  of  1812  on  manufacture  of, 
279. 

crop  of  1884,  503. 

manufacture  in  1890,  519. 
Cotton-seed  oil,  503. 
Covode  investigation  (note),  389. 
Coxey  "industrial  army,"  517. 
Crawford  Tenure  of  Office  Act,  291. 
Credit  Mobilier  (note),  482. 
Croatoan,  19. 
Crystal  Palace  (1853),  371. 
Cuba,  381,  530,  531,  534-537,  549- 
Custer,  General,  killed,  494. 

Daguerreotype,  introduction  of  the,  332. 
Dale,  Governor,  in  Virginia,  32. 
Davenport,  Rev.  John,  95. 
Davis,  Jefferson,  in  Mexican  War,  351. 

in  Congress,  364,  374. 

advocates  secession,  389. 

President  of  Confederate  States,  396. 

capture  of,  459. 
Debt,  Hamilton's  Report  on  U.  S.,  222. 

funding  the,  223. 

of  the  War  of  1812,  267,  774. 

of  the  Civil  War,  462. 

payment  of,  begun,  469. 

Grant  on  payment  of  the,  480. 

reduction  of  interest  on,  497. 

present,  of  the  United  States,  498. 

of  the  War  with  Spain,  539. 
Decatur,  Commodore,  253. 
Declaration  of  Independence,  185. 
De  Gourges's  revenge,  17. 


INDEX. 


xlvii 


Delaware,  Lord,  31. 

Delaware,  settled  by  the  Swedes,  108. 

seized  by  the  Dutch,  108. 
English,  108. 

granted  to  William  Penn,  109. 

Becomes  independent,  109. 

first  State  to  enter  the  Union,  109. 
Delaware,  Washington  crosses  the,  188. 
De  Leon,  Ponce,  discovers  Florida,  12. 
Democratic  Party  (see  Parties). 
Demonetization  of  silver,  489-490. 
Deposits,  Jackson  withdraws  the,  322. 
De  Soto,  expedition  of,  14. 

discovers  the  Mississippi,  14. 

is  buried  in  it,  15. 
De  Vaca,  Cabeza,  13. 
Dewey,  Rear-Admiral,  534,  535,  537,  538. 
Diaz,  Bartholomew,  voyage  of  (1487),  4. 
Dinwiddie,  Governor,  of  Virginia,  40. 
Dollar,  the,  first  coined,  225. 

demonetized,  489. 

remone.tized,  497. 

demand  for  free  silver,  511,  522. 

bullion  value  of  the,  498,  511,  516. 

a  fiat  paper  demanded,  493. 
Dorr,  Rebellion,  the,  336. 
Douglas,  Stephen  A.,  342,  362,  372,  373,  389, 

392,  404. 

Dover,  N.  H.,  settled,  86. 
Draft  riots  in  New  York,  434. 
Drake,  voyage  of  (1577-1579),  10,  18. 

names  Pacific  coast  New  Albion,  18. 
Dred  Scott  case,  383,  384. 
Duluth,  134. 

Dutch,    the,    in     New    Netherland    (New 
York),  42. 

seize  the  Delaware  country,  56. 

dispossessed  of  New  York  by  the  Eng 
lish,  48. 

dispossessed  of  Delaware,  56. 

Eads's,  Captain,  work  on  the  Mississippi,  499. 

Early's  raid,  446. 

Education  (see  schools  and  colleges). 

Governor  Berkeley  on,  in  Virginia,  157. 

in  the  colonies,  155. 

beginning  of  free,  in  America,  75. 

at  the  West,  301,  541. 

at  the  South  since  the  war,  519,  541. 
Edwards,  Rev.  Jonathan,  156. 
Election  of  Hayes  disputed,  494. 
Election,  presidential  (see  names  of  presi 
dents). 
Electoral  Commission,  494. 

Count  Act,  506. 

Electric  telegraph,  the,  343,  477. 
Electricity,  Franklin's  discoveries  in,  158. 

progress  in  application  of,  159,  345. 
Eliot's,  Rev.  John,  work  among  the  Indians, 

78. 
Emancipation,  Lincoln's  plan  of,  427. 

in  the  District  of  Columbia,  427. 

in  the  Territories,  427. 

Lincoln's  letter  on,  428. 

Proclamation  of  warning,  428. 

final  Proclamation,  429. 

results  of,  429. 
Embargo,  the  first,  234. 

Act  (1807),  258. 

results  of  the,  260. 


Emigration  to  the  United  States,  333. 

from  China,  restricted,  502. 

laws  concerning,  502,  507. 
Endicott,  Governor,  68. 
English  explorations,  early,  18. 

attempts  to  colonize  America,  18. 

first  permanent  colony  in  America,  28. 
Episcopalians  in  Massachusetts,  68,  78,  81, 
82,  85,  153. 

in  the  Middle  Colonies  and  the  South, 

"  Era  of  Good  Feeling,"  281. 
Ericson,  Leif,  voyages  of,  2. 
Ericsson  invents  the  screw  propeller,  324. 

"  Monitor,"  419. 
Erie  Canal,  299. 

"  Essex,"  the,  in  the  War  of  1812,  269. 
Ether,  Dr.  Morton's  discovery  respecting, 

360. 

Exchange  of  prisoners  (Civil  War),  430. 
Exhibition,  American  World's  Fair,  371. 

the  Centennial,  492. 

the  New  Orleans,  503. 

World's  Columbian,  515. 

the  Atlanta,  518. 

at  Omaha,  539. 
Exports,  American,  526. 
Express  system  established,  332. 

Farragut,  Admiral  D.  G.,  takes  New  Orleans, 
421. 

enters  Mobile  Bay,  455. 
Federalists,  the,  225. 

fall  of  the,  243. 

Filibusters  attempts  to  seize  Cuba  and  Cen 
tral  America,  381. 
Fillmore  becomes  President,  366. 
Finances  of  the  Revolution,  179. 
Financial  side  of  the  Civil  War,  408. 
Fires,  the  Chicago  and  the  Boston,  491. 
Fiscal  Bank  Bill,  the,  335. 
Fisheries,  the  Newfoundland  (1497-8),    8; 
(1600),  27  ;  (1775),  '73  5  (1783),  208. 

dispute  about,  493. 
Fitch's  steamboat,  254. 
Flag,  the  first  American,  182,  193. 

first  American,  on  a  warship,  91. 

the  "  Star  Spangled  Banner,"  273. 

the  Confederate,  396. 

the  Union  triumphant,  460. 
Florida,  discovery  and  naming  of,  12. 

Narvaez  in,  13. 

De  Soto  in,  14. 

French  and  Spaniards  in,  16,  17. 

ceded  to  England  ;  retroceded,  142. 

purchase  of,  by  the  United  States,  283 

admitted,  342. 

Foote,  Commodore  A.  H.,  417. 
"  Force  Act"  (1809),  259;  (1871),  484,  515 
Forests,  preservation  of,  541. 
Fort  Dearborn,  now  Chicago,  245. 

Donelson  captured  by  Grant,  416. 

Duquesne,  137. 

Pitt,  now  Pittsburgh,  140. 

Fisher,  capture  of,  455. 

Monroe  garrisoned,  412,  427- 

Necessity  built  by  Washington.  137. 

Mims,  massacre  at,  273. 

Orange,  now  Albany,  49, 

Moultrie,  184. 


xlviii 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


Forts,  line  of  French,  in  the  West  in   the 

eighteenth  century,  184. 
France  sends  expedition  to  America,  16. 

colonies  of,  in  America,  16,  17,  36. 

struggle  of,  with  England  for  America, 
128-143. 

recognizes     American      independence, 
194. 

aid  from,  in  the   Revolution,  94,    176, 
177,  180,  206,  207. 

trouble  with,  238. 

war  with,  240. 

sells  us  Louisiana,  247. 

See  the  French. 
Franklin,  writings  of,  156. 

electrical  experiments  of,  158. 

snake,  the  ^Albany  Convention),  138. 

and  the  Stamp  Act,  166 

negotiates  treaty  with  France,  194. 

helps  frame  the  Constitution,  215,  217. 
Free  Soil  Party,  361. 
Freedmen,  the,  466,  467. 

Bureau  Bill,  471. 

present  condition  of,  519,  528- 
Fremont,  J.  C.,  conquers  California,  352. 

in  the  Civil  War,  415,  427. 

nominated  for  the  Presidency,  451. 
French,  the,  explore  the  St.  Lawrence,  16. 

the,  in  Carolina  and  Florida,  16. 

explore    and   take    possession    of    the 
West,  128. 

found  Mobile  and  New  Orleans,  133. 

build  line  of  forts  in  the  West,  134. 

and  Indian  Wars,  134-136. 

attack  on  Schenectady,  134. 

See  France,  Huguenots. 
Friction  matches,  159,  324. 
Friends,  or  Quakers,  buy  New  Jersey,  57, 
58. 

treaties  with  the  Indians,  118. 

in  Massachusetts,  76-78. 

severely  dealt  with,  76,  77. 

George  Fox  founds  the  Society  of,  76. 

found  Pennsylvania,  116. 

remonstrance    against    slavery   (1688), 
119. 

See  William  Penn. 
Frobisher's  voyages,  18. 
Fugitive-slave  law,  227,  338. 

of  1850,  366. 

enforcement  of  the,  367. 
Fulton's  steamboat,  253. 

Gadsden,  Christopher,  115. 
Gadsden  purchase,  the,  ^54. 
Gage,  General,  in  Boston,  173. 

proclamation,  175. 
"  Gag-rule,"  324,332. 
Garfield  elected  President,  499. 

assassination  of,  500. 
Garrison  publishes  the  "  Liberator,"  312. 

mobbed,  3 13. 
Gas  comes  into  use,  324. 
"  Gaspee,"  the,  destroyed,  168. 
Gates,  General  H.,  193,  194,  199. 
Genet,  "  Citizen,"  232. 
Geography  and  U.  S.  History,  25,  26. 
George  III .  accession  and  policy  of,  163. 
Georgia,  settlement  of,  122. 

Ogelthorpe  in,  122. 


Georgia,  charter  of,  122. 

slavery  in,  124,  125,  126. 

production  of  silk  in,  124. 

Savannah  settled  (1733),  125. 

Salzburgers,   125. 

introduction  of  negroes  and  rum,  126. 

Ogelthorpe  and  the  Spaniards  in,  127. 

becomes  a  royal  province,  127. 

in  the  Revolution,  126,  127. 

Indian  land  cessions,  302. 

controversy  with  the  U.  S.,  302. 
"  Gerrymander,"  the,  292. 
Gettysburg,  battle  of,  434. 

Lincoln's  address  at,  437. 
Giddings,  338,  366. 
Ghent,  treaty  of,  277. 
Gilbert,  voyage  of  Sir  H.,  18. 
Goffe,  the  regicide,  at  Hadley,  79. 
Gold,  discovery  of,  in  California,  357. 

effects  of,  in  1857,  358,  359. 
Good  Feeling,  the  Era  of,  281. 
Good  Hope,  Cape  of,  named,  4. 
Gorges,  Sir  F.,  86,  87. 
Gosnold's  expedition,  27. 
Governments,  colonial  (see  colonies). 

organization  of  our  present,  219. 

See  Constitution  and  United  States. 
"  Grand  Model,"  the,  in. 
Grant,  General  U.  S.,  takes  Fort  Henry,  416. 

"  unconditional  surrender"  letter,  417. 

takes  Fort  Donelson,  416. 

at  Pittsburg  Landing,  418. 

takes  Vicksburg,  438-441. 

made  General-in-Chief,  443. 

and  Sherman's  "hammering  campaign," 
444- 

in  battle  of  the  Wilderness,  445. 

sends  Sheridan  to  lay  waste  the  Shen- 
andoah  Valley,  447. 

takes  Petersburg,  459. 

in  Richmond,  459. 

receives  Lee's  surrender,  460. 

elected  President,  477. 

administration  of,  480. 

second  election  of,  489. 

death  of,  504. 
Greeley's,  Horace,  letter  to   Lincoln,  428. 

nominated  for  the  Presidency,  487,  489. 
"  Greenback  "  Party  of,  the,  493. 
"  Greenbacks,"  issue  of,  408. 

redemption  of,  in  part,  497. 
Greene,  General  N.,  at  the  South,  202. 

campaign  in  the  Carolinas,  203,  205. 

"  Hail  Columbia,"  song  of,  239. 

"  Half- Way  Covenant,"  70. 

Halleck,  General,  H.,  424. 

Hamilton,  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  220. 

financial  measures  of,  222-225. 

leads  the  Federalists,  225,  226. 

shot  by  Burr,  255. 
Hancock,  John,  British  attempt  to  seize,  173. 

made  President  of  Congress,  175. 

British  refuse  to  offer  pardon  to,   175. 
Hancock,  General  W.  S.,at  Gettysburg,  436 
Harnden  founds  the  express  business,  332. 
Harrison,  General,  at  Tippecanoe,  264. 

presidential  campaign,  334. 

elected  President,  334. 


INDEX. 


xlix 


Harrison,  General,  death  of,  335. 

Benjamin,  elected  President,  508. 

administration  of,  509. 
Hartford  Convention  (1814),  275. 
Harvard  University  founded,  74. 
Hawaii,  Republic  of,  518;  annexed,  538. 
Hayes  elected  President,  494. 

election  of,  disputed,  494. 

administration  of,  445. 
Hayne's  debate  with  Webster,  309. 
Henry,  Patrick,  resolutions  of,  on  Commit 
tee  of  Correspondence,  166,  169. 

"  We  must  fight,"  173. 
Henry,  the,  letters,  265. 
Hessians  in  the  Revolution,  177,  188,  189. 
Higher  law,  the,  Seward's  appeal  to,  365. 
Hoe's  press,  318. 

"  Holy  Experiment,"  Penn's,  116. 
Homestead  Act,  540. 
Hood,  General  J.  B.,  449,  454. 
Hooker,  General  J.,  433,  442. 
Hooker,  Rev.  Thomas,  94,  95. 
Hopkins,  "  Admiral"  Esek,  177. 
Howe,  Admiral,  arrives  at  New  York,  186. 
Howe's,  Elias,  sewing-machine,  360. 
Howe,  General,  arrives  at  Boston,  175. 

at  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  181. 

made  commander-in-chief,  182. 

is  driven  from  Boston,  184. 

sails  for  Halifax,  184. 

arrives  at  New  York,  186. 

takes  Brooklyn  Heights,  188. 

drives  Washington  from  New  York,  188. 

Washington  baffles,  191. 

sails  for  Philadelphia,  191. 

enters  Philadelphia,  191. 

is  superseded  by  Clinton,  195. 
Howes,   the,   offer    pardon    to   submissive 

"  rebels,"  186. 
Hudson,  Henry,  42. 

Huguenots  attempt  to  settle  in  America, 
16,  17. 

settle  in  Charleston,  112. 

illustrious  descendants  of  the,  113. 
Hull,  Captain  Isaac,  victory  of,  268. 
Hull's,  William,  march  to  Detroit,  267. 

surrender,  267. 
Hutchinson,  Governor,  170,  171,  178. 

Mrs.  Anne,  73,  74. 

Idaho  admitted,  510. 
Illinois,  La  Salle  in,  131. 

admitted,  286. 
Immigration  to  the  U.  S.,  333,  540. 

Chinese,  restricted,  502. 

Chinese,  prohibited,  507. 
Impeachment  of  President  Johnson,  476. 
Impressment  of  American  sailors,  234. 
Improvement  of  the  Mississippi,  499. 
"  Improvements,    Internal,"    question     of, 

252,  292,  297,  298,  303. 
Independence,  Declaration  of,  185. 
Indiana  conquered  by  Clark,  251. 

part  of  the  N.  W.  Territory,  210. 

admitted,  281. 
Indians,  why  so  named,  6. 

their  character  and  numbers,  19. 

influence  on  white  settlers,  20. 

indebtedness  of  the  colonists  to  the,  20. 

value  of  wampum,  21. 


Indians,  labor  of  the,  21. 

trade  with  the,  21,  43,  125. 

trails  and  waterways  of  the,  22. 

war  with  the  Pequots,  94. 

wars  with  the,  22. 

King  Philip's  War,  78. 

war  with,  in  Virginia,  39. 

our  relations  with  the,  23. 

land  cessions  by  the,  23,  233,  263,  302, 

319- 
alliances  or  treaties  with  the,  23,  50,  51, 

118. 
the    Iroquois,  or  Five    Nations    (later 

the  Six  Nations),  23,  43,  51,  113. 
Bacon's  war  with,  in  Virginia,  39. 
war  with  the  Canadians,  52. 
the  Quakers  and  the,  56,  nS,  120. 
the  Pilgrims  and  the,  65. 
Roger  Williams  and  the,  73. 
the  New  England  Confederacy  and  the, 

Eliot's  work  among  the,  78. 

Goff  and  the,  79. 

battle  of  Narragansett  Fort,  80. 

wars  in  North  Carolina,  113. 

Penn  and  the,  118. 

wars  in  Pennsylvania,  120. 

and  the  French,  128. 

Pontiac's  conspiracy,  141. 

massacres,  by,  in  Revolution,  197. 

Wayne's  victory,  over  the,  232. 

war  with  Tecumseh,  263. 

Seminole  wars,  282,  332. 

Black  Hawk  War,  319. 

Modoc  War,  494. 

Sioux  War,  494. 

French  and  Indian  War,  136. 
Indies,  trade  with,  in  fifteenth  century,  3. 

schemes  for  reaching  the,  by  sea,  4,  7. 

America  supposed  to  be  part  of  the,  67. 

West,  the,  explored  by  Columbus,  6. 

question  of  trade  with  the  West,  234, 

235,  304,  309. 

Indigo,  culture  of,  in  South  Carolina,  113. 
"  Inflation  Bill,"  the,  vetoed,  492. 
Interstate  Commerce  Act,  506. 
Intolerable  Acts,  the  four,  170. 
Inventions,  American   (see  cotton-gin,  229; 
"Monitor,"   419;     reaper,   324,   372;     re 
volver,  324;  screw  propeller,  324;  sewing- 
machine,    360;    steamboat,    254;    steam 
printing-press,  318;   telegraph,  343;   tele 
phone,  345,  493;  vulcanized  rubber,  324; 
other  inventions  and  discoveries,  526). 
Io%va  admitted,  361. 
Ironclads,  the,  in  the  Civil  War,  419. 
Iroquois  Indians,  23,  43,  51    (and  map,  20). 
Island  Number  Ten  taken,  418. 

Jackson,  Andrew,  at  Tohopeka,  273. 

at  New  Orleans,  276. 

and  the  Seminoles,  282. 

elected  President,  306. 

administration  of,  307. 

second  election  of,  322. 
Jackson,  "  Stonewall,"  414,  422,  424,  433. 
Jamestown,  settlement  of,  29. 

colony  of,  30. 

burned  by  Bacon,  40. 
Japan,  Perry's  treaty  with,  380. 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


Jasper,  Sergeant,  at  Fort  Moultrie,  184. 
Jay,  John,  220. 

his  treaty  with  England,  235. 
Jefferson   drafts   the    Declaration   of   Inde 
pendence,   186. 

first  Secretary  of  State,  220. 

leads  the  Republicans,  225,  226. 

elected  President,  243. 

administration  of,  244. 

second  election  of,  252. 
Johnson,  Andrew,  becomes  President,  461. 

administration  of,  465. 

impeached,  but  acquitted,  475,  476. 
Johnston,  General  A.  S.,  416. 
Johnston,  General  Joseph  E.,  414,  422,  439, 

443,  448,  449,  457,  460,  47°. 
Joliet  and  Marquette's  expedition,  129,  130. 

voyage  down  the  Mississippi,  130. 
Jones,  Paul,  91,  198. 

Judges,  the  "  midnight,"  appointed  by  John 
Adams,  243. 

Kansas,  struggle  for  possession  of,  376. 

elections,  378. 

Civil  War  in,  378. 

adopts  free-state  constitution,  379. 

admitted,  388. 

John  Brown  in,  377. 
Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  372-374. 

passage  of,  375. 

Kaskaskia,  George  Rogers  Clark  takes,  197. 
"  Kearsarge,"  the,   sinks   the   "Alabama," 

Kentucky,   first   settlement   of,   by   Boone, 
115- 

admitted,  237. 

and  Virginia  resolutions,  242. 
"  Know-Nothing  Party,"  the,  370. 
Knox,  General,  183. 
Kosciusko  in  the  Revolution,  176. 
"  Ku  Klux  Klan,"  the,  484. 

Labor,  Knights  of,  485. 

legislation,  485,  488,  492,  502,  507. 

strikes,  496,  505,  517. 

troubles  at  Homestead,  513. 

National  Bureau  established,  502. 
Lafayette  in  the  Revolution,  177,  194,  205, 

207;  visit  to  the  U.  S.,  296. 
Land  cessions,  209;  cheap,  542. 
La  Salle  explores  the  Mississippi,  131. 

takes  possession  of  Louisiana,  132. 
Lee,   General  Charles,   in   the   Revolution, 

176,  188,  189,  196. 

Lee,  Richard  Henry,  in  Congress,  185. 
Lee,  General  Robert   E.,  423-425,  433~437, 

445,  446,  459,  460,  470. 
Leisler,  Jacob,  51,  52. 
"  Leopard,"   the,   and    the   "  Chesapeake," 

257- 

Lewis  and  Clark's  expedition,  251. 
Lincoln-Douglas  campaign,  389. 
Lincoln,  election  of,  391-393- 

inaugural  speech  of,  401. 

administration  of,  401-460. 

calls  for  75,000  volunteers,  403. 

scheme   of  compensated   emancipation, 
427. 

emancipates  the  slaves,  429,  430. 

second  election  of,  451. 


Lincoln,  assassination  of,  460. 
Literature,  colonial,  155. 

rise  of  modern  American,  318. 

influence  of  Helper's  "  Impending 
Crisis"  and  "Uncle  Tom's  Cabin," 
368. 

"  Little  Belt  "  beaten  by  "  President,"  264. 
Locomotive,  Stephenson's,  316. 

Cooper's,  316. 
London  Company,  the,  28. 
Louisburg  taken,  135. 
Louisiana,  origin  of  the  name,  132. 

purchase  of,  247-250. 

explored  by  Lewis  and  Clark,  251. 

admitted,  281. 

progress  since  the  war,  503. 
Lyon,  General  N.,  in  Missouri,  271. 

Macdpnough's  victory,  271. 

Machinery,  American  labor-saving,  372,  492, 

523,  524,  526.     (See  inventions.) 
Madison  elected  President,  261. 

administration  of,  262. 

second  election  of,  269. 

See  slavery  and  secession. 
Magellan  names  the  Pacific,  13. 

voyage  of  (1519-21),  10,  13. 
Maine,  liquor  law,  the,  304. 

settlement  of,  87. 

admitted,  290. 

destruction  of  the,  533. 
Manufactures,  151,  228,  229,  260,  279,  280, 

305,  360,  406,  493,  513,  519,  524,-526. 
Marion,  General,  203. 
Marquette's  explorations,  129,  130. 

voyage  down  the  Mississippi,  130. 
Marshall,  Chief  Justice,  243. 
Maryland  settled  by  Catholics,  99. 

George  Calvert,  99. 

charter,  99. 

laws,  99. 

political  and  religious  liberty  in,  100. 

toleration,  100. 

Claybprne,  101. 

Captain  Ingle,  102. 

Catholics  deprived  of  rights,  102. 

becomes  a  royal  province,  103. 

Church  of  England,  103. 
Mason  and  Dixon's  line,  121. 
Mason  and  Gorges,  86,  87. 
Mason  and  Slidell,  capture  of,  415. 
Massachusetts  (Plymouth)  settled,  60. 

Puritans  and  Separatists,  60,  61. 

Separatists  escape  to  Holland,  62. 

Pilgrims  and  Indians,  65. 

Pilgrim  Republic,  65. 

freedom  of  worship,  65. 

government,  65,  66. 

"  merchant  adventurers,"  62,  66,  67. 

Myles  Standish,  67. 

united  with  Massachusetts,  67. 

Bay  Colony,  settlement  of,  68. 

the  Puritan  emigration  to  New  Eng 
land,  68. 

John  Endicott,  68. 

charter  of,  68. 

John  Winthrop,  69. 

settlement  of  Boston  (1630),  69. 

Puritan  church,  69. 

Puritan  rule  in,  69,  70. 


INDEX. 


Massachusetts,  suffrage  in,  70. 

establishment  of  House  of  Representa 
tives  (1634),  71. 

resistance  to  the  king,  72. 

Roger  Williams,  72,  73. 

Mrs.  Anne  Hutchinson,  73,  74. 

education  in  colony,  74. 

Boston  Latin  School  (1635),  74. 

Harvard  College  (1636),  75. 

public  schools  (1647),  75. 

New  England  Confederacy  (1643),  75. 

George  Fox,  76. 

Quaker  missionaries  in,  76,  77. 

Eliot's  work  among  the  Indians,  78. 

"  King  Philip's  "  War,  78-80. 

the  charter,  81. 

the  new  charter,  83 . 

Salem  witchcraft,  83,  84. 

Forest  Laws,  85. 

Navigation  Laws  revived,  85. 
Massasoit,  -treaty  with  Governor  Carver,  65. 
Maximilian  in  Mexico,  479. 
"  Mayflower,"  sailing  of  the,  64. 
McClellan,  General,  G.  B.,  412. 

made  General-Commander,  414. 

drills  the  army,  415. 

campaigns  of,  421-425. 
McCormick  reaper,  the,  324. 
McDowell,  General  I.,  413.     [540,  550,  551. 
McKinley,  William,  President,  522,  523,  547. 
Meade,  General  G.  G.,  435. 
Menendez  in  Florida,  16,  17. 
"  Merrimac,"  the,  destroys  the  "  Cumber 
land  "  and  the  "  Congress,"  419. 

and  the  "  Monitor,"  419. 
Mexican  War,  the,  349. 

results  of,  352. 

See  battles. 

Michigan  admitted,  325. 
Millerites,  the,  or  Second  Adventists,  329. 
Minnesota  admitted,  388. 
Mint,  United  States,  established,  225. 
Minuit,  Governor,  of  New  Netherland,  44. 
"  Minute  men,"  the,  of  Revolution,  173. 
Mississippi  discovered  by  De  Soto,  14. 

explored  by  the  French,  128. 

voyage  by  Joliet  and  Marquette,  130. 

La  Salle  explores,  131. 

Company,  133. 

free  navigation  of,  214,  236,  248. 

opening  of,  in  the  Civil  War,  441. 

deepening  the  mouth  of,  499. 
Mississippi,  State  of,  admitted,  286. 
Missouri  Compromise,  the  first,  289. 

Jefferson's  and  John  Quincy  Adams's 
opinions  of,  290. 

the  second,  291. 

Compromise  repealed,  291. 

admission  of  the  State,  291. 
Mobile  founded  (1702),  133. 

Farragut  enters  harbor  of,  455. 
Modoc  War,  the,  494. 
Money,  paper,  of  Revolution,  179. 

just  after  the  Revolution,  213. 

decimal  system  of  coinage,  225. 

of  State  banks  worthless,  322. 

in  the  Civil  War,  408. 

See  U.  S.  Bank. 

of  national  banks,  408. 

silver  demonetized,  490. 


Money,  silver  remonetized,  497. 

Bland-Allison  Silver  Act,  497. 

resumption  of  specie  payments,  498. 

the  Sherman  Silver  Act,  510. 

repeal  of  Sherman  Silver  Act,  516. 

demand  for  free  silver,  521. 

See  dollar  and  silver. 

"  Monitor,"  the,  and  the  "  Merrimac,"  419 
Monroe  Doctrine,  the,  293. 
Monroe  elected  President,  281. 

administration  of,  281. 
Montana  admitted,  510. 
Montgomery's  expedition  against  Montreal 

and  Quebec,  182,  183. 
Morgan,  General  Daniel,  194,  203. 
Mormons,  rise  of  the,  329. 

emigrate  to  Utah,  330. 

rebellion  of  the,  387. 

Edmunds  Anti-Polygamy  Act,  501. 

Edmunds-Tucker  Act,  506. 

Church  of,  vs.    U.   S.  Supreme  Court, 
513. 

renounce  polygamy,  513. 
Morris,  Robert,  what  he  did  for  Washington, 

190,  206. 
Morristown,  Washington's   terrible   winter 

at,  202. 

Morse's  electric  telegraph,  343. 
Morton,  Dr.,  discovers  etherization,  360. 
Moultrie,  Fort,  184. 
Murfreesboro',  battle  of,  432. 

Napoleon,  Decrees  of,  257. 
Narvaez,  expedition  of,  13. 
Nashville,  battle  of,  454. 
National  banks  established,  408. 
National  Road,  the,  253,  292. 
Natural  gas,  387. 
Naturalization  Act  of  1798,  240. 
Navigation  Laws,  37. 

revived,  85. 
Navy,  first  American,  177. 

increase  of,  239. 

in  1812,  266,  267;  (1861-1865),  461. 

our  new,  507,  534. 
Nebraska  admitted,  473. 
Negro  slavery,  introduction  of,  33,  35,  36. 

suffrage  in  the  District  of  Columbia,  472. 

slaves  emancipated,  429. 

troops  in  the  Civil  War,  430. 

See  slavery. 

Negro,   the,  and    reconstruction,   466-469, 
471,  472,  474,  479,  480,  482. 

becomes  a  lawmaker,  474,  483. 

in  Congress,  482. 

the,  and  the  amendments  to  the  Con 
stitution,  471,  472,  474,  479,  480,  482. 

and  the  "  Ku  Klux  Klan,''  484. 

and  the  Carpet-Baggers,  483. 

See  freedmen  and  slavery. 

progress  of,  since  the  war,  519. 
Neutrality,  proclamation  of,  230. 
Nevada,  discovery  of  silver  in,  385. 

admitted,  450. 

New  Amsterdam  (New  York),  44. 
New  England  Confederacy,  origin  of  name, 

Newfoundland  codfisheries(see  codfisheries). 
New  Hampshire,  settlement  of,  86. 
Gorges  and  Mason,  87. 


Hi 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


New  Hampshire,  religious  opinions,  87. 

becomes  a  royal  province,  88. 

Londonderry  settled  (1719),  89. 

manufacture  of  linen,  89. 

Dartmouth  College,  90. 

dispute  between  New  York  and,  90. 

Vermont,  90,  91. 

Paul  Jones,  91. 

New  Haven,  the  republic  of,  95. 
New  Jersey,  the  Dutch  claim,  56. 

the  English  take  possession,  56. 

the  name,  56. 

Elizabethtown  founded  (1665),  57. 

Quakers  in,  57,  58. 

William  Penn,  57. 

government,  58. 

religion,  58. 

Andros  in,  59. 

Witherspoon,  59. 
New  Mexico,  conquest  of,  354. 
New  Netherland  (New  York),  42. 
New  Orleans  founded  (1718),  133. 

battle  of  (1815),  276. 

taken  by  Farragut,  421. 

Exposition  (1884),  503. 
Newspaper,  the  first,  published  in  America, 
i54,  155- 

first  cheap,  in  America,  318. 
New  York,  settlement  of,  by  the  Dutch,  43. 

patroon  system  of,  44. 

treatment  of  Quakers,  47. 

England  takes,  48. 

the  Duke's  Laws,  49. 

Governor  Andros  and,  50. 

French  attack,  51,  52. 

treatment  of  Catholics  in,  53. 

freedom  of  the  press  in,  53. 

protests  against  taxation  without  consent 
of  the  Assembly,  164. 

contest  of  people  with  the  colonial  gov 
ernors,  55. 

in  the  Revolution,   167,   169,   178,   182, 
186,  192-194. 

"Greater  New  York,"  527. 
Non-Intercourse  Act,  260 
North  Carolina,  colony  of,  established,  113. 
North  Dakota  admitted,  510. 
Northmen,  discovery  of  America  by  the,  i. 

the,  and  American  history,  2. 
Northwest  Territory,  cession  of,  209. 

ordinance  for  government  of,  209. 
Nullification  in  Kentucky  and  Virginia,  242. 

in  South  Carolina,  314,  315. 

Calhoun  defends,  315. 
Oglethorpe  colonizes  Georgia,  122. 

and  the  Spaniards,  127. 
Ohio  Company,  the,  227. 
Ohio,  first  settlement  of,  227. 

opened, 233. 

admitted  to  the  Union,  247. 
(Til,  petroleum,  discovered,  386. 
Oklahoma,  opening  of,  509. 
"  Omnibus  Bill,"  the,  365. 
Onate's  expedition,  16. 
Orders  in  Council,  I'ritish,  257. 
Ordinance  for  government   of  the    N.    W. 

Territory  (1787),  209. 
Oregon,  how  we  got,  229,  252,  278,  283,  346. 

admitted,  388. 
Osceola,  332. 


Ostend,  Manifesto,  the,  380. 
Otis,  James,  165,  166,  167,  168. 

Pacific  named  by  Magellan,  13. 

coast  explored  by  Spaniards,  13. 

Balboa  discovers  the,  13. 

search  for  the,  by  the  colonists,  30. 

territory  acquired  on  the,  354. 

railroad  completed,  480. 

effects  of,  481. 

Paine's  "  Common  Sense,"  185. 
Pan-American  Congress,  510. 
Panics,  business  and  financial,  of  1818-19, 
284. 

1837,  325-337- 

1857,  385- 

1873,  490. 

1893,  5i5- 

1894,  517. 

Paper  money  (see  money). 
Parties,  political,  rise  of  (1792),  225. 

in  general,  217,  225,  230,  236,  243,  244, 
245,  252,  260,  269,  279,  292,  297,  303, 
306,  322,  324,  334,  340,  341,  361,  369, 
370,  376>  381,  382,  391,  450,  451,476, 
483,  487,  488,  492,  493,  494,  498,  499, 
502,  503,  508,  514,  521,  522,  547. 

American,  or  Know  Nothing,"  370, 
381. 

"  Anti-Dorrites,"  337. 

Anti-Federalist,  215,  217,  225. 

An ti- Masonic,  303. 

Anti-Monopolist  (note),  493. 

Anti-Renters,  337. 

"  Barnburners,"  361. 

"  Bell-Everett,"  392. 
'  Black  Republicans,"  376. 

"  Broad  Gaugers"  (note),  488. 

Constitutional-Union,  392. 

Democratic- Republican,  225,  230,   236, 

243,  281,  284,  297. 
Democratic,  225,  303,  322,  325. 
"  Dorrites,"  337. 

"  Farmers'  Alliance,"  492. 

Federalist,  215,  217,  225,  230,  236,  243, 

244,  245,  276,  281,  284. 
Free  Soil,  361,  369. 
Free  Suffrage,  337. 
Free  State,  376. 

"  Gold  Democrats,"  522. 
"  Grangers,"  492. 
"  Greenback,"  493. 
1  Half-Breeds  "  (note),  498. 
"  Hunkers,"  361. 
Independent,  493. 
Independent  Republicans,  503. 
"  Know  Nothing,"  370,  381. 
Labor,  487. 
Labor  Reform,  488. 
Liberal  Republicans,  487. 
Liberty,  334,  340,  361. 
"  Locofocos,"  325. 
"  Mugwumps"  (note),  503. 
National  Democrats,  522. 
National  Republicans,  225,  303,  322. 
"  Peace  Democrats,"  451. 
People's  Party,  514,  522. 
"  Populists,"  492,  522. 
Prohibitionist,  488. 
Radical  Republicans,  451. 


INDEX. 


liii 


Parties,  Reform  Democrats,  325. 

Republican  (first),  225. 

Republican  (second),  225,  376. 

"  Sons  of  the  South,"  376. 

"  Stalwarts  "  (note),  498. 

"  Straight-out  Democrats,"  488. 

"  War  Democrats,"  451,  465. 

Whig,  225,303,  325,37'- 
Patent  Office  Centennial,  512. 
Patroons,  the,  44. 
Peace  Party,  the,  in  the  Civil  War,  409,  425, 

426,  434. 

Pemberton,  General  J .  C. ,  at  Vicksburg,  439. 
Penn,  William,  57. 

purchases  Delaware,  109. 

Pennsylvania  granted  to,  116. 

treaty  with  the  Indians,  118. 
Pennsylvania,  grant  of,  to  Penn,  116. 

charter  of,  1 16. 

"  Frame  of  Government,"  117. 

"Great  Law,"  118. 

Philadelphia  founded  (1682),  118. 

treaty  with  the  Indians,  118. 

growth  of  Philadelphia,  118. 

Quakers  in,  119,  120. 

iron  and  coal  mines  in,  119. 

"  Mason  and  Dixon's"  line,  121. 
Pensions  Dependent  Bill  vetoed,  507. 

passed,  510;  (see  too  463). 
Perry's  victory  on  Lake  Erie,  270,  271. 

Commodore,  treaty  with  Japan,  380. 
Petersburg,  siege  of,  446. 

surrender  of,  459. 

Petroleum  discovered  in  Pennsylvania,  386. 
Philadelphia  founded,  ri8. 
Philippines  annexed,  538 ;  the,  in  IQOI.  550. 
Philip's,  King,  War,  78-80. 
Pierce,  elected  President,  371. 

administration  of,  371-382. 
Pilgrims,  or  Separatists,  the,  60-62. 

leave  England  for  Holland,  61,  62. 

sail  for  America,  63,  64. 

reasons  for  emigrating  to  America,  62. 

draw  up  a  compact,  64. 

settle  at  Plymouth,  64. 

and  the  Indians,  65. 

mode  of  government,  65. 
Pitt,  William  (Lord  Chatham),  140. 

management  of  the  French  and  Indian 
War,  140. 

defends  the  resistance  of  the  colonists 

167. 

Pittsburg,  origin  of  name  of,  140. 
Plymouth  Colony  founded,  64. 

absorbed  by  Massachusetts,  67. 

See  Pilgrims. 

Plymouth  Company  chartered,  27,  28. 
Polk  elected  President,  341. 

administration  of,  345-361. 
Polygamy,  Mormon,  330. 

the  Edmunds  Act  against,  501. 

the  Edmunds-Tucker  Act  against,  506. 

condemned  by  the  U.  S.  Supreme  Court, 

renounced  by  the  Mormons,  513. 
Ponce  de  Leon  and  Florida,  12. 
Pontiac's  conspiracy,  141. 
Pope,  General  John,  418,  424. 
Pope,  the  division  of  the  world  by  the,  6. 

the,  and  the  Civil  War,  410. 


Popham  Colony,  Maine,  87. 
"  Popular  Sovereignty  "  proposed  by  Clay, 
33i- 

advocated  by  Cass,  362. 

ridiculed  by  Calhoun,  362,  389,  390. 

advocated  by  Douglas,  362. 

in  Clay's  Compromise  Measures,  364. 

applied  to  Utah  and  New  Mexico,  372. 
to  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  373-376. 

extreme  Southern  men  oppose,  374. 

Republican  Party  condemn,  382. 
Population  in  1763,  143. 

I77S,  176;  1900,  547. 

1790,  227. 

1800,  245. 

1860,  406. 

1890,  512. 

"  Populists,"  the,  in  politics,  514. 
Port  Hudson  taken,  441. 
Porter,  Admiral   D.  D.,  at   New  Orleans, 
421. 

at  Vicksburg,  439. 

at  Fort  Fisher,  456. 

at  City  Point,  458. 
Porto  Rico  annexed,  538. 
Portsmouth,  N.  H.,  settled,  86. 
Postage  in  colonial  times,  153. 

cheap  (1845-83),  355. 

postal-cards  introduced,  490. 
Potato,  discovery  of  the,  19. 
Presidential  Succession  Act,  506. 
Press,  freedom  of  the,  restricted  in  the  col 
onies,  154. 

established  by  Zenger,  53,  155. 

defined  by  Judge  McKean,  241. 

vs.  the  Sedition  Act,  240,  241. 
"  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator,"  4. 
Printing-press,  the,  in  the  colonies,  53,  154, 

Hoe's  steam  cylinder,  318. 
Prisoners  of  War  of  the  Revolution,  4-5 1 

of  the  Civil  War,  430. 
Privateers  in  the  Revolution. 

in  the  War  of  1812,  269. 

in  the  Civil  War,  408. 
Prohibition  in  Maine  and  other  States,  304. 
Providence  settled,  104. 
Public  schools  established  in  the  colonies, 

75-  96,  157- 
Puritans,  origin  of  the,  60. 

vs.  Separatists,  60. 

emigration  to  New  England,  68. 

religious  ideas  of  the,  69. 

the,  settle  Massachusetts,  68. 

their  colony,  69. 

mode  of  government,  69. 

the  "  freemen's"  oath,  70. 

purpose  of  the,  71. 

in  Maryland,  101,  102. 
Putnam,  General  Israel,  174,  181,  187. 

General  Rufus,  183. 

Quakers  (see  Friends). 
Quebec,  the  French  at,  36,  129. 

Phips's  expedition  against,  135 

expedition  of  1711  against,  136. 

taken  by  Wolfe,  140. 

Montgomery's  expedition  against,  183. 

Arnold's  expedition  against,  183. 
Quebec  Act,  the,  171. 


liv 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


Railroad,  the  first  in  America,  316. 

effects  of,  317,  346,  540. 

destruction  of,  in  the  Civil  War,  453. 

the  first  transcontinental,  480. 

effects  of,  481,  482,  540. 

mileage    of,    and    capital    invested    in, 

318. 
Raleigh  sends  expedition  to  America,  18. 

attempts  to  colonize,  18,  19. 

what  he  accomplished,  19. 
Reaper,  the,  and  the  mower,  324,  372. 
Reconstruction  begun,  467. 

Johnson's  plan  of,  468. 

Congress's  plan  of,  468. 

Act,  474. 

Congress  and  the  President. 

completed,  482. 
Regicides,  the,  96. 

Religious  liberty  for  all  persons  in  Rhode 
Island,  106. 

for  all  Christians  in  Maryland,  100. 

for  all  believers  in  God  in  Pennsylvania, 
118. 

Congress  not  to  interfere  with,  221. 

not  recognized  by  the  Puritans,  68,  71, 
76. 

degrees  of,  in  the  colonies  generally,  153, 
154. 

America  first  to  establish  complete,  106, 

Remonetization  of  silver  (see    dollar  and 

silver). 

Removals  from  office,  Jackson's,  307. 
Republican  Party,  first  of  that  name,  225. 
modern,  origin  of,  376. 
See  parties. 

Resumption  of  specie  payment,  492,  498. 
Revenue  of  the  United  States,  1790  vs.  1897, 

221. 

Revere's,  Paul,  ride,  171,  173. 

Review,  grand  military,  at  the  close  of  the 

war,  469. 

Revolution,  the,  indications  of  the  coming, 
160. 

chief  cause  of  the,  163. 

"  Writs  of  Assistance,"  164. 

Stamp  Act,  165. 

Patrick  Henry's  resolutions,  166. 

Stamp  Act  Congress,  166. 

"  Sons  of  Liberty,"  167. 

Pitt  defends  the  colonies,  167. 

the  Townshend  Law,  167. 

"  Boston  Massacre,"  168. 

Governor  Tryon,  168. 

destruction  of  the  "  Gaspee,"  168. 

Committees  of  Correspondence  formed, 
169. 

tax  on  tea,  169. 

Boston  "  Tea  Party,"  the,  170. 

"  four  intolerable  acts,"  170,  171. 

unity  of  the  colonies,  171. 

First  Continental  Congress,  171. 

Parliament  retaliates,  172. 

action  of  Massachusetts,  173. 

General  Gage's  expedition,  173. 

battles  of  (see  battles). 

Second  Continental  Congress,  174. 

Gage's  proclamation,  175. 

Washington  made  Commander-in-Chief, 
175- 


Revolution,  opposing  armies  in,  176. 

American  navy  and  privateers,  177. 

foreign  aid  in  the,  176,  177. 

Loyalists,  or  Tories,  178. 

finances  of  the,  179-181. 

Washington  takes  command,  182. 

expedition  against  Canada,  182,  183. 

Arnold's  expedition,  183. 

Paine's  "  Common  Sense,"  185. 

Declaration  of  Independence,  185. 

Howe  offers  pardon  to  "  rebels,"  186. 

Washington  driven  out  of  New  York, 
188. 

retreat  across  New  Jersey,  188. 

Robert  Morris  in  the,  189. 

plans  of  Lord  Germain,  191. 

Burgoyne's  expedition,  191-194. 

treaties  with  France,  194. 

England  sends    peace    commissioners, 
X95- 

Lee's  treachery,  196. 

prospects  of  the  (1778),  196. 

expedition  of  George  Rogers  Clark,  197. 

Captain  Paul  Jones,  198. 

Arnold's  treason,  200. 

Greene,  General,  takes  command  in  the 
South,  202. 

retreat  of  Cornwallis,  204. 

Cornwallis  ravages  Virginia,  205. 

Cornwallis  retires  to  Yorktown,  205. 

fall  of  Yorktown,  207. 

effect  in  England,  208. 

peace  declared,  208. 
Revolver,  Colt's,  324. 
Rhode  Island,  settlement  of,  104. 

government  of,  105. 

charter  of,  106. 

entire  religious  liberty  in,  106. 

spirit  of  independence  in,  107. 
Ribaut,  Jean,  16,  17. 

Rice,  cultivation  of,  in  South  Carolina,  112. 
Richmond,  the  Confederate  capital,  459. 

capture  of,  459. 
"  Ring,"  the  "  Boss  Tweed,"  491. 

the  Whiskey,  491. 

the  Erie,  491. 
Riots,  draft  in  the  Civil  War,  434. 

strike  at  Pittsburg,  496. 

strike  at  Chicago,  505,  517. 
Road,  the  Cumberland,  or  National,  299,  301. 
Rolfe,  John,  32. 
Roosevelt,  Theodore,  548,  551. 
Rosecrans,  General  W.  S.,  432,  441,  442. 
"  Rule  of  1756,"  256. 

St.  Augustine  founded  (1565),  17. 
St.   Louis   included   in   the    Louisiana  pur 
chase,  249,  251,  286. 
Salem,  Mass.,  settled,  68. 

witchcraft,  83,  84. 

Sanitary  Commission  in  the  Civil  War,  411. 
Santa  Fe  founded  (1605),  16. 
Savannah  settled,  125. 

taken  by  the  British,  199. 

taken  by  Sherman,  454. 

"  Savannah,"  the,  first  ocean  steamship,  284. 
Schenectady  attacked  by  savages,  67. 
Schools,  public,  in  Massachusetts,  75. 

Boston  Latin  School,  74. 

established  in  Connecticut,  96. 


INDEX. 


Iv 


Schools,  public,  established  in  New  York, 
New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania,  157. 
Governor  Berkeley  on,  in  Virginia,  157. 
at  the  South,  157,  519. 
in  the  West.  301. 

See  public  schools  and  education. 
Schuyler,  General  P.,  182,  192,  193. 
Scotch-Irish  emigrants,  41,  89,  145. 
Scott,  General  VV.,  in  War  of  1812,  266,  272. 
in  the  war  with  Mexico,  350-352. 
in  the  Civil  War,  402,  412,  413. 
retires,  414. 
Search,  right  of,  claimed  by  England,  257, 

258,  264,  266,  278. 

Secession  or  disunion,  fears  of  (1783-7),  211. 
threats  of,  in  the  Southwest  (1787),  214. 
fears  of  disunion  in  1792,  230. 
Washington's  farewell  address  on  (1796), 

236. 
the  Kentucky.and  Virginia  Resolutions 

(1798-9),  242. 
fears  of,  in  1800,  246. 
plot  of  ultra  Northern  Federalists  (1803), 

250. 

Burr's  conspiracy  (1804),  255. 
feared  by  John  Quincy  Adams  (1809), 

261. 

threatened  by  Quincy  (1811),  250. 
the   Hartford   Convention    accused    of 

plot  of  (1814),  275. 
the  "  Richmond  Enquirer  "  condemns  as 

treason  (1814),  275. 
the  South  threatens,  in  1819,  287,  291. 
Webster  on  danger  of,  in  1828,  306. 
Hayne  defends  the  right  of  (1830),  310. 
Webster  denies  the  right  of  (1830),  310. 
Calhoun  declares  "  Lioerty  dearer  than 

Union  "  (1830;,  310. 

Jackson  stands  by  the  Union  (1830),  310. 
threatened    by   South   Carolina  (,1832), 

3i5- 
feared  by  John  Quincy  Adams  (1833), 

3'4- 
Jackson's   attitude  toward  (1833),  315, 

316. 

Jackson  predicts  (1833),  316. 
advocated    by   Garrison's  "  Liberator'' 

(1843),  313. 

annexation  of  Texas  (1843),  34°- 
fears  of,  in  1844,  341. 
foreshadowed  by  split  in  the  churches 

(1845),  365- 

agitation  of,  in  1846,  356. 
threatened  by    Southern    members    of 

Congress  in  1849,  363. 
Calhoun  on,  in  1850,  364. 
Webster  on,  in  1850,  365,  367. 
threatened,  in  1854,  374. 
Rufus  Choate  on,  in  1856,  382. 
Governor  Wise  on,  in  1856,  382. 
threatened  by  the  South  in  1857,  385. 
foreshadowed    by    Yancey's     "  Scarlet 

Letter"  (1858),  388. 
Lincoln  on  (1858),  389. 
effect  of  the  John  Brown  raid  on  (1859), 

39i- 
predicted  by  Alexander  Stephens  (1860), 

392- 
South  Carolina  prepares  to  secede(i86o), 

393- 


Secession  or  disunion,  Alexander  Stephens 
protests  against  (1860),  394. 

Pollard  on  action  of  South  Carolina 
(1860),  394. 

South  Carolina  secedes  (1860),  394. 

reasons  for  (1860),  395. 

Mississippi,  Florida,  Alabama,  Georgia, 
Louisiana,  and  Texas  secede  (1860- 
61),  395- 

Mississippi  on  the  object  of  (1861),  395. 

why  Georgia  seceded  (1861),  395. 

slavery  the  true  cause  of,  397. 

the  war  of,  begun  (1861),  403. 

secession  of  Virginia,  Arkansas,  North 
Carolina,  and  Tennessee  (1861),  405. 

mistakes  of  the  Secessionists,  405. 

object  of  the  war,  412. 

the  principle  of,  destroyed,  463. 

the  New  South  and,  470. 
Sedition  Law,  the,  240. 
Seminole  War,  first,  282. 

second,  332. 

Separatists,  the,  or  Pilgrims,  vs.  the  Puri 
tans,  60. 

escape  to  Holland,  62. 

why  they  wished  to  emigrate  to  Amer 
ica,  62. 

they  emigrate  and  settle  Plymouth,  63, 
64. 

See  Pilgrims. 
Sevier,  John,  115. 
Seward,  William  H.,  364,  365,  375,  380,  384, 

400,  402,  416,  426,  469. 
Sewing-machine  invented,  360. 
Shays's  Rebellion,  212,  213. 
Shenandpah  Valley,  Jackson  in,  422. 

Sheridan's  raid  in,  447. 
Sheridan,  General  P.  H.,  raid  in  the  Shenan- 
doah  Valley,  447. 

ride  to  Cedar  Creek,  448. 

at  battle  of  Winchester,  448. 

cuts  off  supplies  from  Richmond,  459. 
Sherman,  General  W.  T.,  at  Pittsburg  Land 
ing,  418. 

at  Vicksburg,  432. 

at  Chattanooga,  442. 

raid  on  Meridian,  443. 

in  the  "  Hammering  Campaign,"  444. 

advance  of,  on  Atlanta,  448. 

takes  Atlanta,  449. 

march  to  the  sea,  452. 

takes  Savannah,  454. 

march  northward,  456. 

surrender  of  Johnston  to,  460. 
Silver,  scarcity  of,  in  1786,  212. 

first  coinage  of,  225. 

found  in  Nevada  and  Colorado,  385, 
386. 

demonetized,  489. 

remonetized,  497. 

Bland-Allison  Act,  497. 

the  Sherman  Silver  Act,  510. 

repeal  of  the  Sherman  Act,  516. 

demand  for  free,  522. 

See  dollar  and  coinage. 
Six  Nations,  or  Iroquois  (see  Indians). 
Slavery  introduced  into  America,  35. 

spreads  into  all  the  colonies,  35. 

attempts  to  check  importation  of  slaves, 
35- 


Ivi 


THE    STUDENT  S    AMERICAN    HISTORY. 


Tu 
ho 


Slavery,  remonstrance  of  Quakers  against, 
in  1688,  119. 

Washington,    Jefferson,    and   Franklin 
on,  36,  149. 

Wesley  and  Whitefield  on,  126. 

introduced  into  Georgia,  126. 

in  the  colonies,  effects  of,  148. 

debate  in  the  Constitutional  Convention 
on,  215,  216. 

first  Congressional  debate  on,  227. 

effects  of  the  cotton-gin  on,  230. 

extension  of,  opposed,  249. 

effect  of  purchase  of  Louisiana  on,  250. 

discussion  of  the  western  extension  of, 
285. 

udge  Story,  on  the  slave-trade,  286. 
w  it  divided  the  country,  286. 

the  Missouri  Compromise,  289-291. 

Clay  and  Channing  on,  311. 

Garrison  attacks,  312. 

the  Nat  Turner  insurrection,  312. 

Clay  and  Calhoun  defend,  314. 

J.  Q.  Adams  on,  314. 

Emerson  and  Seward  on,  314. 

formation  of  Abolition  societies,  312. 

it  endangers  the  Union,  314. 

Jackson  on,  316. 

Petitions  against,  in  Congress,  324. 

in  the  District  of  Columbia,  326. 

agitation  in  Congress,  331. 

and  the  annexation  of  Texas,  339-342. 

and  the  Wilmot  Proviso,  355,  356. 

Calhoun  on,  356. 

the  question  of,  in  1850,  362,  366. 

the  fugitive-slave  law  of  1793,  227. 

decision  of  U.  S.   Supreme   Court  re 
specting,  338. 

the  new  fugitive-slave  law  (1850),  366. 

Personal  Liberty  Laws  vs.,  367. 

enforcement  of,  367. 

enforcement  of  the  Fugitive-Slave  Act, 
368. 

the  "  Underground  Railroad,"  368. 

slaves  rescued,  368. 

"  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  368. 

Helper's  "  Impending  Crisis,"  369. 

Kansas-Nebraska  Act,  372-376. 

struggle  in  Kansas  over,  376-379. 

Sumner  denounces,  379. 

assault  on  Sumner,  380. 

Republican  Party  and,  382. 

Dred  Scott  decision,  383,  384. 

Lincoln  and  Douglas  debates  on,  389. 

John  Brown's  raid,  390. 

secession  and,  395. 

called  "  the  corner-stone  of  our  Repub 
lican  edifice  "  (1835),  3*4 

the  corner-stone  of  the  Southern  Con 
federacy,  396. 

the  true  cause  of  the  War  of  Secession, 
397- 

Butler,  General,  and  the  "  contrabands," 
426. 

the  Emancipation  Proclamation,  426. 

the    constitutional     amendments    and, 
470,  472,  482. 

progress  of  the  South  since  the  abolition 
°f>  5°3>  5'8. 

See  Abolitionists  ;   anti-slavery  ;  seces 
sion;  the  negro;  the  Fugitive-Slave  Act. 


Smith,  Captain  John,  29. 

Socialism,  tendencies  to,  514,  522,  525. 

Socialistic  experiments,  328. 

"Sons  of  Liberty,"  167,  171. 

Soto,  De  (see  De  Soto). 

South  Carolina  (see  Carolina). 

nullification  in,  314. 

secession  of,  394. 

negro  rule  in,  483. 
South  Dakota,  510,  528. 
Spain's  hold  on  North  America,  529. 
Spaniards,  the,  in  Florida,   13-18,  127,  282, 

283.. 
Specie  circular,  the,  323. 

payments,  resumption  of,  489,  492,  498 
Spiritualism,  rise  of,  331. 
"  Spoils  System,"  the,  308,  495,  501. 

See  Civil  Service  Reform. 
Stamp  Act,  the  proposed,  165. 

passage  of  the  act,  166., 

the  Stamp  Act  Congress,  166. 

Pitt  on  the,  167. 

the  repealed,  167. 
Standish,  Myles,  Captain,  64. 

goes  to  England,  67. 
"  Star  of  the  West  "  fired  on,  396. 
"Star  Spangled  Banner,"  the  (song  of),  273. 
Stark,  General,  89. 

State  Rights  or  State  Sovereignty,  doctrine 
of,  242,  309,  315,  395,  463. 

See  secession. 

States  admitted  (see  names  of),  521. 
Steamboat,  Fitch's,  253. 

Fulton's,  253. 

effects  of  the,  253. 
Steamship,  the  first  ocean,  284. 

first  line  established,  333. 
Stephens,  Alexander  H.,  392,  394,  396,  470 
Steuben,  Baron,  177. 
Strike,  great  railroad,  496. 

the  Pullman,  or  Chicago,  517. 

at  Homestead,  513. 
Stuyvesant,  Governor,  46. 
Suffrage  in  colonial  times,  33,  70,  146. 

manhood,  245,  247. 

negro,  granted,  472-474. 

woman,  demanded,  357. 

woman,  granted  in  certain  States,  510. 

action  of  Southern  States  on,  528. 
Sumner,  Charles,  366. 

assault  on,  379. 
Sumter,  Fort,  taken,  403. 
Supreme  Court,  the  U.  S.,  organized,  220. 

importance  of,  220.  [302. 

decisions  of  Chief-Justice  Marshall,  243, 

decision  of,  on  the  U.  S.  Bank,  320. 

respecting    Fugitive-Slave    Act    of 

»793.  338. 

in  the  Dred  Scott  Case,  383.       [475. 
on  the  States  and  the  Union,  464,  468, 
on  legal  tender,  493. 
respecting  the  Mormons,  502,  513. 
respecting  the  income  tax,  518. 
respecting  new  territories,  550. 

Tariff,  the  first  (1789),  220,  221. 
of  1816,  280. 
of  1824,  296. 

"  of  Abominations  "  (1828),  305. 
of  1832,  314. 


INDEX. 


Ivii 


Tariff,  South  Carolina  nullifies  the,  314. 

and  nullification,  315. 

the  "  Compromise,"  of  1833,  316. 

of  1842,  343. 

the  Morrili,  or  war  tariff  of  1861,  408. 

of  1883,  502. 

the  Mills  Hill  (1885),  505. 

the  McKinley  (1890),  510. 

the  Wilson-Gorman  (1894),  518. 

the  Dingley  (1897),  523. 

in  politics,  521. 
Taylor,  General,  in  Mexican  War,  349,  350. 

elected  President,  361. 

administration  of,  362. 

death  of,  366. 

Taxation,  England  claims  the  right  to  tax 
the  colonies,  117,  167. 

the  colonies  protest  against,  163,  164. 

the  Stamp  Act,  resistance  to,  165-167. 

the  tax  on  tea,  169. 

the  chief  cause  of  the  Revolution,  163, 
164. 

under  the  Confederation,  211,  212. 

first,  under  the  Constitution,  220. 
.  the  income  tax,  518. 

decision  against  income  tax,  518. 

War  tax  (1898),  534. 
Tecumseh's  conspiracy,  263,  264. 
Telegraph,  the  electric,  343. 

Atlantic  cable,  477,  478. 
Telephone,  the,  345. 
Temperance  cause,  the,  304. 
Tennessee  admitted,  237. 

readmitted,  473. 

Tenure  of  Office  Act,  the  Crawford,  291. 
Territories,  the  first  ceded  to  the  U.  S.,  209. 

the  ordinance  for  the  government  of  the 
Northwest  Territory,  209. 

slavery  abolished  in  the  (1862),  428. 

See  slavery ;  Louisiana  ;  Florida ;  Cali 
fornia  ;  Alaska. 
Texas,  emigration  to,  293. 

annexation  of,  339-342. 

and  the  Mexican  War,  348. 

admitted,  361. 

Thomas,  General  G.  H.,  442,  454. 
Ticonderoga,  Ethan  Allen  takes,  174. 
Tilden-Hayes,  the  presidential  contest,  494. 
Tobacco  in  Virginia,  19. 

cultivation  of,  begun,  32. 

effects  of,  33. 

Toleration,  religious  (see  religious  liberty). 
Tories  of  the  Revolution,  178. 
Town-meeting,  government  by,  65,  70,  146. 
Trade  with  the  Indies,  3. 

with  the  West  Indies  (see  Indies). 
Treasury,  independent,  proposed,  328. 

established,  355. 

Treaty  of  England  and  France  (1763),  141, 
142. 

with  France  (1778),  194. 

of  peace  (1783),  208. 

the  Jay  (1795)1  234- 

with  Algiers,  236. 

with  Spain,  236. 

of  Ghent  (1814),  277. 

Commercial  (1824-29),  304. 

Webster-Ashburton  (1842),  33* 

Oregon  (1846),  348. 

with  Mexico  (1848),  354. 


Treaty,  with  Japan  (1854),  380. 

Hurlingame,  with  China  (1868),  380. 

Washington  (1871),  486. 

Arbitration  (Venezuela)  (1896),  521. 

Arbitration,  general  pending  (1897),  521. 

with  Spain  (1899),  538- 
"  Trent  "  affair,  the,  415. 
Tripoli,  war  with,  253. 
Trusts,  524,  525. 
Turner,  Nat,  insurrection,  312. 
Tyler,  becomes  President,  335. 

contest  with  Congress,  336. 

his  numerous  vetoes,  335. 

labors  for  the  annexation  of  Texas,  340. 

"  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin,"  368. 
"  Underground  Railroad,"  the,  368. 
Union,  the,  how  formed,  186,  209-211,  214- 
218,  221. 

vs.  "  State  Rights,"  212,  226,  242,  309, 
315.     See  secession. 

what  Daniel  Webster  did  for  the,  310. 

Jackson's    determination    to  maintain, 
315,  316. 

how  threatened  by  slavery  (see  slavery  t 

the  war  for,  inevitable,  397. 

what  the  Civil  War  decided  respecting 

the,  463. 
United  States,  independence  declared,  185. 

acknowledged  by  France,  194. 

acknowledged  by  Great  Britain,  208. 

Confederation,  the  Articles  of,  209,  210. 

Constitution  of,  framed  and  adopted, 
214-217. 

government  of,  organized  (1789),  219. 

Revolutionary  debt,  provisions  for  pay 
ing,  222. 

first  census  (1790),  227. 

first  tariff,  220. 

bank  of,  the  first,  224. 
the  second,  279. 

Mint  established,  first  coinage,  225. 

the,  in  1801,  245. 

material  obstacles  to  Union,  245. 

acquisition  of  territory,   247,   283,   341, 
347,  354- 

the  first  steamboat,  253. 

the  Erie  Canal,  299. 

the  first  railroad,  316. 

the  first  telegraph,  343. 

the  first  system  of  national  banks  estab 
lished,  408. 

wars  of  (see  wars). 

treaties  of  (see  treaties).  ' 

political  parties  in  (see  parties). 

slavery  in  (see  slavery). 

War  of  Secession  and  results,  403,  463. 

Civil  Service  Reform  in,  521. 

growth  of  (see  population),  523. 

trie,  at  the  present  time,  523,  524,  526,  542 

wealth  of  the,  542. 

Universities  (see  colleges  and  education). 
Utah,  Mormons  in  (see  Mormons),  330. 

admission  of,  521. 

Van  Buren  elected  President,  325. 

administration  of,  325-355. 
Van  Rensselaer  estates,  45. 
Venezuela  question,  the,  520. 
Vermont  organized,  91. 


Iviii 


THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 


Vermont,  admitted  (1791),  237. 

Vespucius,  Americus,  voyages  of  ( 1499-1 503), 

9- 

America  named  from  (1507),  9,  10. 
Veto,  Jackson's  use  of  the,  321,  324. 

Johnson's  use  of  the,  471-473. 

Cleveland's  use  of  the,  506,  507. 

other  instances  of  use  of,  536,  497. 
Vicksburg,    siege    and    capture    of,     440, 

441- 

Vinland,  2. 
Virginia,  Raleigh  sends  expedition  to,  17. 

named  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  18. 

colony  planned,  27. 

charter,  first  (1606),  28. 
second  (1609),  30. 
third  (1612),  32. 

settlement  of,  at  Jamestown,  29. 

government  of,  29,  33. 

Catholics  not  to  enter,  31. 

tobacco,  cultivation  of,  32. 

House  of  Burgesses  established,  33. 

slavery  introduced  into,  35. 

importation  of  women,  36. 

loses  part  of  her  territory,  37. 

loses  all  of  her  territory,  38. 

cavaliers  in,  37. 

Navigation  Laws  hurt  trade  of,  37. 

Bacon  Rebellion  in,  39. 

spirit  of  independence  in, 41. 

R.   H.   Lee   of,  moves    Declaration  of 

Independence,  42. 
"  Virginia,"  the  (or  "  Merrimac  "),  and  the 

"  Monitor,"  419. 

Vote,  right  to,  restricted  in  colonial  times, 
146. 

See  suffrage  and  ballot. 

War,  the  Pequot  (1637),  94- 

King  Philip's  (1675),  78-80. 
with  France  for  the  possession  of  Amer 
ica  (1689-1736),  134-136. 

results  of,  142. 
King  William's  (1689),  134. 
Queen  Anne's  (1702),  135. 
King  George's  (1744),  135. 
French  and  Indian  (1754),  136. 
Revolutionary,  the  (1775),  163. 
with  the  Ohio  Indians  (1794),  233. 
with  F ranee  (1798),  240. 
with  Tripoli  (1801),  253. 
with  Tecumseh  (1811),  264. 
with  England  (1812),  265. 

American  army  and  navy  in,  266. 

New  England's  opposition  to  the, 
274. 

results  of  the,  278. 
with  the  Creeks  (1814),  273. 
First  Seminole  (1818),  282. 
Black  Hawk  (1832),  319. 
Second  Seminole  (1837),  332. 
Mexican  (1846),  349. 
the  Civil  (1861),  402. 

cost  of  the,  461. 

loss  of  life  in,  461. 

results  of,  462. 
Modoc  (1872),  494. 
Sioux  (1876),  494. 
with  Spain  (1898),  529-539. 
Warren,  General  Joseph,  182. 


Washington  sent  a  messenger  to  the  French, 

his  interest  in  the  West,  227. 

accompanies  Braddock,  139. 

helps  take  Fort  Duquesne,  137. 

made  Commander-in-Chief,  175. 

takes  command  of  army,  182. 

enters  Boston,  183. 

at  New  York,  186. 

saves  Putnam  and  his  army,  187. 

retreats  northward,  188. 

crosses  the  Delaware,  188. 

victory  at  Trenton,  189. 
Princeton,  190. 

worries  Howe,  190. 

at  Brandywine,  191. 

at  German  town,  192. 

at  Valley  Forge,  192. 

at  Monmouth,  195. 

at  Yorktown,  207. 

and  the  Constitutional  Convention,  215 

elected  President,  218. 

inauguration  of,  219. 

Cabinet  organized,  220. 

the  Supreme  Court  organized,  220. 

the  first  tariff,  220. 

second  election  of,  230. 

farewell  address  of,  236. 

death  of  243. 

centennial  of  inauguration,  510. 
Washington  the  national  capital,  223,  243. 

taken  by  the  British,  272. 
Washington  admitted,  510. 
Wautauga,  settlement  on  the,  115. 
Wayne,    Mad  Anthony,"  in  the  Revolution, 
198. 

victory  over  the  Indians,  233. 
Webster  on  the  Constitution  and  the  Union, 


our  debt  to,  310. 

and  the  Ashburton  Treaty,  337. 

and  the  fugitive-slave  law,  366,  367. 

his  horror  of  secession,  365. 
Webster,  Noah,  dictionary  of,  318. 
Wesley,  John  and  Charles,  125. 
West,  Benjamin,  the  artist,  158. 
West,  colonial  land-claims  in  the,  23,  30,  31, 
68,  97,  no,  123,  144,  209. 

French  exploration  of  the  (1615-1673), 
129,  130,  131,  132. 

the  French  build  forts  in  the  (1695-1720), 

Gov.  Spotswood  and  the,  114,  136. 
England  excludes   the   Colonists  from 

the,  171. 
emigration  to  the,  115,  140,  227,  245,  254, 

280,  300,  301,  358,  377,  482. 
first  settlements  made  in  the,  1 1 5, 140, 227. 
the  Ohio  Company  and  the,  136,  227. 
Marietta  and  Cincinnati  founded,  227. 
Washington's  interest  in  the,  137,  227. 
Braddock's  expedition,  139. 
the,  at  the  end  of  the  war  with  France 

(1763),  142. 

Conspiracy  of  Pontiac  in  the,  141. 
Indian  wars  in  the,  141,  233,  264,  319, 

494,  and  see  Indians, 
growth  of  the,  115,  140,  227,  237,  245,  254, 

257,  280,  300,  301,  319,  358,  359,  372, 

377,  401,  481,482,493,  512,  520,  539.  540. 


INDEX. 


lix 


sVest,  Clark's  conquest  of  the  Northwest, 
197,  198. 
the,  and  the  Articles  of  Confederation, 

209. 
the,  and  the   Treaty  of   Peace  (1783), 

208. 
Ordinance  for  the  government  of  the 

N.W.  Territory,  209. 
States  formed  from  the  N.W.  Territory, 

210. 

Spain  and  the  Mississippi,  213,  236. 
threats  of  secession  in  the   Southwest 

(1787),  213- 

the,  in  1790,  227;  in  1801,  245. 
coal  found  in  the,  227. 
discovery  of  the  Oregon  country,  229. 
the  Oregon  question,  345. 
what  was  thought  of  the  Oregon  coun 
try,  346. 

Whitman's  journey,  347. 
our  claim  to  the  Oregon  country,  229, 

346. 

the  Oregon  treaty,  347,  348. 
whiskey  insurrection   in   W.    Pennsyl 
vania,  232. 

Indian  land  cessions  in  the  (1795),  233. 
Indian  land  cessions  in  the,  in  general, 

see  Indians, 
new  States  formed  in  the,  zro,  237,  and 

see  names  of  Western  States, 
suffrage  in  the  new  States  of  the,  237, 

247,  510. 
the   Kentucky  nullification  resolutions, 

242. 
purchase  of  the  province  of  Louisiana, 

248-250. 

Fort  Dearborn  (Chicago)  erected,  245. 
communication  with  the,  245,  246,  253, 

254,  292,  300,  317,  480-482,  499,  540. 
could  the  Union  hope  to  retain  the,  246, 

346,  481. 

expedition  of  Lewis  and  Clark,  251. 
Pike's  explorations  in  the  Northwest, 

252. 

the  Burr  conspiracy  and  the,  255. 
Tecumseh  in  the,  264. 
the,  favors  the  War  of  1812,  266. 
the,  and  the  War  of  1812,  266,  267,  270, 

272,  273,  276,  280. 
Monroe's  tour  in  the,  281. 
question  of  slavery  in  the,  210,  250,  286- 

29*>  33i,  339»  348,  355.  356>   363-366. 

372-379,  383,  384,  389,  428. 
the,  and  the  Fugitive  Slave  Act,  366. 
Russia  and  the  Pacific  coast,  294,  295. 
the,  and  the  tariff,  296,  305. 
the  first  steamboat  in  the,  254. 
the  National  Road  and  the,  253,  292. 
the  Erie  Canal  and  the,  300. 
the  "  Great  Western  March,"  300. 
first  railroad  in  the,  317. 
the  Pacific  Railroad,  382,  480,  481. 
effects  of  the  Pacific  Railroad,  481. 
advantages  offered  by  the,  301. 
the,  and  President  Jackson,  307. 
speculation  in  the,  323,  328,  385,  491. 
agricultural  inventions  and  the,  324,  372. 
the  Mormons  in  the,  329,  330,  387,  388, 

502,  506,  513. 
the  annexation  of  Texas,  339. 


West,  the,  and  different  Treaties,  208,  236, 
278,  337,  348,  354,  486. 
the  telegraph  and  telephone  in  the,  344, 

345- 

conquest  of  California,  353. 
Mexican  land  cessions  in  the,  354. 
discovery  of  gold  in  California,  357-359. 
Clay's  compromise  measures  and  the, 

363-366. 

the  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill,  372-376. 
the  struggle  for  Kansas,  376-379. 
John  Brown  in  Kansas,  379. 
the  Dred  Scott  case  and  the,  384. 
discovery  of  silver,  petroleum,  and 

natural  gas  in  the,  385-387. 
Lincoln-Douglas  campaign  in  the,  389. 
the,  and  the  Civil  War,  see  Battles, 
the  "  Army  of  the  West,"  in  the  grand 

review,  469. 
admission  of  Western  States,  see  names 

of  States. 

purchase  of  Alaska,  478. 
the  "  Farmers'  Alliance,"  and  the,  492. 
the  "  Grangers  "  in  the,  492. 
the  "  Populists  "  in  the,  492,  514. 
railway  strikes  in  the,  496,  517. 
improvement  of  the  Mississippi,  499. 
land  appropriated  for  schools,  301. 
recovery  of  public  lands  in  the,  505. 
free  schools  in  the,  209,  301. 
cheap  land  in  the,  301,  540. 
religious    freedom    guaranteed   in   the 

Northwest,  209. 
centennial  celebrations  in,  508. 
opening  of  Oklahoma,  509. 
the,  and  woman  suffrage,  510. 
the  Columbian  Exposition  at  Chicago, 

flour  mills  of  the,  132. 

mines,  grain  and  stock  farms,  520,  540. 

the   "Commonweal"  and    other    "in 
dustrial  armies,"  517. 

the  "  New  West,"  482,  493,  520,  539-541. 
West  Virginia  organized,  405. 

admitted,  405. 
Whigs  of  the  Revolution,  178. 

rise  of  the  modern,  225,  325. 

victory  of,  in  1840,  334. 

death  of  the,  369. 

See  political  parties. 
Whiskey  rebellion  (1794),  232. 

ring,  491. 

Whitefield  in  Georgia,  126. 
Whitman,  Dr.,  and  Oregon,  347. 
Whitney  invents  the  cotton-gin,  229. 
Williams,   Roger,   driven  from   Massachu 
setts,  72,  73. 

settles  Providence,  104. 

establishes  entire  religious  liberty,  106. 

secures  a    liberal    charter   for    Rhode 

Island,  106. 

Wilmot  Proviso,  the,  355. 
Winthrop,  Gov.,  69. 
Wisconsin  admitted,  361. 
Witchcraft  in  Salem,  83,  84. 
Wolfe  takes  Quebec  (1759),  140. 
Woman  Suffrage,  355,  510. 
World's  Fair  (1853),  371. 

(1876),  492. 

'1893),  515. 


Ix  THE  STUDENT'S  AMERICAN  HISTORY. 

''Writs  of  Assistance,"  164.  York,  the  Duke  of,  seizes  Delaware   108 

Wyoming  admitted,  510.  Yorktown,  capture  of,  207, 

X   Y   Z   Papers,  the,  238. 

Zenger  upholds  the  freedom  of  the  press 
Vork  the  Duke  of,seues  NewNetherland,48.  53. 


ST 


OV  -°°    °N     THE 


FEB  5  1935 
MAR  9.7  1935 


DEC  20  1939 
OCT   9   I945 


647 


0821 

I 


510821 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


